The reign of Dwight Eisenhower. Failed Peacemaker
Chernyavskaya K.
The Second World War brought Dwight Eisenhower worldwide fame. During the years of his presidency, he was able to increase it.
The administration he headed concluded an armistice agreement in July 1953 in Panmunjom, which meant the cessation of hostilities in Korea. Eisenhower continuously tried to reduce the tensions of the Cold War through his two terms in office by pursuing a policy of "Modern Republicanism." As he left the White House, he declared that America was the strongest, most influential and most productive country in the world.
Dwight Eisenhower was born in 1890 in Texas and became the third child in the family. At an early age, he moved with his parents to the small town of Abilene, Arkansas, because the elder Eidenhowers managed to find work there. Having performed well in high school sports, he was able to easily enter the most prestigious US military academy - West Point. While serving in Texas as a second lieutenant, he met his future wife, Mamie Daoud.
At the beginning of his career, he served under the leadership of such famous generals as John Pershing, Douglas MacArthur, Walter Krueger. In 1942, General MacArthur helped Eisenhower transfer to Washington War Command, where he began helping draw up plans for military operations. However, Dwight strove to get to the front, and already in November 1942 he was assigned to lead combat operations in North Africa. Successes were not long in coming. And in 1944, Eisenhower led the Normandy landings and later became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe.
After the end of World War II, he was elected President of Columbia University, but then received an offer to lead the command of the newly created North Atlantic Alliance forces. In Paris, one of the American agents at the organization's headquarters recommended that Eisenhower participate in the 1952 presidential race.
Dwight Eisenhower's victory was very predictable.
His presidency in American history is associated with the continuation of the Cold War and ongoing attempts to reduce its tension. However, Eisenhower negotiated from a position of strength. The armistice signed on July 27, 1953 established a “military peace” between the warring parties. Stalin's death that same year changed the international situation both on this issue and on the nature of Soviet-American relations. Despite this, both countries continued to develop hydrogen bombs.
To prevent a nuclear war between the strongest states, a meeting of the leaders of the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR took place in Geneva in 1955, where Dwight Eisenhower played an active role.
The American president invited the USSR to exchange drawings of “special purpose” objects and allow each side to take aerial photographs of them. Although the idea was received rather coolly, both the USSR and the United States were glad to see the tension reduced.
In domestic policy, the president led the middle line, guided by the principles of Roosevelt's New Deal and Truman's Fair Deal. He focused his attention on the need to create a balanced budget. Under his rule, an anti-segregation struggle began in education and the army. There is a widely known case when Dwight Eisenhower sent troops to the American town of Little Rock, Arkansas, to ensure the right to education of the black population, in accordance with the procedure established by the Federal Court. Dwight Eisenhower declared that "there should be no second class of citizens in this country"
Eisenhower actively opposed communism, and therefore sought to attract allies to the side of the United States during the most difficult period of international relations. In his speech to Congress, he voiced a new doctrine of US foreign policy, which later became known as the Eisenhower Doctrine. It concerned the possibility of providing military and economic assistance to every state subject to someone else's aggression (the Soviet threat occupied a special place in it).
John Kennedy was elected the next head of state. After the end of his second term as president, Dwight Eisenhower no longer participated in US political life. On March 28, 1969, he died in a US military hospital, holding his beloved wife's hand.
DwightEisenhower - Army General.
Dwight David Eisenhower, an outstanding military leader during World War II and the 34th President of the United States, was born on October 14, 1890 in the town of Denison, Texas. At the beginning of the 18th century. his ancestors, members of the Mennonite religious sect, moved to North America to escape persecution in their homeland of Germany.
In 1891, the Eisenhower family moved to Kansas and settled in the town of Abelin, where Dwight spent his childhood and youth. He grew up as an energetic and cocky boy and was one of the best athletes in the city among his peers.
At school, Dwight studied with enthusiasm. His favorite subjects were history and mathematics.
The choice of future profession happened unexpectedly. One of his friends advised Dwight to enter the Naval Academy. After some thought, Eisenhower decided that military service was indeed the most suitable occupation for him. There was no vacancy for admission to the Naval Academy, so Dwight passed the examination in 1910 and became a cadet at the Combined Arms School at West Point.
Eisenhower did not immediately become interested in mastering the military profession. During his years at West Point, Dwight showed himself much more as an athlete than as a diligent student. He achieved his greatest success in American football. For his excellent play, he was nicknamed the “Kansas Cyclone”, and he was included in the American Army team. A serious injury received in one of the games forced Dwight to say goodbye to his dreams of sports victories. But Eisenhower retained his love of sports throughout his life and always maintained excellent physical shape. Dwight's academic achievements were much more modest... Having received the rank of lieutenant in the US Army, Eisenhower was sent to Fort Sam Houston, Texas.
Eisenhower's military career until 1940 was not very successful. During all this time, he never managed to get a command position. It seemed that good prospects opened up for Eisenhower after April 6, 1917, when the United States entered the First World War. However, he failed to get into the active army. The military command believed that his abilities were better used for training officers. He then successfully participated in the creation of the first US tank units, for which he received the rank of major.
After the end of the war, Eisenhower changed several duty stations. In 1926, he successfully graduated from the most reputable military educational institution in the United States at that time - the Command and Training College at Fort Leavenworth. In 1928, Eisenhower graduated from the Army War College in Washington. From 1929 to 1935, he worked in the office of the Secretary of War, and then for Douglas MacArthur, the Chief of Staff of the US Army, where he was valued as a good staff worker, but this did not in any way affect his career advancement. It was not until 1936 that Eisenhower received the rank of colonel. After leaving his post as Army Chief of Staff, MacArthur was sent to the Philippines to help create its own armed forces. He invited Eisenhower to be his assistant. The stay in the Philippines lasted until 1940.
