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Dramaturgy as a kind of literature. Epic genres of literature

Drama(δρᾶμα - deed, action) - one of the three types of literature, along with epic and lyrics, simultaneously belongs to two types of art: literature and theater.

Intended to be played on stage, drama differs formally from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of replicas of characters and author's remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Any literary work built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc., refers to drama in one way or another.

Since ancient times, it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; independently of each other, the ancient Greeks, the ancient Indians, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Indians of America created their own dramatic traditions.

Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means "action".

Types of drama (dramatic genres)

tragedy
crime drama
drama in verse
melodrama
hierodrama
mystery
comedy
vaudeville

Drama history

The rudiments of drama - in primitive poetry, in which the elements of lyrics, epic and drama that emerged later merged in connection with music and mimic movements. Earlier than among other peoples, drama as a special kind of poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.

Greek drama, which develops serious religious and mythological plots (tragedy) and amusing ones drawn from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time artlessly processed religious and narrative secular plots (mysteries, school dramas and interludes, fastnachtspiel, sottises).

French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered invariable for the aesthetic dignity of the drama, such are: the unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on the stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the plot (finding out the initial position and characters of the characters) through the middle vicissitudes (changes in positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a disaster); the number of actors is very limited (usually 3 to 5); these are exclusively the highest representatives of society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants, confidants, who are introduced onto the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and making remarks. These are the main features of French classical drama (Corneille, Racine).

The strictness of the requirements of the classical style was already less respected in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from conventionality to the depiction of ordinary life (genre). Shakespeare's work, free from classical conventions, opened up new paths for drama. The end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th century were marked by the appearance of romantic and national dramas: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.

In the second half of the 19th century, realism prevailed in European drama (Dumas son, Ogier, Sardou, Paleron, Ibsen, Zuderman, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).

In the last quarter of the 19th century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take hold of the European scene (Hauptmann, Przybyszewski, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).

See more Origin Drama

Drama in Russia

Drama was brought to Russia from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appears only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction prevailed in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyaznin, Ozerov; I. Lukin's attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and customs remained in vain: all their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous "Undergrowth" and "The Brigadier" Fonvizin, "The Yabeda" Kapnist and some comedies by I. A. Krylov .

At the beginning of the 19th century, Shakhovskoy, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin became imitators of light French drama and comedy, and the Dollmaker was a representative of the stilted patriotic drama. Griboedov's comedy Woe from Wit, later Gogol's Inspector General, Marriage, become the basis of Russian everyday drama. After Gogol, even in vaudeville (D. Lensky, F. Koni,

Dramatic works (another gr. action), like epic ones, recreate the series of events, the actions of people and their relationships. Like the author of an epic work, the playwright is subject to the "law of developing action." But there is no detailed narrative-descriptive image in the drama.

Actually, the author's speech here is auxiliary and episodic. Such are the lists of actors, sometimes accompanied by brief characteristics, designation of time and place of action; descriptions of the stage situation at the beginning of acts and episodes, as well as comments on individual replicas of the characters and indications of their movements, gestures, facial expressions, intonations (remarks).

All this constitutes a side text of a dramatic work. Its main text is a chain of statements of characters, their replicas and monologues.

Hence some limited artistic possibilities of the drama. The writer-playwright uses only a part of the visual means that are available to the creator of a novel or epic, short story or short story. And the characters of the characters are revealed in the drama with less freedom and fullness than in the epic. “I perceive the drama,” noted T. Mann, “as the art of the silhouette, and I feel only the told person as a voluminous, integral, real and plastic image.”

At the same time, playwrights, unlike the authors of epic works, are forced to limit themselves to the amount of verbal text that meets the requirements of theatrical art. The time of the action depicted in the drama must fit into the strict framework of the stage time.

And the performance in the forms familiar to the new European theater lasts, as you know, no more than three or four hours. And this requires an appropriate size of the dramatic text.

The time of the events reproduced by the playwright during the stage episode is not compressed or stretched; the characters of the drama exchange remarks without any noticeable time intervals, and their statements, as noted by K.S. Stanislavsky, make up a solid, continuous line.

If with the help of narration the action is imprinted as something past, then the chain of dialogues and monologues in the drama creates the illusion of the present time. Life here speaks as if from its own face: between what is depicted and the reader there is no intermediary-narrator.

The action is recreated in the drama with maximum immediacy. It flows as if before the eyes of the reader. “All narrative forms,” wrote F. Schiller, “transfer the present into the past; all the dramatic make the past present.”

Drama is stage oriented. And the theater is a public, mass art. The performance directly affects many people, as if merging into one in response to what is happening before them.

