How pollution affects animals. Effects of outdoor air pollution on animals
Why is dirty air dangerous?
A person inhales up to 24 kg of air per day, which is at least 16 times more than the amount of water drunk per day. But do we think about what we breathe? After all, with a huge number of cars, tobacco smoke, electrical appliances, particles evaporating from detergents and cleaning products, and much, much more, the air we breathe is not clean. What is polluted air made of and why is it dangerous?
As you know, air particles have electric charges. The process of formation of these charges is called ionization, and a charged molecule is called an ion or an air ion. If an ionized molecule settles on a particle of liquid or a grain of dust, then such an ion is called a heavy ion.
Air ions have two charges - positive and negative.
Negatively charged ions have a beneficial effect on human health. In clean air, there are absolutely no heavy ions, and, therefore, such air is favorable for humans. That is why people need to be more often in the fresh air, in nature, away from the city smoke and exposure to harmful environmental factors.
The most sensitive to the adverse effects of positive ions (several dozens of metals were found in house dust alone, including such toxic and dangerous ones as cadmium, lead, arsenic, etc.), those categories of people who have been indoors for a long time are children (especially younger ones), pregnant and lactating women, the sick and the elderly.
How does dirty air affect a person?
It is known that all electronic and electrical equipment emits positively charged ions, and there is no reproduction of negatively charged air ions, which are constantly consumed by humans and pets, in the room.
Air pollution, together with the violation of the natural physical composition, makes the air environment around us extremely unfavorable for life, which, according to the latest scientific data, forces the human body to spend 80% of its internal resources only on ensuring the possibility of existence in it.
If only we could locate our homes in the forest and let nature itself purify, freshen the air!
However, this is practically unrealistic, but you can use Air Purification Systems that recreate natural cleansing with the help of ionization and low concentration ozone. These systems can be used in homes, offices, hotels, pets, agriculture and even cars.
At all stages of its development, man was closely connected with the outside world. But since the emergence of a highly industrial society, the dangerous human intervention in nature has increased dramatically, the scope of this intervention has expanded, it has become more diverse, and now threatens to become a global danger to humanity.
Man has to intervene more and more in the economy of the biosphere - that part of our planet in which life exists. The Earth's biosphere is currently undergoing increasing anthropogenic impact. At the same time, several of the most significant processes can be distinguished, none of which improves the ecological situation on the planet.
The most large-scale and significant is the chemical pollution of the environment by substances of a chemical nature unusual for it. Among them are gaseous and aerosol pollutants of industrial and household origin. The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is also progressing. There is no doubt about the importance of chemical contamination of the soil with pesticides and its increased acidity, leading to the collapse of the ecosystem. In general, all the considered factors, which can be attributed to the polluting effect, have a significant impact on the processes occurring in the biosphere.
The saying “necessary as air” is not accidental. Popular wisdom is not wrong. A person can live without food for 5 weeks, without water - 5 days, without air - no more than 5 minutes. In most of the world, the air is heavy. What it is clogged with cannot be felt in the palm of your hand, cannot be seen with the eye. However, up to 100 kg of pollutants fall on the heads of citizens every year. These are solid particles (dust, ash, soot), aerosols, exhaust gases, vapors, smoke, etc. Many substances react with each other in the atmosphere, forming new, often even more toxic compounds.
Among the substances that cause chemical pollution of urban air, the most common oxides of nitrogen, sulfur (sulfur dioxide), carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide), hydrocarbons, heavy metals.
Air pollution adversely affects human health, animals and plants. For example, mechanical particles, smoke and soot in the air cause lung diseases. Carbon monoxide contained in the exhaust emissions of cars, in tobacco smoke, leads to oxygen starvation of the body, since it binds blood hemoglobin. Exhaust gases contain lead compounds that cause general intoxication of the body.
As for the soil, it can be noted that the northern taiga soils are relatively young and undeveloped; therefore, partial mechanical destruction does not significantly affect their fertility in relation to woody vegetation. But cutting off the humus horizon or filling the soil causes the death of the rhizomes of the berry shrubs of lingonberries and blueberries. And since these species reproduce mainly by rhizomes, they disappear on pipeline routes and roads. Their place is taken by economically less valuable cereals and sedges, which cause natural sodding of the soil and hinder the natural renewal of conifers. This trend is typical for our city: acidic soil in its original composition is already infertile (considering the poor soil microflora and the species composition of soil animals), and is also polluted with toxic substances coming from the air and melt water. Soils in the city in most cases are mixed and bulk with a high degree of compaction. Dangerous and secondary salinization that occurs when using salt mixtures against road icing, and urbanization processes, and the use of mineral fertilizers.
Of course, by means of chemical analysis methods, it is possible to establish the presence of harmful substances in the environment, even in the smallest quantities. However, this is not enough to determine the qualitative impact of these substances on humans and the environment, and even more so, long-term consequences. In addition, it is possible to only partially assess the threat from pollutants contained in the atmosphere, water, soil, considering the effect of only individual substances without their possible interaction with other substances. Therefore, the quality control of the components of nature should be monitored at an earlier stage in order to prevent danger. The plant world around us is more sensitive and informative than any electronic devices. This purpose can be served by specially selected plant species contained in appropriate conditions, the so-called phytoindicators, which provide early recognition of a possible danger to the atmosphere and soil of the city, coming from harmful substances.
Main pollutants
Man has been polluting the atmosphere for thousands of years, but the consequences of the use of fire, which he used throughout this period, were insignificant. I had to put up with the fact that the smoke interfered with breathing, and the soot fell like a black cover on the ceiling and walls of the dwelling. The resulting heat was more important for a person than clean air and not sooty cave walls. This initial air pollution was not a problem, for people then lived in small groups, occupying a vast untouched natural environment. And even a significant concentration of people in a relatively small area, as was the case in classical antiquity, was not yet accompanied by serious consequences.
This was the case until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Only in the last century has the development of industry "gifted" us with such production processes, the consequences of which at first man could not yet imagine. Million-strong cities arose, the growth of which cannot be stopped. All this is the result of great inventions and conquests of man.
Basically, there are three main sources of air pollution: industry, domestic boilers, transport. The share of each of these sources in air pollution varies greatly from place to place. It is now generally accepted that industrial production pollutes the air the most. Sources of pollution - thermal power plants, household boilers, which, together with smoke, emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air; metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants. Harmful gases enter the air as a result of fuel combustion for industrial needs, home heating, transport, combustion and processing of household and industrial waste. Atmospheric pollutants are divided into primary, entering directly into the atmosphere, and secondary, resulting from the transformation of the latter. So, sulfur dioxide entering the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfuric anhydride, which interacts with water vapor and forms droplets of sulfuric acid. When sulfuric anhydride reacts with ammonia, ammonium sulfate crystals are formed. Here are some of the pollutants: a) Carbon monoxide. It is obtained by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous substances. It enters the air during the combustion of solid waste, with exhaust gases and emissions from industrial enterprises. At least 1250 million tons of this gas enters the atmosphere every year. m. Carbon monoxide is a compound that actively reacts with the constituent parts of the atmosphere and contributes to an increase in temperature on the planet, and the creation of a greenhouse effect.
b) Sulfur dioxide. It is emitted during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel or the processing of sulfurous ores (up to 170 million tons per year). Part of the sulfur compounds is released during the combustion of organic residues in mining dumps. In the United States alone, the total amount of sulfur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere amounted to 65% of the global emission.
c) Sulfuric anhydride. It is formed during the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. The end product of the reaction is an aerosol or solution of sulfuric acid in rainwater, which acidifies the soil and exacerbates human respiratory diseases. The precipitation of sulfuric acid aerosol from smoke flares of chemical enterprises is observed at low cloudiness and high air humidity. Leaf blades of plants growing at a distance of less than 11 km. from such enterprises, is usually densely dotted with small necrotic spots formed at the sites of sedimentation of droplets of sulfuric acid. Pyrometallurgical enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as thermal power plants annually emit tens of millions of tons of sulfuric anhydride into the atmosphere.
d) Hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide. They enter the atmosphere separately or together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises for the manufacture of artificial fiber, sugar, coke, oil refineries, and oil fields. In the atmosphere, when interacting with other pollutants, they undergo slow oxidation to sulfuric anhydride.
e) Nitrogen oxides. The main sources of emissions are enterprises producing nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, and celluloid. The amount of nitrogen oxides entering the atmosphere is 20 million tons per year.