On September 1, 1939, World War II began. This made Eisenhower consider returning home. Refusing to continue working in the Philippines even on very favorable terms from a financial point of view, Eisenhower returned to the United States in February 1940.
In the history of World War II, Dwight Eisenhower occupies a special and very important place. Under his command, the largest operations of the combined forces of Western countries were successfully carried out against Nazi Germany and its allies. What was astonishing was the speed with which Eisenhower transformed himself from a little-known staff officer into one of the leading commanders of World War II. For the first time, he attracted the attention of the command during the largest military maneuvers in US history, held in 1941. By the decision of President Roosevelt, Eisenhower was awarded the rank of major general. After the United States entered the war, he took part in developing the military concept. Deep knowledge and enormous efficiency place Eisenhower among the leading US military leaders.
In June 1942, Eisenhower was assigned to England as commander-in-chief of all US armed forces in the European theater of operations. From now on, his main task was to create a cohesive and combat-ready army from American and British troops that could successfully fight against Germany.
It was very difficult: in addition to the inevitable language and national problems, Eisenhower’s position was complicated by his lack of experience in combat operations and his low popularity in the Allied armies. Maximum dedication was required. The first real test of Eisenhower's leadership abilities was Operation Torch in North Africa, where he led an Anglo-American expeditionary force against Italian-German forces. The Allied landing operation, which began on November 8, 1942, ended in their complete victory by mid-May 1943. The main military operations took place in Tunisia. During these battles, military glory came to Eisenhower.
After the end of hostilities in North Africa, the leaders of the United States and Great Britain decided to prepare for the invasion of Sicily. Eisenhower was appointed to lead the Mediterranean theater of operations. He always carefully planned military operations, but never allowed himself to interfere in all the details of the work of his subordinates, believing that everyone himself should be responsible for the decisions made. However, Eisenhower immediately removed those who did not live up to their trust. The landing operation in Sicily began on July 9, 1943 and ended by the fall with the complete withdrawal of Italy from the war. During operations in North Africa and Italy, Eisenhower showed the talent not only of a military leader, but also of a diplomat, skillfully smoothing over the political differences that arose between the Americans and the British.
Since 1943, Eisenhower became commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in Europe. His task was to prepare for the Allied invasion of France. This largest landing operation in the history of the war was called Overlord. By this time, Eisenhower's authority in the Allied army was enormous. He showed great concern for his subordinates; checked how the soldiers were fed, inquired about their health, and only then - about military equipment. Eisenhower was simple and accessible in communication. On the other hand, he maintained the strictest discipline in the troops and, approving decisions on sentences of military tribunals, in cases of especially serious crimes did not hesitate to use public executions.
Operation Overlord began on June 6, 1944. If the invasion had failed, Eisenhower left a document that said: “The infantry, air force and navy did everything that courage and devotion to duty command. If anyone is to blame for the failure, then I am to blame one". Fortunately, this “explanatory note” was not needed. Rapidly developing the offensive, the Allied troops liberated Paris on August 25, 1944. A characteristic feature of Eisenhower as a military leader was his desire to take into account primarily military rather than political considerations when making decisions. The fact is that although the USSR and the Western allies acted together against Nazi Germany, they were well aware that after the end of the war their political interests would be different. Therefore, each side wanted to get ahead of the other in liberating the most strategically important countries and territories. Eisenhower is still accused by many in the United States of refusing to storm Berlin and thereby allowing Soviet troops to do so. Meanwhile, Eisenhower was aware that a rush of Western Allied troops to Berlin could lead to defeat and heavy losses. Based on these considerations, he decided that the Soviet army was in a more convenient position for the assault on Berlin.
After the surrender of Nazi Germany, Eisenhower was appointed commander in chief of the American occupation forces in Germany, and in June 1945 he returned to the United States. His popularity in the country was unusually great. During Eisenhower's tour of the United States, millions of people took to the streets to greet him. Even then, many advised him to enter politics, but at first he refused this path. In June 1948, he became the rector of one of the largest universities in the United States - Columbia. However, Eisenhower failed to end his military career.
The Cold War began. In April 1949, the United States and its allies created NATO. Eisenhower turned out to be the most suitable candidate for the post of Commander-in-Chief of the NATO armed forces. He fully shared the goals of NATO and believed that Western countries should create a powerful military-political bloc that would counter the threat of the spread of communist ideology. His stay in Europe as commander of the NATO armed forces (1950-1952) can be considered the beginning of Eisenhower's political career. The two main US parties, Democratic and Republican, given Eisenhower's enormous popularity, sought to secure his consent to be nominated for the presidency of the country. Convinced that the majority of voters would support him, Eisenhower finally agreed to run as the Republican candidate.
After resigning from his post and leaving the army, Eisenhower actively pursued his election campaign. His victory in the 1952 elections was impressive: almost 55% of voters gave him their votes. Dwight Eisenhower served two terms as US President, from 1953 to 1961. Formulating the concept of his presidency, he said that the country needed a period of calm and unification after the turmoil of World War II. In the field of domestic policy, he pursued a moderate course. On the one hand, he did not expand the social programs that existed in the previous decade, when the country was governed by Democrats. But on the other hand, he did not allow them to be reduced, as many Republicans wanted. Eisenhower curbed the rapid growth of military spending, recognizing the dangers of the growing influence of the military-industrial complex. This was related to his “new look” at the country’s defense policy. Eisenhower said that every gun released, every ship launched is a theft from those who are hungry and have no clothes.