The purpose of the drama, according to Pushkin, is to act on the multitude, to occupy its curiosity” and for this purpose capture the “truth of passions”: “Drama was born on the square and constituted the amusement of the people. The people, like children, require entertainment, action. The drama presents him with extraordinary, strange happenings. People want strong feelings. Laughter, pity and horror are the three strings of our imagination, shaken by dramatic art.

The dramatic genre of literature is especially closely connected with the sphere of laughter, for the theater was consolidated and developed in close connection with mass festivities, in an atmosphere of play and fun. “The comic genre is universal for antiquity,” remarked O. M. Freidenberg.

The same is true to say about the theater and drama of other countries and eras. T. Mann was right when he called the "comedian instinct" "the fundamental principle of any dramatic skill."

It is not surprising that drama gravitates towards an outwardly spectacular presentation of what is depicted. Her imagery turns out to be hyperbolic, catchy, theatrical and bright. “The theater requires exaggerated broad lines both in voice, recitation, and in gestures,” N. Boileau wrote. And this property of stage art invariably leaves its mark on the behavior of the heroes of dramatic works.

“How he acted out in the theater,” Bubnov (At the Bottom by Gorky) comments on the frenzied tirade of the desperate Klesh, who, by an unexpected intrusion into the general conversation, gave it theatrical effect.

Significant (as a characteristic of the dramatic kind of literature) are Tolstoy's reproaches against W. Shakespeare for the abundance of hyperbole, because of which, as it were, "the possibility of an artistic impression is violated." “From the very first words,” he wrote about the tragedy “King Lear”, “one can see an exaggeration: an exaggeration of events, an exaggeration of feelings and an exaggeration of expressions.”

L. Tolstoy was wrong in assessing Shakespeare's work, but the idea of the great English playwright's commitment to theatrical hyperbole is completely justified. What has been said about "King Lear" with no less reason can be attributed to ancient comedies and tragedies, dramatic works of classicism, to the plays of F. Schiller and V. Hugo, etc.

In the 19th-20th centuries, when the desire for worldly authenticity prevailed in literature, the conventions inherent in the drama became less obvious, often they were reduced to a minimum. At the origins of this phenomenon is the so-called "petty-bourgeois drama" of the 18th century, the creators and theorists of which were D. Diderot and G.E. Lessing.

Works of the largest Russian playwrights of the XIX century. and the beginning of the 20th century - A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky - are distinguished by the reliability of the recreated life forms. But even when the playwrights set their sights on plausibility, plot, psychological, and actually verbal hyperbole persisted.

Theatrical conventions made themselves felt even in Chekhov's dramaturgy, which was the maximum limit of "life-likeness". Let's take a look at the final scene of The Three Sisters. One young woman broke up with a loved one ten or fifteen minutes ago, probably forever. Another five minutes ago found out about the death of her fiancé. And now they, together with the eldest, third sister, sum up the moral and philosophical results of the past, thinking to the sounds of a military march about the fate of their generation, about the future of mankind.

It is hardly possible to imagine this happening in reality. But we do not notice the implausibility of the ending of The Three Sisters, because we are used to the fact that the drama significantly changes the forms of people's life.

The foregoing convinces of the justice of A. S. Pushkin’s judgment (from his already cited article) that “the very essence of dramatic art excludes plausibility”; “Reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth.

In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet portrayed his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, of which one is filled with spectators who have agreed.

The most important role in dramatic works belongs to the conventions of speech self-disclosure of the characters, whose dialogues and monologues, often saturated with aphorisms and maxims, turn out to be much more extensive and effective than those remarks that could be uttered in a similar life situation.

Replicas “aside” are conventional, which, as it were, do not exist for other characters on the stage, but are clearly audible to the audience, as well as monologues uttered by the characters alone, alone with themselves, which are a purely stage technique for bringing out inner speech (there are many such monologues as in ancient tragedies, and in the dramaturgy of modern times).

The playwright, setting up a kind of experiment, shows how a person would express himself if he expressed his moods with maximum fullness and brightness in the spoken words. And speech in a dramatic work often takes on a resemblance to artistic lyrical or oratorical speech: the characters here tend to express themselves as improvisers-poets or masters of public speaking.

Therefore, Hegel was partly right, considering the drama as a synthesis of the epic beginning (eventfulness) and the lyrical (speech expression).

Drama has, as it were, two lives in art: theatrical and literary. Constituting the dramatic basis of the performances, existing in their composition, the dramatic work is also perceived by the reading public.