f) Fluorine compounds. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing aluminum, enamels, glass, ceramics, steel, and phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds - hydrogen fluoride or dust of sodium and calcium fluoride. The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect. Fluorine derivatives are strong insecticides.
g) Chlorine compounds. They enter the atmosphere from chemical enterprises producing hydrochloric acid, chlorine-containing pesticides, organic dyes, hydrolytic alcohol, bleach, soda. In the atmosphere, they are found as an admixture of chlorine molecules and hydrochloric acid vapors. The toxicity of chlorine is determined by the type of compounds and their concentration. In the metallurgical industry, during the smelting of pig iron and during its processing into steel, various metals and toxic gases are released into the atmosphere.
h) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric anhydride (SO3). In combination with suspended particles and moisture, they have the most harmful effect on humans, living organisms and material values. SO2 is a colorless and non-combustible gas, the smell of which begins to be felt at its concentration in the air of 0.3-1.0 million, and at a concentration of more than 3 million it has a sharp irritating odor. It is one of the most common air pollutants. It is widely found as a product of the metallurgical and chemical industries, an intermediate in the production of sulfuric acid, and the main component of emissions from thermal power plants and numerous boilers operating on sour fuels, especially coal. Sulfur dioxide is one of the main components involved in the formation of acid rain. It is colorless, poisonous, carcinogenic, has a pungent odor. Sulfur dioxide in a mixture with solid particles and sulfuric acid already at an average annual content of 0.04-0.09 million and a smoke concentration of 150-200 µg/m3 leads to an increase in the symptoms of shortness of breath and lung diseases. So, with an average daily SO2 content of 0.2-0.5 million and a smoke concentration of 500-750 µg/m3, there is a sharp increase in the number of patients and deaths.
Low concentrations of SO2 irritate the mucous membranes when exposed to the body, while higher concentrations cause inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, bronchi, and sometimes lead to nosebleeds. Prolonged contact causes vomiting. Acute poisoning with a fatal outcome is possible. It was sulfur dioxide that was the main active component of the famous London smog of 1952, when a large number of people died.
The maximum allowable concentration of SO2 is 10 mg/m3. odor threshold - 3-6 mg/m3. First aid for sulfur dioxide poisoning - fresh air, freedom of breathing, oxygen inhalations, washing eyes, nose, rinsing the nasopharynx with a 2% soda solution.
Within the boundaries of our city, emissions into the atmosphere are carried out by the boiler house and vehicles. This is mainly carbon dioxide, lead compounds, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides (sulfur dioxide), carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide), hydrocarbons, heavy metals. The deposits practically do not pollute the atmosphere. This is confirmed by the data.
But the presence of far from all pollutants can be determined using phytoindication. However, this method provides an earlier, in comparison with the instrumental, recognition of the possibilities of danger posed by harmful substances. The specificity of this method is the selection of plants - indicators that have characteristic sensitive properties when in contact with harmful substances. Bioindication methods, taking into account the climatic and geographical features of the region, can be successfully applied as an integral part of industrial industrial environmental monitoring.
The problem of controlling the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises (MPC)
The priority in the development of maximum permissible concentrations in the air belongs to the USSR. MPC - such concentrations that affect a person and his offspring by direct or indirect exposure, do not worsen their performance, well-being, as well as sanitary and living conditions for people.
The generalization of all information on MPC, received by all departments, is carried out in the MGO - the Main Geophysical Observatory. In order to determine air values based on the results of observations, the measured values of concentrations are compared with the maximum one-time maximum allowable concentration and the number of cases when the MPC was exceeded, as well as how many times the largest value was higher than the MPC, is determined. The average value of the concentration for a month or a year is compared with the long-term MPC - a medium-stable MPC. The state of air pollution by several substances observed in the atmosphere of the city is assessed using a complex indicator - the air pollution index (API). To do this, the MPC normalized to the corresponding value and the average concentrations of various substances with the help of simple calculations lead to the value of the concentrations of sulfur dioxide, and then summed up.
The degree of air pollution by the main pollutants is directly dependent on the industrial development of the city. The highest maximum concentrations are typical for cities with a population of more than 500 thousand people. residents. Air pollution with specific substances depends on the type of industry developed in the city. If enterprises of several industries are located in a large city, then a very high level of air pollution is created, but the problem of reducing emissions is still unresolved.
MPC (maximum permissible concentration) of certain harmful substances. MPC, developed and approved by the legislation of our country, is the maximum level of a given substance that a person can tolerate without harm to health.
Within the boundaries of our city and beyond (at the fields), sulfur dioxide emissions from production (0.002-0.006) do not exceed the MPC (0.5), emissions of total hydrocarbons (less than 1) do not exceed the MPC (1) . According to UNIR, the concentration of mass emissions of CO, NO, NO2 from boilers (steam and hot water boilers) does not exceed the MPE.
2. 3. Atmospheric pollution by emissions from mobile sources (vehicles)
The main contributor to air pollution is gasoline-powered vehicles (about 75% in the US), followed by airplanes (about 5%), diesel-powered cars (about 4%), tractors and agricultural vehicles (about 4%) , rail and water transport (approximately 2%). The main atmospheric pollutants emitted by mobile sources (the total number of such substances exceeds 40%) include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (about 19%) and nitrogen oxides (about 9%). Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) enter the atmosphere only with exhaust gases, while incompletely burned hydrocarbons (HnCm) enter both with exhaust gases (this is approximately 60% of the total mass of emitted hydrocarbons) and from crankcase (about 20%), fuel tank (about 10%) and carburetor (about 10%); solid impurities come mainly with exhaust gases (90%) and from the crankcase (10%).
The largest amount of pollutants is emitted during vehicle acceleration, especially at fast speeds, as well as when driving at low speeds (from the most economical range). The relative share (of the total mass of emissions) of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide is the highest during braking and idling, the share of nitrogen oxides is highest during acceleration. From these data it follows that cars pollute the air especially strongly during frequent stops and when driving at low speed.
Green wave traffic systems being created in cities, which significantly reduce the number of stops at intersections, are designed to reduce air pollution in cities. The mode of operation of the engine, in particular, the ratio between the masses of fuel and air, the moment of ignition, fuel quality, the ratio of the surface of the combustion chamber to its volume, etc., has a great influence on the quality and quantity of emissions of impurities. With an increase in the ratio of the mass of air and fuel entering the chamber combustion, emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are reduced, but emissions of nitrogen oxides are increased.
Despite the fact that diesel engines are more economical, they emit no more substances such as CO, HnCm, NOx than gasoline engines, they emit significantly more smoke (mainly unburned carbon), which also has an unpleasant odor created by some unburned hydrocarbons. In combination with the noise generated, diesel engines not only pollute the environment more, but also affect human health to a much greater extent than gasoline engines.
The main sources of air pollution in cities are vehicles and industrial enterprises. While industrial plants in the city are steadily reducing the amount of harmful emissions, the car park is a real disaster. The solution of this problem will help the transfer of transport to high-quality gasoline, competent organization of traffic.
Lead ions accumulate in plants, but do not appear externally, because the ions bind to oxalic acid, forming oxalates. In our work, we used phytoindication by external changes (macroscopic features) of plants.
2. 4. The impact of air pollution on humans, flora and fauna
All air pollutants, to a greater or lesser extent, have a negative impact on human health. These substances enter the human body mainly through the respiratory system. The respiratory organs suffer from pollution directly, since about 50% of impurity particles with a radius of 0.01-0.1 microns that penetrate the lungs are deposited in them.
Particles penetrating the body cause a toxic effect, since they are: a) toxic (poisonous) in their chemical or physical nature; b) interfere with one or more of the mechanisms by which the respiratory (respiratory) tract is normally cleared; c) serve as a carrier of a poisonous substance absorbed by the body.
3. INVESTIGATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE USING
INDICATOR PLANTS
(PHYTOINDICATION OF AIR COMPOSITION)
3. 1. On the methods of phytoindication of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems
One of the most important areas of environmental monitoring today is phytoindication. Phytoindication is one of the methods of bioindication, i.e. assessment of the state of the environment by the reaction of plants. The qualitative and quantitative composition of the atmosphere affects the life and development of all living organisms. The presence of harmful gaseous substances in the air has a different effect on plants.
The bioindication method as a tool for monitoring the state of the environment has become widespread in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, and Central Europe in recent years. The need for bioindication is clear in terms of monitoring the ecosystem as a whole. Phytoindication methods are of particular importance within the city and its environs. Plants are used as phytoindicators, and a whole complex of their macroscopic features is studied.