Linked to this approach to defense was Eisenhower's concept of American foreign policy. Since the President insisted on the need to reduce the size of the army, it was necessary to propose a military strategy that would be consistent with the task of defending against a possible attack by the USSR. This strategy was developed and received the ominous name "massive retaliation." Its essence boiled down to the fact that the United States does not commit itself to opposing communism anywhere in the world. The US can respond to the actions of the USSR in one place in another, where it deems it most appropriate, using, if necessary, nuclear weapons. “Only strength can help,” said Eisenhower, “weakness cannot help, it can only beg.” At the same time, he understood the dangerous consequences of such a line.
In general, in the field of foreign policy, Eisenhower showed great flexibility, skillfully combining open propaganda steps and covert operations. Thus, in December 1953, he came up with the “Atoms for Peace” program, which envisaged the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. On the other hand, Eisenhower actively used the CIA for secret subversive operations against countries where governments disloyal to the United States were in power. The most striking examples were the overthrow of the Mossadegh government in Iran in 1953 and the leftist Arbenz government in Guatemala in 1954. However, Eisenhower did not allow the United States to be drawn into any new war. The eight years of his presidency, after he brought about an end to the Korean War, passed without the presence of American troops anywhere in the world.
Relations with the USSR during Eisenhower's presidency developed very unevenly. Periods of some easing of tension were followed by the threat of war. The greatest progress was achieved during the visit of the head of the Soviet state N. S. Khrushchev to the USA in 1959. Then, for the first time, there was a real prospect of reaching an arms control agreement. An agreement was reached on a new meeting for this purpose between Eisenhower and Khrushchev in Paris. However, two weeks before the meeting, on May 1, 1960, an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over the territory of the USSR. Flights of these aircraft were carried out for several years, but the USSR did not have weapons capable of shooting them down. Eisenhower knew and authorized these flights, being confident that it would not be possible to prove his espionage activities. However, when the plane was shot down, the pilot ejected and spoke about his mission. After this, Khrushchev refused to meet with Eisenhower.
After leaving the White House, Eisenhower outwardly remained out of politics, although he constantly monitored the situation in the country. He did not approve of the policies of his successors, Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, but considered it necessary to support them in matters that related to US national security. In 1968, already seriously ill, he turned to the Republican Party with a proposal to nominate Richard Nixon, who was vice president in the Eisenhower administration, as a presidential candidate.
Dwight Eisenhower died on March 28, 1969. He made a great contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany. It was largely thanks to the fame of a brilliant commander that he won the presidential elections of 1952 and 1956. and went down in post-war US history as one of the country's most popular presidents. There is still lively debate about Eisenhower's significance as a politician.
Although not a political genius, Dwight Eisenhower solved the main problem facing him as President of the United States. During the period of fierce confrontation between the USA and the USSR, he still managed to avoid an armed clash between East and West. Over time, it also became obvious that some of the ideas he expressed in the field of domestic politics and international relations remained relevant and are used by many US politicians to this day.
The name of Dwight David Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States, became world famous long before he assumed the post of head of state. He was a talented commander, army general, and at one time the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces in Europe.
Childhood. Youth. Education
Dwight Eisenhower was born in Denison (Texas) on October 14, 1890. Soon his father and mother, David and Ida Eisenhower, moved to Abilene (Kansas) in the hope of finding a high-paying job. There Dwight spent his adolescence and early youth. First - a regular high school, then - he went to study at the most prestigious Military Academy in the world, namely West Point.
Beginning of military service
In April 1917, when America had to enter the First World War, Eisenhower, who, as a boy, naively dreamed of the front and real battles, was sent to a camp where he had to prepare American volunteers for combat.
Military experience
Eisenhower's further career was marked by the following events: - service in the Panama Canal area; - work at the army headquarters of General D. MacArthur; - work as chief of staff for General W. Kruger. It was under the leadership of Kruger that Eisenhower rose to the rank of colonel and then to brigadier general.
The Second World War
In December 1941, America was forced to intervene in World War II, unable to remain on the sidelines, and this military intervention gave a powerful impetus to Eisenhower's military career. Under the command of General J. Marshall, he worked at the headquarters, where he planned military operations. He then became the commander of the Anglo-American forces in the Allied offensives in northern Africa, Sicily and Italy. And after America opened a second front, Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Commander of Special Forces.
Personal achievements
Eisenhower himself most highly appreciated his leadership actions in the Anglo-American landing in Normandy (06/06/1944) and the Rhine stage of the war in February-March 1945. In addition, Eisenhower became the first Commander-in-Chief of the NATO armed forces, and it was he who played the main role after the end of the war in updating the weapons of West Germany with a view to its entry into this union.
The president
In January 1953, Eisenhower became the 34th President of America. First of all, he ended the Korean War and began strengthening national security in his country, developing the doctrine of “massive retaliation,” according to which the number of strategic aircraft with nuclear warheads increased. Convinced of the reality of the threat from the USSR, he wanted the United States to be prepared for a nuclear attack against the Soviet Union and China.
Doctrines The policy of the President and his Secretary of State Dulles was aimed at ensuring that America retained world leadership. In this regard, two more doctrines were developed: the “Liberation Doctrine” and the “Eisenhower Doctrine.” The first belonged to the countries of Eastern Europe, the second to the countries of the third world. Second presidential term In 1956, Eisenhower was re-elected to a second term. These years were not marked by global events in his political career, with the exception of military intervention in the affairs of Lebanon.