But this was not always the case. The emancipation of the drama from the stage was carried out gradually - over a number of centuries and ended relatively recently: in the 18th-19th centuries. The world-famous examples of drama (from antiquity to the 17th century) at the time of their creation were practically not recognized as literary works: they existed only as part of the performing arts.

Neither W. Shakespeare nor J. B. Molière were perceived by their contemporaries as writers. A decisive role in strengthening the idea of drama as a work intended not only for stage production, but also for reading, was played by the “discovery” in the second half of the 18th century of Shakespeare as a great dramatic poet.

In the 19th century (especially in its first half) the literary merits of the drama were often placed above the scenic ones. So, Goethe believed that "Shakespeare's works are not for bodily eyes", and Griboyedov called his desire to hear the verses of "Woe from Wit" from the stage "childish".

The so-called Lesedrama (drama for reading), created with the focus primarily on perception in reading, has become widespread. Such are Goethe's Faust, Byron's dramatic works, Pushkin's small tragedies, Turgenev's dramas, about which the author remarked: "My plays, unsatisfactory on stage, may be of some interest in reading."

There are no fundamental differences between the Lesedrama and the play, which the author is oriented towards stage production. Dramas created for reading are often potentially stage dramas. And the theater (including the modern one) stubbornly seeks and sometimes finds the keys to them, evidence of which is the successful productions of Turgenev's "A Month in the Country" (first of all, this is the famous pre-revolutionary performance of the Art Theater) and numerous (although far from always successful) stage readings Pushkin's little tragedies in the 20th century.

The old truth remains in force: the most important, the main purpose of the drama is the stage. “Only when performed on stage,” A. N. Ostrovsky noted, “does the author’s dramatic fiction take on a completely finished form and produce exactly the moral action that the author set himself as a goal to achieve.”

The creation of a performance based on a dramatic work is associated with its creative completion: the actors create intonation-plastic drawings of the roles they play, the artist designs the stage space, the director develops the mise-en-scenes. In this regard, the concept of the play changes somewhat (more attention is paid to some of its aspects, less attention to others), it is often concretized and enriched: the stage production introduces new semantic shades into the drama.

At the same time, the principle of faithful reading of literature is of paramount importance for the theater. The director and actors are called upon to convey the staged work to the audience with the maximum possible completeness. The fidelity of stage reading takes place where the director and actors deeply comprehend the dramatic work in its main content, genre, and style features.

Stage productions (as well as film adaptations) are legitimate only in those cases where there is agreement (even if relative) between the director and actors and the circle of ideas of the playwright writer, when the stage figures are carefully attentive to the meaning of the staged work, to the features of its genre, the features of its style and to the text itself.

In the classical aesthetics of the 18th-19th centuries, in particular by Hegel and Belinsky, drama (primarily the genre of tragedy) was regarded as the highest form of literary creativity: as the “crown of poetry”.

A whole series of artistic epochs has, in fact, manifested itself predominantly in the dramatic art. Aeschylus and Sophocles in the heyday of ancient culture, Moliere, Racine and Corneille in the time of classicism had no equal among the authors of epic works.

Significant in this respect is the work of Goethe. For the great German writer, all literary genres were available, but he crowned his life in art with the creation of a dramatic work - the immortal Faust.

In past centuries (up to the 18th century), drama not only successfully competed with the epic, but often became the leading form of artistic reproduction of life in space and time.

This is due to a number of reasons. First, the theatrical art played a huge role, accessible (unlike handwritten and printed books) to the widest strata of society. Secondly, the properties of dramatic works (the depiction of characters with pronounced features, the reproduction of human passions, the attraction to pathos and the grotesque) in the "pre-realist" era fully corresponded to general literary and general artistic trends.

And although in the XIX-XX centuries. the socio-psychological novel, a genre of epic literature, moved to the forefront of literature; dramatic works still have a place of honor.

V.E. Khalizev Theory of Literature. 1999

Tragedy(from Gr. Tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on the irreconcilable conflict of an unusual personality with insurmountable external circumstances. Usually the hero dies (Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare's Hamlet). The tragedy originated in ancient Greece, the name comes from a folk performance in honor of the god of winemaking Dionysus. Dances, songs and tales about his sufferings were performed, at the end of which a goat was sacrificed.

Comedy(from Gr. comoidia. Comos - a cheerful crowd and ode - a song) - a type of dramatic volition, which depicts the comic in social life, behavior and character of people. Distinguish between comedy of situations (intrigue) and comedy of characters.

Drama - a type of dramaturgy, intermediate between tragedy and comedy (Thunderstorm by A. Ostrovsky, Stolen Happiness by I. Franko). Dramas depict mainly the private life of a person and his acute conflict with society. At the same time, the emphasis is often placed on universal human contradictions embodied in the behavior and actions of specific characters.