On the basis of theoretical analysis and our own, we have made an attempt to describe some of the original methods of phytoindication of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems available in school conditions using the example of changes in the external characteristics of plants.
Regardless of species, in plants, the following morphological changes can be detected in the process of indication
Chlorosis is a pale coloration of the leaves between the veins, observed in plants on dumps left after the extraction of heavy metals, or pine needles with little exposure to gas emissions;
Redness - spots on the leaves (accumulation of anthocyanin);
Yellowing of the edges and areas of the leaves (in deciduous trees under the influence of chlorides);
Browning or bronzing (in deciduous trees, this is often an indicator of the initial stage of severe necrotic damage, in conifers, it serves for further reconnaissance of smoke damage zones);
Necrosis - the death of tissue areas - an important symptom in the indication (including: punctate, interveinal, marginal, etc.);
Leaf fall - deformation - usually occurs after necrosis (for example, a decrease in the lifespan of needles, shedding, leaf fall in lindens and chestnuts under the influence of salt to accelerate the melting of ice or in shrubs under the influence of sulfur oxide);
Changes in the size of plant organs, fertility.
In order to determine what these morphological changes in plant-phytoindicators testify to, we used some methods.
When examining damage to pine needles, shoot growth, apical necrosis and needle life span are considered important parameters. One of the positive aspects in favor of this method is the ability to conduct surveys all year round, including in the city.
In the study area, either young trees were selected at a distance of 10–20 m from each other, or side shoots in the fourth whorl from the top of very tall pines. The survey revealed two important bioindicative indicators: the class of damage and drying of the needles and the life span of the needles. As a result of the express assessment, the degree of air pollution was determined.
The described technique was based on the studies of S. V. Alekseev, A. M. Becker.
To determine the class of damage and drying out of the needles, the apical part of the pine trunk was the object of consideration. According to the condition of the needles of the central shoot section (second from the top) of the previous year, the needle damage class was determined on a scale.
Needle damage class:
I - needles without spots;
II - needles with a small number of small spots;
III - needles with a large number of black and yellow spots, some of them are large, the entire width of the needles.
Needle drying class:
I - no dry areas;
II - shrunken tip, 2 - 5 mm;
III - 1/3 of the needles have dried up;
IV - all needles are yellow or half dry.
We assessed the life span of needles based on the condition of the apical part of the trunk. The increase was taken over the past few years, and it is believed that one whorl is formed for each year of life. To obtain the results, it was necessary to determine the total age of the needles - the number of sections of the trunk with completely preserved needles, plus the proportion of preserved needles in the next section. For example, if the apical part and two sections between the whorls completely retained their needles, and the next part retained half of the needles, then the result would be 3.5 (3 + 0, 5 = 3.5).
Having determined the class of damage and the life span of the needles, it was possible to estimate the class of air pollution according to the table
As a result of our studies of pine needles for the class of damage and drying out of the needles, it turned out that there are a small number of trees in the city that have drying out of the tips of the needles. Basically, it was needles of 3-4 years of age, the needles were without spots, but some showed drying of the tip. It is concluded that the air in the city is clean.
Using this bioindication technique for a number of years, it is possible to obtain reliable information about gas and smoke pollution both in the city itself and its environs.
Other plant objects for bioindication of pollution in terrestrial ecosystems can be:
➢ watercress as a test object for assessing soil and air pollution;
➢ lichen vegetation - when mapping the area according to their species diversity;
Lichens are very sensitive to air pollution and die at high levels of carbon monoxide, sulfur compounds, nitrogen and fluorine. The degree of sensitivity in different species is not the same. Therefore, they can be used as living indicators of environmental cleanliness. This research method is called lichen indication.
There are two ways to apply the lichen indication method: active and passive. In the case of the active method, leaf lichens of the Hypohymnia type are exhibited on special boards according to the observation grid, and later damage to the body of lichens by harmful substances is determined (the example was taken from data on determining the degree of air pollution near an aluminum metallurgical plant by the bioindication method. This allows us to draw direct conclusions about the existing In the city of Kogalym, Parmelia swollen and Xanthoria walla were found, but in small quantities.Outside the city, these types of lichens were found in large quantities, and with intact bodies.
In the case of the passive method, lichen mapping is used. Already in the middle of the 19th century, such a phenomenon was observed that, due to air pollution with harmful substances, lichens disappeared from cities. Lichens can be used to differentiate between areas of air pollution in large areas and sources of pollution operating in small areas. We have carried out an assessment of air pollution using indicator lichens. We estimated the degree of air pollution in the city by the abundance of various lichens.
In our case, various types of lichens were collected both on the territory of the city and on the territory adjacent to the city. The results were entered in a separate table.
We noted weak pollution in the city and did not mark the pollution zone outside the city. This is evidenced by the found species of lichens. The slow growth of lichens, the sparseness of the crowns of urban trees, in contrast to the forest, and the effect of direct sunlight on tree trunks were also taken into account.
And yet, phytoindicator plants told us about the weak air pollution in the city. But what? In order to determine what gas polluted the atmosphere, we used table number 4. It turned out that the ends of the needles acquire a brown tint when the atmosphere is polluted with sulfur dioxide (from the boiler room), and at higher concentrations, the death of lichens occurs.
For comparison, we conducted experimental work, which showed us the following results: indeed, there were discolored petals of garden flowers (petunia), but a small number of them were noticed, because the vegetative processes and flowering processes in our area are short, and the concentration of sulfur dioxide is not critical .
As for experiment No. 2 “Acid rains and plants”, judging by the herbarium samples we collected, there were leaves with necrotic spots, but the spots passed along the edge of the leaf (chlorosis), and under the action of acid rains, brown necrotic spots appear all over the leaf blade .
3. 2. Soil study using indicator plants - acidophiles and calcephobes
(phytoindication of soil composition)
In the process of historical development, plant species or communities have developed, associated with certain habitat conditions so strongly that ecological conditions can be recognized by the presence of these plant species or their communities. In this regard, groups of plants associated with the presence of chemical elements in the composition of the soil have been identified:
➢ nitrophils (white gauze, stinging nettle, narrow-leaved fireweed, etc.);
➢ calcephiles (Siberian larch, muzzle, lady's slipper, etc.);
➢ calcephobes (heather, sphagnum mosses, cotton grass, reed reed, flattened club moss, club moss, horsetails, ferns).
In the course of the study, we found that soils poor in nitrogen were formed on the territory of the city. This conclusion was made thanks to the species of the following plants noted by us: narrow-leaved fireweed, meadow clover, reed reed grass, maned barley. And in the forest areas adjacent to the city there are a lot of calcephobe plants. These are species of horsetails, ferns, mosses, cotton grass. The presented plant species are presented in a herbarium folder.
Soil acidity is determined by the presence of the following groups of plants:
Acidophilic - soil acidity from 3.8 to 6.7 (sowing oats, sowing rye, European week-grass, sticking out white, maned barley, etc.);
Neutrophilic - soil acidity from 6.7 to 7.0 (combined hedgehog, steppe timothy grass, common oregano, six-petal meadowsweet, etc.);
Basophilic - from 7.0 to 7.5 (meadow clover, horned bird, meadow timothy grass, awnless bonfire, etc.).
The presence of acidic soils of an acidophilic level is evidenced by such plant species as red clover, barley, which we found in the city. At a short distance from the city, such soils are evidenced by species of sedges, marsh cranberries, podbel. These are species that have historically developed in wet and swampy areas, excluding the presence of calcium in the soil, preferring only acidic, peaty soils.
Another method tested by us is the study of the state of birches as indicators of soil salinity in urban conditions. Such phytoindication is carried out from the beginning of July to August. Downy birch is found on the streets and in the forested area of the city. Damage to birch foliage under the action of salt used to melt ice manifests itself as follows: bright yellow, unevenly located marginal zones appear, then the leaf edge dies off, and the yellow zone moves from the edge to the middle and base of the leaf.
We have carried out research on the leaves of downy birch, as well as mountain ash. As a result of the study, marginal chlorosis of the leaves, dot inclusions were found. This indicates a 2 degree of damage (minor). The result of this manifestation is the introduction of salt to melt the ice.
An analysis of the species composition of flora in the context of determining the chemical elements and soil acidity under conditions of environmental monitoring acts as an accessible and simplest method of phytoindication.
In conclusion, we note that plants are important objects for bioindication of ecosystem pollution, and the study of their morphological features in recognizing the ecological situation is especially effective and accessible within the city and its environs.