There was another episode that could even be called scandalous, since it entailed a certain kind of diplomatic collapse, disrupting a pre-scheduled meeting with the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and head of state - Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev (1960). The reason for this was the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft shot down over the territory of the Soviet Union.
After resignation
At the end of his presidential term, Eisenhower gradually retreated from political affairs and was finally able to rest. He died in hospital (03/28/1969) when he reached the venerable age of seventy-eight years. His grave is in Abilene.
125 years ago, the 34th President of the United States, Dwight David Eisenhower, a holder of the highest Soviet military Order of Victory and one of the architects of the Cold War, was born.
The future army general and president, born October 14, 1890, came from the bottom of American society. Dwight Eisenhower had five brothers, and his parents struggled to maintain a minimal household income. However, the general himself later said that in this friendly family with traditional foundations he was taught responsibility, independence, work and order.
Perhaps thanks to this, Ike, as he was nicknamed at school, passed a competitive exam and was enrolled in the most prestigious US military academy - West Point in New York State. He graduated from it in 1915. Second Lieutenant Dwight Eisenhower was known as a zealous, capable officer and was in good standing. Nevertheless, his career growth was very slow: only in March 1941 did he receive the coveted rank of colonel, and soon - brigadier general. The career began to develop rapidly with the entry of the United States into World War II in December of that year. In June 1942, Eisenhower was appointed commander in chief of allied forces in Europe and entered the circle of the American and British political and military elite.
In 1943, he proved himself in North Africa: under his leadership, Anglo-American troops defeated the Germans and Italians in Tunisia. Then, that same year, Eisenhower again achieved great success in the operation to liberate Sicily.
First on the second front
In November 1943, at the Tehran Conference, Joseph Stalin finally managed to get his partners in the anti-Hitler coalition to specifically discuss the issue of opening a second front in Europe. US President Franklin Roosevelt then announced that the United States and Great Britain were actively preparing for a joint operation called “Overlord” to land troops on the French coast, in Normandy. Stalin responded to the president’s words in his characteristic direct manner: “If possible, I would like to get an answer to the question of who will be appointed commander of Operation Overlord.” Hearing from Roosevelt: “This issue has not yet been resolved,” the head of the Soviet delegation said: “Then nothing will come of Operation Overlord.” And he repeated his question: “Who bears the moral and military responsibility for the preparation and execution of Operation Overlord? If this is unknown, then Operation Overlord is just a talk.” The somewhat tense situation was saved by Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, who hastened to announce: “We fully agree with what Marshal Stalin said, and I think that the President will agree with me that in two weeks we will appoint a Commander-in-Chief and announce his name " Already on December 7, 1943, Joseph Stalin received a message from Roosevelt: “It was decided to immediately appoint General Eisenhower as commander of the operations to cross the Canal.”
Victorious May 1945 in Berlin. British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, US Army General Dwight Eisenhower, Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov and French General Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny (from left to right)
Having become the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe, Eisenhower took up the task with energy. For several months, he carefully planned in every detail this gigantic operation, in which air, naval and ground formations of American, British and Canadian troops were involved. The general constantly inspected various military units, trying to instill confidence in the soldiers and officers preparing for D-Day - the landing on the French coast and the assault on the powerful fortifications, which German propaganda praised as Hitler's impregnable Atlantic Wall.
Allied landings in Normandy June 6, 1944
“I DON’T SEE ANYTHING IN THE FUTURE THAT WOULD PREVENT RUSSIA AND THE UNITED STATES BECOMING CLOSE FRIENDS”- said General Dwight Eisenhower in 1945 at a press conference in Moscow
On the night of June 6, 1944, Eisenhower ordered the start of Operation Overlord. With air and naval support, hundreds of amphibious transport ships crossed the English Channel. In total, 156 thousand troops took part in the Allied landings in Normandy, and General Eisenhower held the entire control of the operation in his hands. It was successful.
His contribution to the opening of a second front in Europe was also noted by the Soviet Union: the general became a holder of the Order of Victory and the only US citizen awarded one of the highest state awards of the USSR.
Stalin's favor
By the beginning of 1945, it became obvious that the defeat of Nazi Germany would be completed within a few months. At the Yalta Conference, it was decided that the capital of Germany, Berlin, would be located in the Soviet occupation zone.
Nevertheless, Churchill made incredible efforts to push the American military leadership to ensure that it was not the Red Army, but the Anglo-American troops that took the German capital. The British prime minister was especially active in trying to influence Eisenhower.
Army General Eisenhower, for his part, requested an expert assessment of the possible losses of Anglo-American troops if they stormed the over-fortified Berlin. They gave him a figure: about 100 thousand people. He understood that this was the price for the city, which the Allies would still be forced to leave in accordance with the agreements reached in Yalta. And Eisenhower considered that it would be more profitable for the Anglo-American troops to attack Dresden in order to connect with the Red Army by the shortest route.
Having learned about this decision from a telegram sent by Eisenhower directly to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR Armed Forces, Stalin, according to Marshal Georgy Zhukov, spoke of the general as a man faithful to his obligations. But in London and Washington, many made a fuss, claiming that Eisenhower was giving Berlin to the Russians. However, all these insinuations were stopped by Eisenhower’s immediate boss, Chief of Staff of the US Army General George Marshall: “Only Eisenhower knows how to fight this war and how to adapt to a changing situation.”
At the end of World War II in Europe, the Allies decided to create a Control Council to govern Germany. The USSR was represented by Marshal Zhukov, the USA by Army General Eisenhower. Soon they met for the first time in defeated Berlin. “I liked his simplicity, ease and sense of humor,” Zhukov wrote in his memoirs.