Mystery(from Gr. mysterion - sacrament, religious service, rite) - a genre of mass religious theater of the late Middle Ages (XIV-XV centuries), common in the countries of Western Nvrotta.

Sideshow(from lat. intermedius - what is in the middle) - a small comic play or scene that was performed between the actions of the main drama. In modern pop art, it exists as an independent genre.

Vaudeville(from French vaudeville) a light comic play in which dramatic action is combined with music and dance.

Melodrama - a play with sharp intrigue, exaggerated emotionality and a moral and didactic tendency. Typical for melodrama is the "happy ending", the triumph of goodies. The genre of melodrama was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, and later acquired a negative reputation.

Farce(from Latin farcio I start, I fill) is a Western European folk comedy of the 14th-16th centuries, which originated from funny ritual games and interludes. The farce is characterized by the main features of popular representations of mass character, satirical orientation, rude humor. In modern times, this genre has entered the repertoire of small theaters.

As noted, the methods of literary representation are often mixed within individual types and genres. This confusion is of two kinds: in some cases there is a kind of interspersing, when the main generic characteristics are preserved; in others, the generic principles are balanced, and the work cannot be attributed either to the epic, or to the clergy, or to the drama, as a result of which they are called adjacent or mixed formations. Most often, epic and lyric are mixed.

Ballad(from Provence ballar - to dance) - a small poetic work with a sharp dramatic plot of love, legendary-historical, heroic-patriotic or fairy-tale content. The image of events is combined in it with a pronounced authorial feeling, the epic is combined with lyrics. The genre became widespread in the era of romanticism (V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, T. Shevchenko and others).

Lyric epic poem- a poetic work in which, according to V. Mayakovsky, the poet talks about time and about himself (poems by V. Mayakovsky, A. Tvardovsky, S. Yesenin, etc.).

dramatic poem- a work written in a dialogical form, but not intended for staging on stage. Examples of this genre: "Faust" by Goethe, "Cain" by Byron, "In the Catacombs" by L. Ukrainka and others.

All this constitutes a side text of a dramatic work. Its main text is a chain of characters' statements, their replicas and monologues.

Hence some limited artistic possibilities of the drama. The writer-playwright uses only a part of the visual means that are available to the creator of a novel or epic, short story or short story. And the characters of the characters are revealed in the drama with less freedom and fullness than in the epic. “I perceive the drama,” noted T. Mann, “as the art of the silhouette, and I feel only the narrated person as a voluminous, integral, real and plastic image.”

And the performance in the forms familiar to the new European theater lasts, as you know, no more than three or four hours. And this requires an appropriate size of the dramatic text.

Drama is stage oriented. Theater is a public, mass art. The performance directly affects many people, as if merging into one in response to what is happening before them.

The purpose of the drama, according to Pushkin, is to act on the multitude, to occupy its curiosity” and for this purpose capture the “truth of passions”: “Drama was born on the square and constituted the amusement of the people. The people, like children, require entertainment, action. The drama presents him with extraordinary, strange occurrences. People want strong feelings. Laughter, pity and horror are the three strings of our imagination, shaken by dramatic art.

The same is true to say about the theater and drama of other countries and eras. T. Mann was right when he called the "comedian instinct" "the fundamental principle of any dramatic skill."

“How he acted out in the theater,” Bubnov (At the Bottom by Gorky) comments on the frenzied tirade of the desperate Klesch, who, by an unexpected intrusion into the general conversation, gave it theatrical effect.

Therefore, Hegel was partly right, considering the drama as a synthesis of the epic beginning (eventfulness) and the lyrical (speech expression).

There are no fundamental differences between the Lesedrama and the play, which the author is oriented towards stage production. Dramas created for reading are often potentially stage dramas. And the theater (including the modern one) stubbornly seeks and sometimes finds the keys to them, evidence of which is the successful productions of Turgenev's "A Month in the Country" (first of all, this is the famous pre-revolutionary performance of the Art Theater) and numerous (though far from always successful) stage readings Pushkin's little tragedies in the 20th century.

The creation of a performance based on a dramatic work is associated with its creative completion: the actors create intonation-plastic drawings of the roles they play, the artist designs the stage space, the director develops the mise-en-scenes. In this regard, the concept of the play changes somewhat (more attention is paid to some of its sides, less attention to others), it is often concretized and enriched: the stage production introduces new semantic shades into the drama.

Significant in this respect is the work of Goethe. All literary genres were available to the great German writer, but he crowned his life in art with the creation of a dramatic work - the immortal Faust.