4. Conclusions and forecasts:
1. On the territory of the city, the method of phytoindication and lichenoindication revealed slight air pollution.
2. On the territory of the city acidic soils were revealed by the phytoindication method. In the presence of acidic soils, to improve fertility, use liming by weight (calculated method), add dolomite flour.
3. On the territory of the city, slight pollution (salinization) of the soil with salt mixtures against road icing was revealed.
4. One of the complex problems of industry is the assessment of the complex impact of various pollutants and their compounds on the environment. In this regard, it is extremely important to assess the health of ecosystems and individual species using bioindicators. We can recommend the following as bioindicators to monitor air pollution at industrial facilities and in urban areas:
➢ Leafy lichen Hypohymnia swollen, which is most sensitive to acid pollutants, sulfur dioxide, heavy metals.
➢ Condition of pine needles for bioindication of gas and smoke pollution.
5. As bioindicators that allow assessing soil acidity and monitoring soil pollution at industrial facilities and in urban areas, we can recommend:
➢ Urban plant species: red clover, maned barley to determine acidic soils of acidophilic level. At a short distance from the city, such soils are evidenced by species of sedges, marsh cranberries, podbel.
➢ Downy birch as a bioindicator of anthropogenic soil salinity.
5. The widespread use of the bioindication method by enterprises will make it possible to more quickly and reliably assess the quality of the natural environment and, in combination with instrumental methods, become an essential link in the system of industrial environmental monitoring (EM) of industrial facilities.
When implementing industrial environmental monitoring systems, it is important to take into account economic factors. The cost of instruments and apparatus for TEM for only one linear compressor station is 560 thousand rubles
Animal protection
It's no secret to anyone that the whole world is now a terrible environment. It harms everything - people, animals, and in general the entire animal world. Neither the Amazon forests nor the taiga of Siberia can cope with harmful emissions.
Due to poor ecology, the mutation of animals begins. Off the coast of Japan, they found a 50-kilogram squid. Kangaroo mutation occurred in Mexico. They began to have the head of a dog and large fangs. And in the Northern Urals, cattle began to die. All these mutations have a negative impact not only on animals, but also on humans.
Air pollution causes fluorosis in animals. This is a chronic poisoning caused by air pollution with fluoride compounds. Fluoride compounds have also been identified in water and animal food. Among animals, fluorosis affects sheep and cattle.
Contamination of pastures by such compounds are several factors. This is a natural soil dust that is observed in some areas. These are gaseous and dusty wastes of enterprises, as well as coal combustion. Modern enterprises that produce enamel, cement, aluminum and phosphoric acid contain fluoride compounds, including hydrogen fluoride.
Animals generally experience stress when the parameters of the natural environment change dramatically. Even at a low level of pollution, a negative reaction to pollution always occurs. The reaction affects the molecular-genetic foundations in the body, shows the features of ethology and ontogenesis in animals, and also changes the characteristics of interspecies interactions.
Radiation also negatively affects the animal world. During the testing of nuclear weapons, radioactive fallout is released into the atmospheric air. Radiation affects animals in the same way as humans. Radioactive fallout ends up in food. First, rainfall from the soil enters the plants, and there it accumulates and is consumed by animals. At present, such contamination is negligible, but there is not enough information about the result of consumed food with radioactive elements. Modern further research is vital.
Waste industrial and domestic waters are subjected to mechanical, biological and physical treatment. Substances that are contained in wastewater also adversely affect the animal world.
Modern ecology is increasingly having a detrimental effect on humans, on the animal and plant world. That is why it is necessary to preserve nature. The organization of reserves contributes to the conservation of wildlife. Rare and endangered species are reliably protected. In addition, reserves tame wild animals with valuable properties. The reserves are also engaged in the resettlement of extinct animals, thereby enriching the local fauna.
State Educational Institution
Higher Professional Education
Vyatka State University
Department of Biology
Department of Microbiology
Abstract on the topic:
Plants and animals are indicators of environmental pollution
Kirov, 2010
Introduction
Recently, observations of changes in the state of the environment caused by anthropogenic causes have become very relevant. The system of these observations and forecasts is the essence of environmental monitoring. For these purposes, a rather effective and inexpensive method of monitoring the environment is increasingly being used and used - bioindication, i.e. the use of living organisms to assess the state of the environment.
The consequences of environmental pollution are reflected in the appearance of plants. In plants under the influence of harmful substances, the number of stomata, the thickness of the cuticle, the density of pubescence increase, chlorosis and necrosis of the leaves develop, and early fall of the leaves. Some plants are most sensitive to the nature and degree of atmospheric pollution. This means that they can serve as living indicators of the state of the environment. At present, the concept of integrated environmental monitoring of the natural environment has been developed, an integral part of which is biological monitoring. Indicator plants can be used both to identify individual air pollutants and to assess the quality of the natural environment. Having detected the presence of specific pollutants in the air by the state of plants, they begin to measure the amount of these substances by various methods, for example, testing plants in laboratory conditions.
At the level of species and community, the state of the natural environment can be judged by indicators of plant productivity. Indicators of the presence of sulfur dioxide are lichens and conifers, which are most affected by pollution. In many industrial cities around factories there are zones where lichens are absent at all - "lichen deserts". Pine needles form a thicker layer of wax on their surface, the higher the concentration or the longer the effect of sulfur dioxide on it. On this basis, a method for indicating in an atmosphere of sour gas was developed - the “Hertel clouding test”. Another sign of the effect of sulfur dioxide on plants is a decrease in the pH of the contents of the cells.
The whole complex of environmental factors (air and soil temperature, moisture availability, pH of the environment, soil and air pollution with metals) affects the biosynthesis of pigments, changing the color of various parts of the plant. This bioindicator may be the most informative.
Studies conducted on woody plants have shown that heavy metals can accumulate in plants, and their content can be used to assess the ecological situation of the territory. Pollution with copper affects the growth of plants, zinc leads to the death of leaves in plants, cobalt leads to abnormal development, etc. Indicators of the presence of fluorine are sensitive plants that accumulate it and react to this phytotoxicant with leaf necrosis (gladiolus, freesia).
These examples show that breeders can do a lot to create bioindicators of various types of pollution. Susceptible plants can replace expensive gas analysis equipment. Such a "gas analyzer" will be available to everyone.
1. Biological indicators
(B.i.) - organisms that respond to environmental changes with their presence or absence, changes in appearance, chemical composition, behavior.
In environmental monitoring of pollution, the use of B.i. often provides more valuable information than a direct assessment of pollution by devices, since B.i. react immediately to the whole complex of pollution. In addition, having<памятью>, B.i. their reactions reflect pollution over a long period. On the leaves of trees, when the atmosphere is polluted, necroses (dying areas) appear. The presence of some pollution-resistant species and the absence of non-resistant species (eg, lichens) determine the level of urban air pollution.
When using B. and. the ability of some species to accumulate pollutants plays an important role. The consequences of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant were recorded in Sweden during the analysis of lichens. Birch and aspen can signal an increased content of barium and strontium in the environment by unnaturally green leaves. Similarly, in the uranium scattering area around the deposits, willow-herb petals turn white (normally pink), blueberries turn dark blue fruits white, etc.
To identify different pollutants, different types of biological agents are used: for general pollution - lichens and mosses, for pollution with heavy metals - plums and beans, sulfur dioxide - spruce and alfalfa, ammonia - sunflower, hydrogen sulfide - spinach and peas, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) - touchy, etc.
The so-called<живые приборы>- indicator plants planted in beds, placed in growing vessels or in special boxes (in the latter case, mosses are used, boxes with which are called briometers).<Живые приборы>installed in the most polluted parts of the city.
When assessing the pollution of aquatic ecosystems as B.i. higher plants or microscopic algae, zooplankton organisms (infusoria-shoes) and zoobenthos (mollusks, etc.) can be used. In central Russia, in water bodies, when the water is polluted, hornwort, floating pondweed, duckweeds grow, and in clean water - frog watercress and salvinia.
With the help of B. and. it is possible to evaluate soil salinity, grazing intensity, change in moisture regime, etc. In this case, as B.i. most often the entire composition of the phytocenosis is used. Each plant species has certain limits of distribution (tolerance) for each environmental factor, and therefore the very fact of their joint growth allows us to fully assess environmental factors.
The possibilities of assessing the environment by vegetation are studied by a special branch of botany - indicator geobotany. Its main method is the use of ecological scales, i.e. special tables, in which for each species the limits of its distribution are indicated by factors of moisture, soil richness, salinity, grazing, etc. In Russia, ecological scales were compiled by L. G. Ramensky .