Among other things, the Soviet marshal raised the question that American and British troops should liberate those German territories that were part of the USSR occupation zone according to the decisions of the Yalta Conference. British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery tried to object, but Eisenhower immediately interrupted him: “Monty, don’t argue! Marshal Zhukov is right. You need to get out of Wittenberg quickly, and we need to get out of Thuringia.” When Zhukov reported this episode to Stalin, he laughed and said: “We must somehow invite Eisenhower to Moscow. I want to meet him."
And already in August 1945, Eisenhower flew to the USSR. During this trip he was accompanied by Zhukov. In Moscow, the general was shown the Kremlin and the metro, he was also taken to a collective farm, state farm and an aircraft factory. Dignitaries visited Leningrad. Eisenhower and Zhukov even went to a football match.
The highlight of his stay in the Soviet Union was the parade of athletes on the occasion of Athlete's Day on Red Square in Moscow. Joseph Stalin invited the general to go up to the podium of the Lenin Mausoleum and stand next to him - as a sign of special respect for his comrade-in-arms in the fight against Nazi Germany. In those days, Eisenhower told reporters that everywhere he felt “an atmosphere of sincere hospitality,” and at a press conference in Moscow he said: “I see nothing in the future that would prevent Russia and the United States from becoming close friends.”
Returning to civilian life in the United States, Eisenhower found himself an extremely popular figure. In November 1945, he received an offer from President Harry Truman to take the post of Chief of Staff of the US Army and soon replaced George Marshall in this post. And on October 1, 1950, he accepted Truman’s new offer - to become the supreme commander of NATO armed forces with headquarters in Paris.
Dwight Eisenhower's re-election campaign
HE WANTED TO GO INTO HISTORY AS A PEACEMAKER PRESIDENT, who achieved real steps to limit weapons and reduce the threat of world nuclear war, but he failed
He again traveled to Europe, where he vigorously urged European governments to increase defense spending and advocated the creation of the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany.
And in his own country, the political card has been playing out for a number of years around the idea of nominating a popular general for president. At first, Dwight Eisenhower did his best to deny attempts to involve him in party politics. But after numerous appeals to his sense of duty to the country, he nevertheless agreed to nominate his candidacy from the Republican Party in the next presidential election. Many saw Eisenhower as the embodiment of common sense; the election campaign was carried out under the slogan I like Ike! (“I like Ike!”), and on November 4, 1952, he won the election by a landslide, becoming the 34th President of the United States.
By this time, the United States was already the country with the world's largest economy and the greatest military-political potential. The flywheel of the American economy, spurred by gigantic military orders, was constantly gaining momentum. In the spirit of classic American conservatism, Eisenhower once declared: "The slogan of true democracy is not 'let the government do it,' but 'let us do it ourselves.'" However, one of his biographers, Stephen Ambrose, noted: “While deeply conservative in his own beliefs, he nevertheless instinctively sought a middle position in every political problem.”
Interestingly, Eisenhower...
1 ...became one of five foreigners awarded the highest Soviet military order “Victory”.
2 ... refused the offensive of the Allied forces on Berlin, thereby not preventing the capture of the capital of the Third Reich by the Red Army.
3 ...fought the spread of communism with all possible means.
4 ...was the first to receive the Soviet leader on an official visit to the United States.
5 ...actively sanctioned the overthrow of the unwanted regime
Hawks' Cabinet
Eisenhower's cabinet consisted almost entirely of very wealthy people closely connected with business circles. When the formation of the cabinet was completed, the American liberal magazine The New Republic caustically dubbed it “a government of eight millionaires and one plumber,” meaning that the post of labor secretary went to the president of the plumbers’ union.
And John Foster Dulles, who had previously represented the interests of many of the largest American companies in their operations abroad and was a militant ideologist of the total fight against communism, was appointed to the key position of US Secretary of State, responsible for the direction of foreign policy. To achieve this goal, he did not even reject such a method as the use of nuclear weapons. And Eisenhower, although he did not follow every proposal of his Secretary of State, always listened to his assessments and judgments.
The Eisenhower administration and the CIA paid special attention to the actions of American intelligence services in Eastern European countries. Hungarian uprising of 1956
In his inaugural address, the president-elect emphasized that the greatest challenge the United States now faces is the danger of a new war and communist aggression. Already in February 1953, at the instigation of Eisenhower, the US Senate adopted a resolution condemning the USSR for violating the agreements of the Yalta Conference and enslaving the free peoples of Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states.
Soon, an event occurred that could not but affect the general tone of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States: on March 5, 1953, Stalin died. Ten days later, the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Georgy Malenkov, declared to the whole world: “At present, there is no such controversial or unresolved issue that could not be resolved peacefully on the basis of mutual agreement of the countries concerned. This applies to our relations with all states, including our relations with the United States of America.”
"Atom for Peace"
Already on April 16, Dwight Eisenhower announced that he was ready to conclude an agreement with Moscow on arms limitation. Moreover, the president proposed establishing international control under the auspices of the UN over the production of atomic energy. But at the same time, he emphasized that he would believe in the sincerity of the new approaches on the part of the USSR only if they were supported by specific deeds, which the president included, in particular, the conclusion of an honorable truce in the civil war between North and South in Korea, the signing of an agreement about a free and united Germany and ensuring the complete independence of the peoples of Eastern Europe.
For the then Soviet leadership, such American proposals, which included, among other things, the withdrawal of the USSR from the countries of Eastern Europe, were clearly unacceptable. Agreeing to them meant essentially abandoning one of the most important gains of the Soviet Union following the Second World War - the creation of a socialist system in Eastern Europe.