In past centuries (up to the 18th century), drama not only successfully competed with the epic, but often became the leading form of artistic reproduction of life in space and time.

And although in the XIX-XX centuries. the socio-psychological novel, a genre of epic literature, moved to the forefront of literature; dramatic works still have a place of honor.

V.E. Khalizev Theory of Literature. 1999

Drama (other Greek drama - action) is a kind of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present.

Dramatic works are intended to be staged, this determines the specific features of the drama:

1) the absence of a narrative-descriptive image;

3) the main text of the dramatic work is presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue);

4) drama as a kind of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and deed are the main means of creating the image of a hero;

5) the volume of the text and the duration of the action is limited by the stage framework;

6) the requirements of the performing arts dictated such a feature of the drama as a kind of exaggeration (hyperbolization): “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conditionality of what is happening, which was very well said by A.S. Pushkin: “The very essence of dramatic art excludes plausibility... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet portrayed his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, of which one is filled with spectators who have agreed etc.

Drama (ancient Greek δρᾶμα - act, action) - one of the three types of literature, along with epic and lyrics, simultaneously belongs to two types of art: literature and theater. Intended to be played on stage, drama differs formally from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of replicas of characters and author's remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Any literary work built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc., refers to drama in one way or another.

Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means "action".

Drama types tragedy drama (genre) drama for reading (play for reading)

Melodrama hierodrama mystery comedy vaudeville farce zaju

Drama history The rudiments of drama - in primitive poetry, in which the elements of lyrics, epic and drama that emerged later merged in connection with music and mimic movements. Earlier than among other peoples, drama as a special kind of poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.

Dionysian dances

In the second half of the 19th century, realism took over in European drama (Dumas son, Ogier, Sardou, Paleron, Ibsen, Suderman, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).

In the last quarter of the 19th century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take hold of the European scene (Hauptmann, Przybyszewski, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).

The design of a dramatic work Unlike other prose and poetry works, dramatic works have a rigidly defined structure. A dramatic work consists of alternating blocks of text, each with its own purpose, and highlighted with typography so that they can be easily distinguished from each other. Dramatic text may include the following blocks:

The list of characters is usually located before the main text of the work. In it, if necessary, a brief description of the hero is given (age, features of appearance, etc.)

External remarks - a description of the action, the situation, the appearance and departure of the characters. Often typed either in a reduced size, or in the same font as the replicas, but in a larger format. In the external remark, the names of the heroes can be given, and if the hero appears for the first time, his name is additionally highlighted. Example:

The room, which is still called the nursery. One of the doors leads to Anna's room. Dawn, soon the sun will rise. It's already May, the cherry trees are blooming, but it's cold in the garden, it's a matinee. The windows in the room are closed.

Enter Dunyasha with a candle and Lopakhin with a book in his hand.

Replicas are the words spoken by the characters. Remarks must be preceded by the name of the actor and may include internal remarks. Example:

Dunyasha. I thought you left. (Listens.) Here, it seems, they are already on their way.

LOPAKHIN (listening). No ... get luggage, then yes ...

Internal remarks, unlike external remarks, briefly describe the actions that occur during the pronunciation of a replica by the hero, or the features of the pronunciation. If some complex action occurs during the utterance of a cue, it should be described using an external cue, while indicating either in the remark itself or in the cue with the help of an internal remark that the actor continues to speak during the action. An inside note refers only to a specific line of a specific actor. It is separated from the replica by brackets, it can be typed in italics.

The most common are two ways of designing dramatic works: book and cinema. If in book format different font styles, different sizes, etc. can be used to separate parts of a dramatic work, then in cinematic scenarios it is customary to use only a monospaced typewriter font, and to separate parts of a work, use padding, set to a different format, set by all capitals, discharge, etc. - that is, only those means that are available on a typewriter. This allowed the scripts to be modified many times as they were produced, while maintaining readability. .

Drama in Russia

Drama was brought to Russia from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appears only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction prevailed in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyaznin, Ozerov; I. Lukin's attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and customs remained in vain: all their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous "Undergrowth" and "Foreman" Fonvizin, "Yabeda" Kapnist and some comedies by I. A. Krylov .

Ostrovsky gave a number of remarkable historical chronicles and everyday comedies. After him, Russian drama stood on solid ground; the most prominent playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, I. S. Turgenev, A. Potekhin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N. Ya. Solovyov, N. Chaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, c. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborykin, Prince Sumbatov, Novezhin, N. Gnedich, Shpazhinsky, Evt. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Shcheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others.

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