The use of trees as B.i. has become widespread. climate change and the level of environmental pollution. The thickness of annual rings is taken into account: in years when there was little precipitation or the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere increased, narrow rings formed. Thus, one can see a reflection of the dynamics of environmental conditions on the trunk saw cut.
1.2 Biological control of the environment
Biological control of the environment includes two main groups of methods: bioindication and biotesting. The use of plants, animals, and even microorganisms as bioindicators allows biomonitoring of air, water, and soil.
Bioindication ( bioindication ) – detection and determination of environmentally significant natural and anthropogenic loads based on the reactions of living organisms to them directly in their habitat. Biological indicators have features that are characteristic of a system or process, on the basis of which a qualitative or quantitative assessment of trends in changes, determination or evaluation classification of the state of ecological systems, processes and phenomena is carried out. At present, it can be considered generally accepted that the main indicator of sustainable development is ultimately the quality of the environment.
Biotesting ( bioassay ) - the procedure for establishing the toxicity of the environment using test objects that signal danger, regardless of which substances and in what combination cause changes in vital functions in test objects. To assess environmental parameters, standardized reactions of living organisms (individual organs, tissues, cells or molecules) are used. In an organism that stays under pollution conditions for a control time, changes occur in physiological, biochemical, genetic, morphological or immune systems. The object is removed from the habitat, and the necessary analysis is carried out in the laboratory.
Although the approaches are very close in terms of the ultimate goal of research, it must be remembered that biotesting is carried out at the level of a molecule, cell or organism and characterizes the possible consequences of environmental pollution for biota, while bioindication is carried out at the level of the organism, population and community and characterizes, as a rule, the result of pollution. . Living objects are open systems through which there is a flow of energy and circulation of substances. All of them are more or less suitable for biomonitoring purposes.
In recent decades, environmental quality control using biological objects has taken shape as an actual scientific and applied direction. At the same time, it should be noted that there is a shortage of educational literature on these issues and a great need for it.
1.3 Principles of organization of biological monitoring
The ecological quality of the human environment is understood as an integral characteristic of the natural environment that ensures the preservation of health and comfortable living of a person.
Since a person is adapted and can comfortably exist only in a modern biological environment, in natural ecosystems, the concept of "ecological quality of the environment" implies the preservation of ecological balance in nature (the relative stability of the species composition of ecosystems and the composition of living environments), which ensures human health.
It is necessary to distinguish between the goals and methods of normalizing and assessing the quality of the human environment in terms of the main physical and chemical parameters, on the one hand, and the ecological forecast of future changes in the state of the ecosystem and human health in conditions of anthropogenic pressure, on the other.
For a general assessment of the state of the environment and determining the share of participation of individual sources in its pollution, sanitary-hygienic and toxicological standards are used (maximum permissible concentrations - MPC - pollutants, maximum permissible levels of exposure - MPS). However, to predict the results of the impact of anthropogenic factors on both ecosystems and human health, it is also necessary to take into account many indicators that characterize the response of individual organisms and the ecosystem as a whole to the technogenic impact.
Anthropogenic pollution affects living organisms, including humans, in various combinations, in a complex manner. Their integral influence can only be assessed by the reaction of living organisms or entire communities. The prediction of the impact of polluted water, chemical additives in food, or polluted air on humans is valid if the assessment of toxicity includes not only analytical methods, but also biological diagnostics of the effect of the environment on animals. In addition, many xenobiotics (substances alien to the biosphere) accumulate in the body, and as a result, prolonged exposure to even low concentrations of these substances causes pathological changes in the body. Finally, the paradoxical effect of small doses of many biologically active compounds is known, when super-low doses (below MPC) have a stronger effect on the body than their average doses and concentrations.
A universal indicator of a change in the homeostasis of a test organism is the state of stress when it enters from a “clean” environment into a “contaminated” one.
In biology, stress is understood as the reaction of a biological system to extreme environmental factors (stressors), which, depending on the strength, intensity, moment and duration of exposure, can more or less strongly affect the system.
The stressful impact of the environment leads to a deviation of the main parameters of the body from the optimal level.
Currently, the assessment of the degree of environmental hazard is traditionally carried out by identifying individual potentially harmful substances or effects in the environment and comparing the results obtained with the legally established maximum permissible values for them.
The implementation of the basic principles of the sustainable development of civilization in modern conditions is possible only if there is appropriate information on the state of the habitat in response to anthropogenic impact, collected in the course of biological monitoring. Assessment of the quality of the environment is a key task of any activities in the field of ecology and rational nature management. The very term "monitoring" (from the English. monitoring - control) means carrying out activities for continuous monitoring, measurement and assessment of the state of the environment.
The objects of monitoring are biological systems and factors influencing them. At the same time, simultaneous registration of the anthropogenic impact on the ecosystem and the biological response to the impact on the entire set of indicators of living systems is desirable.
The fundamental principle of biological monitoring is the establishment of an optimal - control - level, any deviation from which indicates stress exposure. Usually, when evaluating the optimum for any one parameter, the question arises as to whether these conditions will also be optimal for other characteristics of the organism. However, if the studied parameters characterize the main properties of the organism as a whole, then their optimal level is similar. For example, such different and seemingly completely independent parameters as the asymmetry of morphological features, blood parameters, intensity of oxygen consumption, growth rhythm and frequency of chromosomal aberrations can change synchronously, when, under a certain stress effect, the most common basic characteristic of the organism actually changes - developmental homeostasis.
2. Bioindication of the environment
2.1 General principles for the use of bioindicators
Bioindicators(from bio and lat. indico - indicate, determine) - organisms, the presence, number or features of development of which serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the habitat. Their indicator significance is determined by the ecological tolerance of the biological system. Within the tolerance zone, the body is able to maintain its homeostasis. Any factor, if it goes beyond the "comfort zone" for a given organism, is stressful. In this case, the organism reacts with a response of varying intensity and duration, the manifestation of which depends on the species and is an indicator of its indicator value. It is the response that is determined by bioindication methods. The biological system responds to the influence of the environment as a whole, and not only to individual factors, and the amplitude of fluctuations in physiological tolerance is modified by the internal state of the system - nutritional conditions, age, genetically controlled resistance.
Many years of experience of scientists from different countries in monitoring the state of the environment has shown the advantages that living indicators have:
· under conditions of chronic anthropogenic loads, they can respond even to relatively weak impacts due to the cumulative effect; reactions are manifested during the accumulation of certain critical values of the total dose loads;
· summarize the impact of all biologically important impacts without exception and reflect the state of the environment as a whole, including its pollution and other anthropogenic changes;
eliminate the need to register chemical and physical parameters characterizing the state of the environment;
fix the speed of the changes taking place;
reveal trends in the development of the natural environment;
indicate the ways and places of accumulation in ecological systems of various kinds of pollution and poisons, the possible ways of their entry into human food;
allow to judge the degree of harmfulness of any substances synthesized by man for wildlife and for himself, and at the same time make it possible to control their action.
There are two forms of response of living organisms used for bioindication purposes - specific And nonspecific. In the first case, the ongoing changes are associated with the action of one of the factors. With nonspecific bioindication, various anthropogenic factors cause the same reactions.
Depending on the type of response, bioindicators are divided into sensitive And cumulative. Sensitive bioindicators react to stress with a significant deviation from life norms, while cumulative bioindicators accumulate anthropogenic impact, significantly exceeding the normal level in nature, without visible changes.
Be typical for given conditions;
· have a high abundance in the studied ecotope;
· live in this place for a number of years, which makes it possible to trace the dynamics of pollution;
be in conditions suitable for sampling;
· enable direct analysis without pre-concentration of samples;
be characterized by a positive correlation between the concentration of pollutants in the organism-indicator and the object of study;
be used in the natural conditions of its existence; »have a short period of ontogeny so that it is possible to track the influence of the factor on subsequent generations.
The response of a bioindicator to a certain physical or chemical effect must be clearly expressed, i.e. specific, easy to register visually or with the help of instruments.
For bioindication, it is necessary to choose the most sensitive communities, characterized by the maximum response rate and severity of parameters. For example, in aquatic ecosystems, the most sensitive are planktonic communities, which quickly respond to environmental changes due to a short life cycle and high reproduction rate. Benthic communities, where organisms have a fairly long life cycle, are more conservative: rearrangements occur in them during long-term chronic pollution, leading to irreversible processes.