Georgy Zhukov presents Dwight Eisenhower with the Soviet military leader's Order of Victory
This position of Washington and the general atmosphere of the Cold War with its mutual distrust in the sphere of Soviet-American relations prevented the conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and the USA on arms limitation, and, on the contrary, throughout the years of Eisenhower’s presidency, both powers only steadily increased them.
And yet Eisenhower did not abandon his initiative, called “Atoms for Peace.” He invited the nuclear powers - the USA, Great Britain and the USSR - to contribute part of their stocks of fissile materials to an international fund, which should be created under the auspices of the UN. According to the American president, these nuclear resources could be used to generate electricity in developing countries and for other peaceful purposes. This initiative of his some time received support from the Soviet Union, and in 1957 the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was formed.
Ambrose S. Eisenhower. Soldier and President. M., 1993
Ivanov R.F. Dwight Eisenhower. Man, politician, commander. M., 1998
Eisenhower D. Crusade to Europe. Smolensk, 2000
CIA vs USSR
However, Eisenhower’s peace initiatives did not at all prevent the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) from constantly and steadily carrying out covert operations aimed at undermining the positions of the USSR and its allies. Let us recall the conspiracy against the Iranian government led by Mohammed Mossadegh, which dared to nationalize the oil industry, which was under the control of British and American companies; the overthrow of Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz, who took aim at lands owned by the American corporation United Fruit; an attempt to overthrow and physically eliminate Fidel Castro, who came to power in Cuba.
The Eisenhower administration and the CIA paid special attention to the actions of American intelligence services in the countries of Eastern Europe, which the United States officially promised to liberate from communism. They certainly contributed to the organization and conduct of the anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956. But when Soviet tanks entered Budapest, Dwight Eisenhower refused to follow CIA proposals to airdrop weapons and food to the Hungarian rebels. He also did not send American troops to Hungary, remembering that it was not the USA, but the USSR with its powerful army that borders this country, a member of the Warsaw Pact.
A year earlier, the US President took part in the summit meeting held in Geneva - the first meeting of the leaders of the USSR and Western countries since the Potsdam Conference. The Soviet delegation also included USSR Defense Minister Georgy Zhukov. So they met each other again, but now there was no longer the warmth of military camaraderie between them. Nevertheless, the negotiations themselves gave rise to hope that world powers could agree among themselves to solve pressing problems of humanity, and for some time the “spirit of Geneva” hovered in international relations.
In the 1956 presidential election, Eisenhower again defeated his opponent by a large margin and was re-elected to another term. And it must be said that in the second half of the 1950s there were some positive changes in relations between the USSR and the USA. In 1958, the first agreement in the history of the two countries on exchanges in the fields of science, technology, education and culture was signed. And the next year, Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers Nikita Khrushchev arrived in the United States on an official visit. Eisenhower received an offer to pay a return visit to the Soviet Union. But everything changed dramatically in May 1960.
Downed pilot
Following his predecessor Harry Truman, President Eisenhower authorized reconnaissance flights of American military aircraft over Soviet territory.
The next such flight took place on May 1, 1960, the day when festive demonstrations took place throughout the Soviet Union. Early that morning, a Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, piloted by pilot Gary Powers, took off from an American base in Pakistan and was supposed to fly over a large part of the USSR before landing at an American base in Norway. Quite quickly, this plane was discovered by Soviet air defense systems, which the military immediately reported to the country’s leadership. After three hours of flight, the U-2, located in the area of Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), was shot down by a Soviet missile on Khrushchev’s personal orders. Powers, who managed to leave the plane and landed with a parachute, was detained by local residents, who handed him over to government security officials.
Gary Powers is an American pilot, his plane was shot down over the territory of the USSR on May 1, 1960
The Soviet leader realized that the detained American pilot, who was carrying out a reconnaissance mission, was an excellent trump card in the propaganda war against the United States. He ordered that the very fact of Powers' capture be carefully classified, and within a few days the Americans were sure that he had died.
On May 5, Khrushchev made his first move. He announced that an American reconnaissance plane had been shot down by Soviet troops in the skies over the USSR, and angrily condemned the United States for its “aggressive provocation.” At the same time, he did not say a word about the fact that the pilot remained alive and was detained by our special services. President Eisenhower was forced to somehow respond to the speech of the Soviet leader, and at his direction, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) released a statement that an American research aircraft, flying to study meteorological conditions at high altitudes, may have - due to technical problems, I lost my route and accidentally flew into the territory of the USSR.
The failure of the Paris summit
And then the Soviet leader made a decisive move. On May 7, he informed the whole world that the USSR intelligence services had at their disposal not only the wreckage of an American plane and the reconnaissance equipment found in it, but also the pilot himself, who admitted to carrying out a spy mission and was already testifying. And on May 16 in Paris, at the opening of a meeting of the leaders of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France, Khrushchev launched into an even sharper denunciation of the aggressive espionage actions of the United States against the Soviet Union. He called for the leaders of the four powers to commit to abandoning the practice of reconnaissance flights over each other's territories.
Then Eisenhower took the floor. He stated that the flights of American reconnaissance aircraft over the territory of the USSR were not an act of aggression, but a defensive measure necessary to ensure the security of the United States. And in continuation of the topic, not for the first time, he proposed to legalize all reconnaissance flights under the auspices of the UN so that it would be possible to prevent the danger of military preparations of a particular country. This did not suit the Soviet side at all, and Khrushchev left the meeting room. The summit meeting in Paris was disrupted.
5. Konstantin Rokossovsky No. 6
6.Rodion Malinovsky No. 8
7. Fedor Tolbukhin No. 9
8. Leonid Govorov No. 10
9. Semyon Timoshenko No. 11
10. Alexey Antonov No. 12
11. Dwight Eisenhower (USA) No. 13
12. Bernard Montgomery (Great Britain) No. 14
13. Mihai I (Romania) No. 16
14. Michal Rolya-Zimierski (Poland) No. 17
15. Kirill Meretskov No. 18
16. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) No. 19
According to American researchers, Eisenhower was very upset due to the disruption of the Paris meeting. He wanted to go down in history as a peacemaker president who achieved real steps to limit arms and reduce the threat of world nuclear war. And when, a few days before the end of his presidential term, he was offered to address the country with a farewell message, he jumped at the opportunity.
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower made his final address as President of the United States on American television. As he left, he allowed himself the luxury of declaring: “In our government, we must be on guard against the undue influence of the military-industrial complex. We must never allow this alliance to jeopardize our freedoms or democratic processes." At the same time, the general kept silent about the fact that he himself, as president, contributed significantly to the strengthening of this same military-industrial complex.
Dwight Eisenhower died in 1969. After leaving the White House, he was no longer involved in politics.
Nikolay SAKHAROV, Doctor of Political Sciences
100 great politicians Sokolov Boris Vadimovich
Dwight David Eisenhower, US President (1890–1969)
Dwight David Eisenhower, US President
(1890–1969)
The future army general and 34th President of the United States was born on October 14, 1890 in Denison (Texas), in the family of a railroad worker. He was the third of seven children. Eisenhower's ancestors, members of the Protestant Mennonite Church, emigrated to North America to escape religious persecution in Germany. Soon he and his parents moved to Abaydin (Texas). At school he was interested in mathematics and history and was a good athlete. Not having the means to enroll in a civilian college with paid tuition, he entered a military academy, where education was free for him. In 1915, Eisenhower graduated from West Point Military Academy and became an officer in an infantry regiment.
During the First World War, Eisenhower was engaged in combat training of personnel of the first tank corps in the American army, but did not take direct part in the hostilities. In 1920 he was promoted to major. Eisenhower served in Panama from 1922 to 1924 and then attended Leavenworth General Staff College and the War College in Washington. Eisenhower now paid much more attention to the study of military history and theory and achieved notable success here. He graduated from the Staff College, a kind of retraining course for officers, at Fort Leavenworth (Kansas) first in academic performance. In 1929, on behalf of the former commander of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe, General John Pershing, Eisenhower prepared a guide to the main battles of the First World War. Since 1935, he served in the Philippines on the headquarters of the commander of the American forces, General Douglas MacArthur, where for three years he was involved in training the army of the future independent Philippine state.
The declaration of Philippine independence was prevented by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and the subsequent occupation of the Philippine Islands by Japanese troops. In February 1940, Eisenhower returned to the United States, where he served in various staff positions. Eisenhower refused further service in the Philippines, despite the very favorable financial conditions offered to him. He showed himself to be an erudite and well-trained staff officer. Even before the United States entered World War II, in March 1941, he received the rank of colonel. Shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was appointed division commander. And in September 1941, he was promoted to brigadier general for his excellent performance during the largest military maneuvers in US history. This was facilitated by the fact that he had previously been a close associate of the Chief of Staff of the American Army, John Marshall. The latter also took into account the brilliant certifications that Generals MacArthur and Pershing gave Eisenhower, who were amazed at his efficiency and erudition in military affairs. Marshall soon appointed Eisenhower commander of American forces in England, giving him the rank of major general. In July 1942, Eisenhower became a lieutenant general and began preparing for the landing of American troops in North Africa. Marshall recommended him for the post of commander of Operation Torch. Churchill did not object to his candidacy, although many British generals in North Africa were older than Eisenhower in both age and rank. As commander of American forces in Europe, he oversaw the landings of Allied forces in Algeria and Morocco in November 1942.
Eisenhower proved himself to be a decisive commander, without hesitation in removing from his posts those commanders who, in his opinion, did not cope with their responsibilities well enough. He was also a good diplomat, managing to quickly negotiate cooperation with the local French administration appointed by the pro-German government in Vichy. In July 1943, already promoted to full general, Eisenhower commanded the Anglo-American forces that landed in Sicily and mainland Italy. In December 1943, he was appointed commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. In this capacity, Eisenhower oversaw the preparations and execution of the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944. He managed in the shortest possible time to achieve an unprecedented concentration of forces and means to conduct the largest landing operation in world history. Eisenhower also managed to keep the exact location and time of the landings secret from the enemy.
In December 1944, Eisenhower was awarded the highest military rank in the United States, general of the army, with five stars on his shoulder straps. He was closer to staff work than direct command of troops on the battlefield, although from September 3, 1944, he directly led all ground operations in the West. Eisenhower had to defend himself only in December 1944 during a powerful German counteroffensive in the Ardennes. Then Eisenhower finally managed to rectify the situation and resume the offensive. In general, Eisenhower carefully planned all operations, taking responsibility for making fundamental decisions, such as the launch of the Normandy landings in adverse weather conditions and at low tide. However, he never interfered in the affairs of his subordinates, believing that each commander should have his own level of competence and responsibility.
In the first months after the end of the war in Europe, Eisenhower represented the United States on the Allied Control Council for Germany and commanded the American occupation forces in that country. As commander of the Allied forces in Europe during the war, he was awarded the highest Soviet military order, Victory.
In November 1945 he returned to his homeland. Eisenhower's popularity in the United States was extremely high. Millions of people greeted him. The general was advised to enter politics, but Eisenhower was in no hurry to try himself in this field. He was appointed Chief of Staff of the US Army (Army) and in 1948 resigned to become Chancellor of Columbia University. In 1951, Eisenhower was again called up for military service and led NATO troops. He believed that a powerful military bloc in Europe was necessary to counter communist expansion.