The methods of bioindication that can be used in the study of an ecosystem include the identification of rare and endangered species in the area under study. The list of such organisms, in fact, is a set of indicator species that are most sensitive to anthropogenic impact.
2.2 Features of the use of plants as bioindicators
With the help of plants, it is possible to carry out bioindication of all natural environments. Indicator plants are used in assessing the mechanical and acidic composition of soils, their fertility, moisture and salinity, the degree of groundwater mineralization and the degree of atmospheric air pollution with gaseous compounds, as well as in identifying the trophic properties of water bodies and the degree of their pollution with pollutants. For example, the content of lead in the soil is indicated by species of fescue (Festuca ovina etc.), bent (Agrostis tenuis and etc.); zinc - types of violets ( Viola tricolor etc.), yarutki (Tlaspi alpestre and etc.); copper and cobalt - resins (Silene vulgaris etc.), many cereals and mosses.
Sensitive phytoindicators indicate the presence of a pollutant in the air or soil by early morphological reactions - a change in leaf color (appearance of chlorosis; yellow, brown or bronze color), various forms of necrosis, premature wilting and leaf fall. In perennial plants, contaminants cause changes in size, shape, number of organs, direction of shoot growth, or changes in fecundity. Such reactions are usually non-specific.
B. V. Vinogradov classified the indicator signs of plants as floristic, physiological, morphological and phytocenotic. Floristic features are differences in the composition of the vegetation of the studied areas, formed as a result of certain environmental conditions. Both the presence and absence of a species are indicative. Physiological features include features of plant metabolism, anatomical and morphological features - features of the internal and external structure, various developmental anomalies and neoplasms, phytocenotic features - features of the structure of vegetation cover: abundance and dispersion of plant species, layering, mosaic, degree of closeness .
Very often, for the purposes of bioindication, various anomalies of plant growth and development are used - deviations from general patterns. Scientists systematized them into three main groups, associated with: (1) inhibition or stimulation of normal growth (dwarfism and gigantism); (2) with deformations of stems, leaves, roots, fruits, flowers and inflorescences; (3) with the appearance of neoplasms (this group of growth anomalies also includes tumors).
Gigantism and dwarfism are considered deformities by many researchers. For example, an excess of copper in the soil halves the size of the California poppy, and an excess of lead leads to dwarfism of the tar.
For the purpose of bioindication, the following plant deformations are of interest:
· fasciation - ribbon-like flattening and fusion of stems, roots and peduncles;
· terry flowers in which the stamens turn into petals;
· proliferation - germination of flowers and inflorescences;
· sea squirt- funnel-shaped, cup-shaped and tubular leaves in plants with lamellar leaves;
· reduction- reverse development of plant organs, degeneration;
· filiformity- filamentous form of the leaf blade;
· phyllodium stamens - their transformation into a flat leaf-shaped formation.
Biomonitoring can be carried out by observing individual indicator plants, a population of a certain species, and the state of the phytocenosis as a whole. At the species level, a specific indication of a single pollutant is usually produced, and at the population or phytocenosis level, the general state of the natural environment.
2.3 Features of using animals as bioindicators
Vertebrates also serve as good indicators of the state of the environment due to the following features:
· being consumers, they are at different trophic levels of ecosystems and accumulate pollutants through food chains;
have an active metabolism, which contributes to the rapid manifestation of the impact of negative environmental factors on the body;
· have well-differentiated tissues and organs that have different ability to accumulate toxic substances and ambiguous physiological response, which allows the researcher to have a wide range of tests at the level of tissues, organs and functions;
· complex adaptations of animals to environmental conditions and clear behavioral reactions are most sensitive to anthropogenic changes, which makes it possible to directly observe and analyze rapid responses to the impact;
Animals with a short developmental cycle and numerous offspring can be used to conduct a series of long-term observations and trace the impact of the factor on subsequent generations; for long-lived animals, particularly sensitive tests can be selected in accordance with particularly vulnerable stages of ontogeny.
The main advantage of using vertebrates as bioindicators lies in their physiological proximity to humans. The main disadvantages are associated with the complexity of their detection in nature, capture, species identification, as well as the duration of morpho-anatomical observations. In addition, animal experiments are often expensive and require multiple repetitions to obtain statistically reliable conclusions.
Assessment and forecasting of the state of the natural environment with the involvement of vertebrates are carried out at all levels of their organization. At the organismic level, with the help of a comparative analysis, morpho-anatomical, behavioral and physiological-biochemical parameters are evaluated.
Morpho-anatomical indicators describe the features of the external and internal structures of animals and their change under the influence of certain factors (depigmentation, changes in integument, tissue structure and location of organs, the occurrence of deformities, tumors and other pathological manifestations).
Behavioral and physiological-biochemical parameters are especially sensitive to changes in the external environment. Toxicants, penetrating into the bones or blood of vertebrates, immediately affect the functions that ensure vital activity. Even with a narrowly specific effect of a toxicant on a certain function, its shifts are reflected in the state of the whole organism due to the interconnectedness of vital processes. The presence of toxicants is quite clearly manifested in the violation of the rhythm of respiration, heart contractions, the speed of digestion, the rhythm of secretions, and the duration of reproduction cycles.
In order to be able to compare the material collected by different researchers in different areas, the set of indicator species should be uniform and small. Here are some criteria for the suitability of different mammalian species for bioindicative studies:
· belonging to different parts of the trophic chain - herbivorous, insectivorous, predatory mammals;
Settlement or lack of large migrations;
· wide area of distribution (relatively high eurytopicity), i.e. this criterion precludes the use of endemics as test indicators;
· belonging to natural communities: the criterion excludes synanthropic species that feed near human dwellings and inadequately characterize the microelement composition of pollution in a given region;
· the abundance of the species should provide sufficient material for analysis;
· Simplicity and accessibility of methods for obtaining species.
Analyzing, according to these criteria, representatives of all orders of mammals found on the territory of the CIS countries, one can dwell on seven species: the common shrew (Sores areneus), European mole (Talpa europaea), Altai mole (Talpa altaica), Brown bear (Ursus arctos), elk (Alces alces), bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus), red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rubilus).
2.4 Symbiotic methods in bioindication
2.5 Applications of bioindicators
2.5.1 Air quality assessment
Air pollution affects all living organisms, but especially plants. For this reason, plants, including the lower ones, are most suitable for detecting the initial change in the composition of the air. The corresponding indices give a quantitative idea of the toxic effect of air pollutants.
Lichens are symbiotic organisms. Many researchers have shown their suitability for bioindication purposes. They have very specific properties, as they react to changes in the composition of the atmosphere, have a different biochemistry from other organisms, are widely distributed on various types of substrates, starting from rocks and ending with the bark and leaves of trees, and are convenient for exposure in polluted areas.
There are four main ecological groups of lichens: epiphytic - growing on the bark of trees and shrubs; pixel - growing on bare wood; epigean- on the ground; epilithic- on the rocks. Of these, epiphytic species are the most sensitive to air pollution. With the help of lichens, it is possible to obtain quite reliable data on the level of air pollution. At the same time, a group of chemical compounds and elements can be distinguished, to the action of which lichens have super-increased sensitivity: oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, hydrogen fluoride and chloride, as well as heavy metals. Many lichens die at low levels of atmospheric pollution with these substances. The procedure for determining air quality using lichens is called lichen indication.
Air purity can be assessed using higher plants. For example, gymnosperms are excellent indicators of the purity of the atmosphere. It is also possible to study mutations in the hairs of the filaments of tradescantia. French scientists noticed that with an increase in carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides emitted by internal combustion engines in the air, the color of its filaments changes from blue to pink. The consequences of disturbances in the individual development of plants can also be revealed by the frequency of occurrence of morphological deviations (phenodeviants), the value of fluctuating asymmetry indicators (deviation from perfect bilateral and radial symmetry), and the method of analyzing complex structures intricately organized (fractal analysis). The levels of any deviations from the norm are minimal only under optimal conditions and increase under any stressful influences.
environment pollution bioindicator
2.5.2 Water quality assessment
Almost all groups of organisms inhabiting water bodies can be used for biological indication of water quality: planktonic and benthic invertebrates, protozoa, algae, macrophytes, bacteria and fish. Each of them, acting as a biological indicator, has its own advantages and disadvantages, which determine the boundaries of its use in solving bioindication problems, since all these groups play a leading role in the general circulation of substances in a reservoir. Organisms, which are usually used as bioindicators, are responsible for the self-purification of the reservoir, participate in the creation of primary production, and carry out the transformation of substances and energy in aquatic ecosystems. Any conclusion based on the results of a biological study is based on the totality of all the data obtained, and not on the basis of single findings of indicator organisms. Both when performing the study and when evaluating the results obtained, it is necessary to keep in mind the possibility of accidental, local contamination at the observation point. For example, decaying plant remains, the carcass of a frog or fish can cause local changes in the nature of the population of the reservoir.
2.5.3 Soil diagnostics
The theoretical prerequisite for the application of the soil-zoological method for the purposes of soil diagnostics is the idea formulated by M.S. Gilyarov in 1949 of the “ecological standard” of a species - the need of a species for a certain set of environmental conditions. Each species within its range is found only in those habitats that provide a full range of conditions necessary for the manifestation of vital activity. The amplitude of variation of individual environmental factors characterizes the ecological plasticity of the species. Eurybionts are not very suitable for indicator purposes, while stenobionts serve as good indicators of certain environmental conditions and substrate properties. This provision is a general theoretical principle in biological diagnostics. However, the use of one species for indication does not give full confidence in the correctness of the conclusions (here, there is a “rule of habitat change” and, as a result, a change in the ecological characteristics of the species). It is better to study the whole complex of organisms, some of which can be indicators of humidity, others of temperature, and still others of chemical or mechanical composition. The more common species of soil animals are found in the compared areas, the more likely it is possible to judge the similarity of their regimes, and, consequently, the unity of the soil-forming process. Microscopic forms are less useful than others - protozoa and microarthropods (ticks, springtails). Their representatives are cosmopolitan due to the fact that the soil for them does not act as a single habitat: they live in a system of pores, capillaries, cavities that can be found in any soil. Of the microarthropods, the most well-studied are the indicator properties of armored mites. The composition of their community complexes depends not only on soil conditions, but also on the nature and floristic composition of vegetation; therefore, it is promising to use this object to indicate damaging effects on the soil.
Communities of large invertebrates (earthworms, centipedes, insect larvae) are especially valuable and convenient for indicator work. So, staphylinids of the genus Bledius and darklings of the genus Belopus are indicative for solonchak-alkaline soils, centipedes-kivsyaki, some biting midges and lung mollusks serve as indicators of the content of lime in the soil. earthworms Octolasium lacteum and some types of wireworms are indicators of high calcium content in groundwater.
Of interest is soil-algological diagnostics, which is based on the assumption that the zonality of soils and vegetation corresponds to the zonality of algal groups. It manifests itself in the general species composition and complex of dominant algae species, the presence of specific species, the nature of distribution along the soil profile, and the predominance of certain life forms.
3. Environmental biotesting
3.1 Tasks and methods of biotesting the quality of the environment
In the detection of anthropogenic pollution of the environment, along with chemical-analytical methods, methods based on assessing the state of individual individuals exposed to a polluted environment, as well as their organs, tissues and cells, are used. Their use is due to the technical complexity and limited information that chemical methods can provide. In addition, hydrochemical and chemical-analytical methods may be ineffective due to their insufficiently high sensitivity. Living organisms are able to perceive higher concentrations of substances than any analytical sensor, and therefore the biota may be subject to toxic effects that are not recorded by technical means.
Bioindication involves the identification of already existing or accumulating pollution by indicator species of living organisms and ecological characteristics of communities of organisms. Close attention is currently being paid to biotesting techniques, i.e. use of biological objects under controlled conditions as a means of identifying the total toxicity of the environment. Biotesting is a methodological technique based on the assessment of the effect of an environmental factor, including a toxic one, on the body, its separate function or system of organs and tissues. In addition to the choice of a bioassay, the choice of a test reaction, that parameter of the body that is measured during testing, plays an important role.
3.2 Basic bioassay approaches
“Approaches” can be conditionally called groups of methods that characterize similar processes occurring with test objects under the influence of anthropogenic factors. Main approaches:
Biochemical approach
· Genetic approach
Morphological approach
Physiological approach
Biophysical approach
Immunological approach
Biochemical approach
The stress impact of the environment can be assessed by the effectiveness of biochemical reactions, the level of enzymatic activity and the accumulation of certain metabolic products. Changes in the content of certain biochemical compounds in the body, indicators of basic biochemical processes and DNA structure as a result of biochemical reactions can provide the necessary information about the reaction of the body in response to stress.
genetic approach
The presence and degree of manifestation of genetic changes characterizes the mutagenic activity of the environment, and the possibility of maintaining genetic changes in populations reflects the efficiency of the functioning of the immune system of organisms.
Normally, most genetic disorders are recognized and eliminated by the cell, for example, by apoptosis by intracellular systems or by the immune system. A significant excess of the spontaneous level of such disorders is an indicator of stress. Genetic changes can be detected at the gene, chromosomal and genomic levels. It is customary to distinguish the following types of mutations. genetic, or point, - they are divided into two groups: base substitutions in DNA and insertions or deletions of nucleotides, leading to a shift in the reading frame of the genetic code. Gene mutations are also divided into direct and reverse (reversion). Frameshift mutations are much less prone to spontaneous reversions than base substitution mutations. Chromosomal rearrangements (aberrations) consist in various violations of the structure of chromosomes. Genomic mutations - a change in the number of chromosomes in the nucleus.
To diagnose the impact of contaminants on morphological characteristics methods for estimating fluctuating asymmetry are applied.
As test functions are used physiological parameters freshwater invertebrate hydrobionts of different levels of phylogenesis.
Immunological approach in assessing the state of the environment is to study changes in innate and acquired immunity in invertebrates and vertebrates.
Bibliography
1. Biological control of the environment: bioindication and biotesting: a textbook for students. higher textbook Institutions / O.P. Melekhova, E.I. Sarapultseva, T.I. Evseeva and others; ed. O.P. elekhova and E.I. Sarapultseva. – 2nd edition, rev. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2008
2. Biological methods for assessing the natural environment / Edited by N.N. Smirnova - M .: publishing house "Nauka", 1978
3. The biological role of trace elements. – M.: Nauka, 1983, 238s.
State Educational Institution Higher Professional Education Vyatka State University Faculty of Biology Department of Microbiology Essay on the topic: Plants and ZhAt present, the negative impact of atmospheric air pollution on vegetation is obvious. The air is never clean. Atmospheric air is an amazing mixture of gases and vapors, as well as microscopic particles of various origins. Naturally, not every component of atmospheric air is a pollutant. These include those components of the atmosphere that have an adverse effect on plants. The effects of certain substances on plants can be perceptible, but lead to physiological disorders, and in some cases to the complete withering away and death of the plant. Almost all atmospheric emissions have a negative impact on plants, however, the so-called priority pollutants deserve special attention:
Sulfur oxides from fossil fuel combustion and metal smelting;
Small particles of heavy metals;
Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide contained in vehicle exhaust gases;
Fluorine compounds formed during the production of aluminum and phosphates;
photochemical pollution.
It is these compounds that cause the greatest harm to vegetation, however, the list of pollutants is not limited to them. Chlorides, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, pesticides, dust, ethylene, and combinations of all these substances can cause damage to vegetation.
Among the pollutants mentioned above, the greatest danger to plants growing within the city are emissions into the atmosphere, as well as hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide.
The effect of each pollutant on plants depends on its concentration and duration of exposure; in turn, each type of vegetation reacts differently to the action of various substances. Moreover, each plant response to air pollution can be weakened or enhanced by the influence of many geophysical factors. Thus, the number of possible combinations of pollutants, the change in the time of their exposure, at which negative effects appear, are endless.
It is well known that a significant amount of pollutants, as they fall out of the atmosphere, is deposited on vegetation. Further, these substances penetrate into plants and their intracellular space, where some are absorbed by plant cells and interaction with cell components may occur. It is obvious that only after the completion of all these processes, it is possible to reveal the toxicity of the pollutant.