In 1952, after retiring, Eisenhower ran for the presidency of the United States as a Republican and won a landslide victory over Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson, receiving about 55% of the popular vote. A man with a very sharp and lively mind and a good education, during the campaign he diligently played the role of a simple American, not burdened with excessive intellectual knowledge. At one of his election rallies, Eisenhower complained that it was difficult for him to pronounce complex words due to his lack of education. Another time he admitted that he only read detective literature. All this self-deprecation had a simple explanation: Republican strategists in this campaign relied on a man from the outback who had no sympathy for these smart guys from Washington. An important role in Eisenhower’s victory was played by the slogan of the fight against corruption, which flourished in full bloom during the 20 years of the democratic administration of Roosevelt and Truman. The main goal of his presidency was to ensure peace and unite the nation after the turmoil of World War II.
Arriving at the White House, Eisenhower began to defend the principles of the “free market” system, opposed government controls over prices and wages, and pursued a policy of government non-interference in labor disputes.
The president succeeded in bringing about an end to the Korean War and an armistice after he threatened the Chinese and North Koreans with the use of nuclear weapons if they refused the agreement. As president, Eisenhower actively advocated for the elimination of trade barriers between socialist and capitalist countries. “Containing communism” with the help of defensive alliances was to be combined with the provision of international economic assistance to the USSR and other socialist countries with the aim of their gradual integration into the world economy.
Eisenhower was the first to introduce the concept of the “military-industrial complex,” warning about the danger of subordinating the country’s economy in peacetime to the needs of the military-industrial complex. He also managed to curb the increase in military spending that occurred during Truman's presidency. In domestic policy, the president sought to balance the budget and expand states' rights.
Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in September 1955, but was successfully re-elected to a second term in November 1956 (during his presidency, the number of consecutive terms the same person could hold was officially limited to two). He again defeated E. Stevenson under the slogan “Peace and Prosperity.”
During Eisenhower's presidency, the share of American military spending in GNP fell from 12.8% in fiscal year 1953-54 to 9.1% in fiscal year 1960-61. Eisenhower reorganized the Department of Defense, reducing its staff and streamlining its structure. He has said more than once that every new gun produced in the country, every new ship launched is the theft of funds from those who are starving, without housing and clothing. At the same time, he insisted that America must pursue policies “from a position of strength,” since “only strength can help, and weakness is good only for begging.” Eisenhower developed a strategy of “massive retaliation,” which included the possibility of launching a nuclear strike against the USSR in the event of a Soviet act of aggression carried out with the help of conventional armed forces. America was supposed to have such a nuclear potential that it was supposed to guarantee the destruction of the Soviet Union. He promoted missile programs as intercontinental ballistic missiles became the most reliable means of delivering nuclear weapons. Eisenhower took into account that in the 50s the USSR had practically no means of delivering nuclear warheads to American territory. However, in the last year of Eisenhower's presidency, the USSR already had its first ballistic missiles, and the United States was no longer invulnerable in the event of a nuclear missile conflict.
Eisenhower managed to ensure that during his presidency there was no expansion of the sphere of Soviet influence. At the same time, he repeated more than once that the liberation of “enslaved peoples” could only occur through peaceful means. With the support of the CIA, leftist governments were overthrown in Iran and Guatemala in 1953 and 1954. The victory of the Cuban revolution in January 1959 was not a very pleasant surprise, but under Eisenhower, Fidel Castro, although in no way connected with the United States, had not yet made a final choice in favor of Moscow. Only in the last year of his reign, Eisenhower, making sure that Castro was getting closer to the USSR, authorized the preparation of an invasion of Cuba by Cuban emigrants, which was carried out already under President Kennedy, and was extremely unsuccessful.
At the same time, Eisenhower strove for peaceful coexistence with the USSR. The President argued: “The most powerful tool of diplomacy is trade.” During Eisenhower's presidency, American troops did not participate in combat anywhere in the world.
Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower played the role of a good-natured old man with a perpetual smile on his face. But in reality it was far from simple. American diplomat and former ambassador to Moscow George Kennan wrote about Eisenhower: “Eisenhower, endowed with personal qualities in a number of respects almost opposite to those of Secretary of State John Dulles, was a much less understandable person. He was and remains one of the most mysterious figures in American history... The idea of him as an intellectually and politically superficial person is completely erroneous. In fact, he had a keen political mind and insight, especially in foreign policy affairs... He, without a doubt, was head and shoulders above all the members of the cabinet..."
In his farewell address to the nation on the occasion of the end of his presidency on January 17, 1961, Eisenhower stated: “The combination of a colossal military machine and a gigantic arms industry is a new phenomenon in American life. The impact of this - economic, political and even spiritual - is felt in every city, every state legislature, in every office of the federal government... In government, we must guard against the spread of the unfettered influence of the military-industrial complex, whether it is carried out intentionally or not... We must also beware of public policy becoming captive to the scientific and technological elite.”
After retirement, he spent most of his time on his farm in Gettysburg (Pennsylvania). Eisenhower did not approve of the policies of the Democratic administrations of Kennedy and Johnson, which involved the United States in what Eisenhower believed was an unnecessary conflict in Indochina, but considered it necessary to publicly support them on issues affecting US national security. Dwight Eisenhower died on March 28, 1969 in Washington. He went down in history as a peacemaker president who stabilized the economic, military-political position of the United States exclusively through peaceful means and managed to maintain the leading role of the United States in the Western world.
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