The toxic effect of various types of pollution on vegetation can manifest itself in several ways, but most often it leads to metabolic disorders. Each substance in its own way affects the biochemical and physiological processes in plants. Their reaction to these influences is manifested in violations of the structure and functions of the entire system or its individual components. These violations can be seen by a number of signs that are visible when looking closely at a natural object. Based on the analysis of a number of literary sources and the study of plant communities, among the most common signs of disturbance of woody vegetation under conditions of anthropogenic and technogenic pollution, the following can be distinguished:
The appearance of dead wood and weakened trees among the dominant species (spruce in a spruce forest, oak in an oak forest, birch in a birch forest);
A decrease (noticeable) in the size of needles and foliage this year compared to previous years;
Premature (long before autumn) yellowing and fall of foliage;
Deceleration of tree growth in height and diameter;
The appearance of chlorosis (i.e., early aging of leaves or needles under the influence of pollutants) and necrosis (i.e., necrosis of plant tissue sections also under the influence of pollutants) of needles and foliage. Moreover, the position on the plant and the color of necrosis sometimes make it possible to draw a conclusion about the degree and type of impact. It is customary to distinguish between: a) marginal necrosis - the death of tissue along the edges of the sheet; b) median necrosis - the death of leaf tissue between the veins; c) punctate necrosis - necrosis of leaf tissue in the form of dots and small spots scattered over the entire surface of the leaf;
Shortening the life of needles;
A noticeable increase in trees damaged by diseases and insect pests (mushrooms and insects);
Influx of tubular fungi (macromycetes) from the forest community and a decrease in the species composition and abundance of agaric fungi;
Decrease in the species composition and occurrence of the main types of epiphytic lichens (living on tree trunks) and a decrease in the degree of coverage of the area of tree trunks by lichens.
Several kinds (types) of the effects of air pollution on plants are known, which can be conditionally divided into the effects of acute exposure to high concentrations of pollutants in a short period of time and the effects of chronic exposure to low concentrations over a long period. Examples of effects of acute exposure are clearly observed chlorosis or necrosis of leaf tissue, abscission of leaves, fruits, flower petals; leaf curling; stem curvature. The effects of chronic exposure include slowing down or stopping the normal growth or development of the plant (causing, in particular, a decrease in the volume of biomass); chlorosis or necrosis of leaf tips; slow withering of the plant or its organs. Often, manifestations of chronic or acute effects are specific to individual pollutants or their combinations.
At present, the detrimental effect of atmospheric pollution on various components of vegetation, such as forest tree species, is generally recognized. Priority pollutants include: sulfur dioxide, ozone, peroxacetyl nitrate (PAN), fluorides.
These substances disrupt various biochemical and physiological processes and the structural organization of plant cells. It is a mistake to assume that plants are not damaged until visible symptoms of phytotoxicity appear. Damage primarily manifests itself at the biochemical level (affects photosynthesis, respiration, biosynthesis of fats and proteins, etc.), then spreads to the ultrastructural (destruction of cell membranes) and cellular (destruction of the nucleus, cell membranes) levels. Only then do visible symptoms of damage develop.
In case of acute damage to tree plantations by sulfur dioxide, the appearance of necrotic areas is typical, mainly between the veins of the leaf, but sometimes - in plants with narrow leaves - at the tips of the leaves and along the edges. Necrotic lesions are visible on both sides of the leaf. Destroyed areas of leaf tissues first look grayish-green, as if moistened with water, but then become dry and change color to reddish-brown. In addition, pale ivory dots may appear. Large necrotic spots and patches often coalesce, forming banding between the veins. As the leaf tissue necrosis lesion becomes brittle, tears, and falls out of the surrounding tissue, the leaves take on a perforated shape, which is a characteristic reaction of acute sulfur dioxide injury. The role of green spaces in preventing air pollution from dust and industrial emissions cannot be overestimated; retaining solid and gaseous impurities, they serve as a kind of filter that purifies the atmosphere. 1 m3 of air in industrial centers contains from 100 to 500 thousand particles of dust, soot, and in the forest they are almost a thousand times less. Plantations are able to retain on the crowns from 6 to 78 kg/ha of solid precipitation, which is 40 ... 80% of suspended impurities in the air. Scientists have calculated that the crowns of spruce stands annually filter 32 t/ha of dust, pine - 36, oak - 56, beech - 63 t/ha.
Under trees, dust is less on average by 42.2% during the growing season and by 37.5% in the absence of foliage. Forest plantations retain dust-proof ability even in a leafless state. Along with dust, trees also absorb harmful impurities: up to 72% of dust and 60% of sulfur dioxide settle on trees and shrubs.
The filtering role of green spaces is explained by the fact that one part of the gases is absorbed during photosynthesis, the other is dissipated into the upper layers of the atmosphere due to vertical and horizontal air currents that occur due to the difference in air temperatures in open areas and under the forest canopy.
The dust-proof ability of green spaces consists in the mechanical retention of dust and gases and their subsequent washing off by rain. One hectare of forest purifies 18 million m3 of air per year.
Studies of the dust-retaining capacity of trees near cement plants have shown that during the growing season black poplar deposits up to 44 kg/ha of dust, white poplar - 53, white willow - 34, ash-leaved maple - 30 kg/ha of dust. Under the influence of green spaces, the concentration of sulfur dioxide at a distance of 1000 m from a thermal power plant, a metallurgical plant and a chemical plant decreases by 20 ... 29%, and at a distance of 2000 m by 38 ... 42%. In the Moscow region, birch stands most effectively absorb sulfur dioxide.
Actively absorb sulfur compounds from the atmospheric air plantations of small-leaved linden (the sulfur content in its leaves was 3.3% of dry leaves), maple (3%), horse chestnut (2.8%), oak (2.6%), poplar white (2.5%).
During the growing season, 1 ha of balsamic poplar plantations in the Cis-Urals absorbs 100 kg of sulfur dioxide; in a less polluted area, 1 hectare of small-leaved linden plantations accumulates up to 40 ... 50 kg of sulfur in the leaves. Scientists have found that in the zone of strong constant gas contamination, balsam poplar absorbs sulfur compounds most of all, and less - smooth elm, bird cherry and ash-leaved maple. In the zone of moderate gas pollution, the best indicators are typical for small-leaved linden, ash, lilac and honeysuckle. The species composition of the first two groups is preserved in the zone of weak periodic gas contamination. Many tree species highly resistant to sulphurous anhydride have low gas absorption properties. In addition to sulfur dioxide, plantings absorb nitrogen oxides. In addition to these main air pollutants, green spaces also absorb others. Poplar, willow, ash, having up to 5 kg or more leaves, absorb up to 200 ... 250 g of chlorine during the growing season, shrubs - up to 100 ... 150 g of chlorine.
One tree during the growing season neutralizes lead compounds contained in 130 kg of gasoline. In plants along the highway, the lead content is 35 ... 50 mg per 1 kg of dry matter, and in the zone of a clean atmosphere - 3 ... 5 mg. Alkain, aromatic hydrocarbons, acids, esters, alcohols, etc. are actively absorbed by plants.
A decrease in the danger of contamination with carcinogenic substances by green plantings has been established.
Plantations on depleted urban soils are more susceptible to gas intoxicants. The introduction of mineral and organic fertilizers into such soils increases the gas resistance of tree species.
Plantations with a filtering capacity (absorbing on average up to 60 t/ha of harmful pollutants) are able to cope with the elimination of air pollution by industrial agglomerations, the maximum value of which reaches 200 t/ha.
The above examples convincingly prove that green spaces, along with the use of technical means of purification and improvement of production technology, play a significant role in the elimination and localization of harmful impurities in the atmospheric air. Carrying a huge sanitary and hygienic service, forest plantations themselves suffer from dust and gas contamination of the air.
Conclusion
Plant organisms play a key role in the biosphere, annually accumulating huge masses of organic matter and producing oxygen. Mankind uses plants as the main source of nutrition, technical raw materials, fuel, building materials. The task of plant physiology is to reveal the essence of the processes occurring in the plant organism, to establish their interconnection, changes under the influence of the environment, the mechanisms of their regulation in order to control these processes in order to obtain a larger volume of production.
Recently, advances in molecular biology, breeding, genetics, cellular and genetic engineering have had a great influence on plant physiology. It is thanks to the achievements of molecular biology that previously known facts about the role of phytohormones in the processes of plant growth and development have received a new interpretation. Now phytohormones play an important role in the regulation of the most important physiological processes. In this regard, one of the most important tasks facing plant physiology is to uncover the mechanism of hormonal regulation.
The study at the molecular level has contributed a lot to the explanation of the processes of nutrient entry into the plant. However. It must be said that the questions of the intake and, especially, the movement of nutrients through the plant remain largely unclear.
In recent years, great progress has been made in understanding the primary processes of photosynthesis, although many questions require further study. When the mechanism of the process of photosynthesis is fully revealed, then the dream of mankind to reproduce this process in an artificial installation will come true.
Thus, the ever wider application of the principles discovered through molecular biological research in the study of processes at the level of the whole plant and plant communities will make it possible to approach the control of growth, development, and, consequently, the productivity of plant organisms.
