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Astronomy is the science that studies the universe. Astronomy – what kind of science is it? The structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline

The structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline

Extragalactic Astronomy: Gravitational Lensing. Several blue loop-shaped objects are visible, which are multiple images of a single galaxy, multiplied due to the gravitational lensing effect of a cluster of yellow galaxies near the center of the photo. The lens is created by the gravitational field of the cluster, which bends light rays, which leads to an increase and distortion of the image of a more distant object.

Modern astronomy is divided into a number of sections that are closely related to each other, so the division of astronomy is somewhat arbitrary. The main branches of astronomy are:

Astrometry - studies the apparent positions and movements of luminaries. Previously, the role of astrometry also consisted of highly accurate determination of geographic coordinates and time by studying the movement of celestial bodies (now other methods are used for this). Modern astrometry consists of:
- fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are to determine the coordinates of celestial bodies from observations, compile catalogs of stellar positions and determine the numerical values of astronomical parameters - quantities that allow one to take into account regular changes in the coordinates of luminaries;
- spherical astronomy, which develops mathematical methods for determining the apparent positions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems, as well as the theory of regular changes in the coordinates of luminaries over time;
Theoretical astronomy provides methods for determining the orbits of celestial bodies from their apparent positions and methods for calculating the ephemerides (apparent positions) of celestial bodies from the known elements of their orbits (the inverse problem).
Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies under the influence of the forces of universal gravity, determines the masses and shape of celestial bodies and the stability of their systems.

These three sections mainly solve the first problem of astronomy (the study of the movement of celestial bodies), and they are often called classical astronomy.

Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and chemical composition of celestial objects. It is divided into: a) practical (observational) astrophysics, in which practical methods of astrophysical research and corresponding instruments and instruments are developed and applied; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which, based on the laws of physics, explanations are given for observed physical phenomena.

A number of branches of astrophysics are distinguished by specific research methods.

Stellar astronomy studies the patterns of spatial distribution and movement of stars, stellar systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical characteristics.

These two sections mainly address the second problem of astronomy (the structure of celestial bodies).

Cosmogony examines questions of the origin and evolution of celestial bodies, including our Earth.
Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the Universe.

Based on all the knowledge acquired about celestial bodies, the last two sections of astronomy solve its third problem (the origin and evolution of celestial bodies).

The course of general astronomy contains a systematic presentation of information about the basic methods and the most important results obtained by various branches of astronomy.

One of the new directions, formed only in the second half of the 20th century, is archaeoastronomy, which studies the astronomical knowledge of ancient people and helps to date ancient structures based on the phenomenon of Earth precession.

Stellar astronomy

Planetary Ant Nebula - Mz3. The ejection of gas from the dying central star shows a symmetrical pattern, in contrast to the chaotic patterns of conventional explosions.

Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are formed in stars.

Astronomy subjects

Evolution of galaxies

Problems of astronomy

Main tasks astronomy are:

The study of the visible, and then the actual positions and movements of celestial bodies in space, determining their sizes and shapes.
The study of the structure of celestial bodies, the study of the chemical composition and physical properties (density, temperature, etc.) of the substances in them.
Solving problems of the origin and development of individual celestial bodies and the systems they form.
Studying the most general properties of the Universe, constructing a theory of the observable part of the Universe - the Metagalaxy.

Solving these problems requires the creation of effective research methods - both theoretical and practical. The first problem is solved through long-term observations, begun in ancient times, and also on the basis of the laws of mechanics, known for about 300 years. Therefore, in this area of astronomy we have the richest information, especially for celestial bodies relatively close to the Earth: the Moon, the Sun, planets, asteroids, etc.

The solution to the second problem became possible in connection with the advent of spectral analysis and photography. The study of the physical properties of celestial bodies began in the second half of the 19th century, and the main problems - only in recent years.

The third task requires the accumulation of observable material. At present, such data are not yet sufficient to accurately describe the process of origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems. Therefore, knowledge in this area is limited only to general considerations and a number of more or less plausible hypotheses.

The fourth task is the largest and most difficult. Practice shows that existing physical theories are no longer sufficient to solve this problem. It is necessary to create a more general physical theory capable of describing the state of matter and physical processes at limiting values of density, temperature, pressure. To solve this problem, observational data are required in regions of the Universe located at distances of several billion light years. Modern technical capabilities do not allow detailed exploration of these areas. However, this problem is now the most pressing and is being successfully solved by astronomers in a number of countries, including Russia.

History of astronomy

Even in ancient times, people noticed the relationship between the movement of celestial bodies across the sky and periodic weather changes. Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology. The final identification of scientific astronomy occurred during the Renaissance and took a long time.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, which arose from the practical needs of mankind. By the location of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the onset of the seasons. Nomadic tribes were guided by the Sun and stars. The need for chronology led to the creation of a calendar. There is evidence that even prehistoric people knew about the basic phenomena associated with the rising and setting of the Sun, Moon and some stars. The periodic recurrence of eclipses of the Sun and Moon has been known for a very long time. Among the oldest written sources there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive calculation schemes for predicting the times of sunrise and sunset of bright celestial bodies and methods for counting time and maintaining a calendar. Astronomy developed successfully in Ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India. The Chinese chronicle describes an eclipse of the Sun that took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Theories, which, on the basis of developed arithmetic and geometry, explained and predicted the movements of the Sun, Moon and bright planets, were created in the Mediterranean countries in the last centuries of the pre-Christian era and, together with simple but effective instruments, served practical purposes until the Renaissance.

Astronomy reached especially great development in Ancient Greece. Pythagoras first came to the conclusion that the Earth is spherical, and Aristarchus of Samos suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hipparchus in the 2nd century. BC e. compiled one of the first star catalogs. In Ptolemy’s work “Almagest”, written in Art. 2. n. e., set out by the so-called. geocentric system of the world, which has been generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years. In the Middle Ages, astronomy achieved significant development in the countries of the East. In the 15th century Ulugbek built an observatory near Samarkand with instruments that were accurate at that time. The first catalog of stars after Hipparchus was compiled here. From the 16th century The development of astronomy in Europe begins. New demands were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the emergence of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.

The birth of modern astronomy is associated with the rejection of the geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy (2nd century) and its replacement with the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus (mid-16th century), with the beginning of studies of celestial bodies using a telescope (Galileo, early 17th century) and the discovery of the law of universal gravity (Isaac Newton, late 17th century). The 18th-19th centuries were for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about the Solar System, our Galaxy and the physical nature of the stars, the Sun, planets and other cosmic bodies. The advent of large telescopes and systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billions of stars - a galaxy. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers discovered that this system was one of millions of similar galaxies. The discovery of other galaxies became the impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy. The study of the spectra of galaxies allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to identify the phenomenon of “galaxy recession”, which was subsequently explained on the basis of the general expansion of the Universe.

In the 20th century, astronomy was divided into two main branches: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomy focuses on observations of celestial bodies, which are then analyzed using the basic laws of physics. Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of models (analytical or computer) to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy seeks explanations for observational results, and observational astronomy is used to confirm theoretical conclusions and hypotheses.

The scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century had an extremely great influence on the development of astronomy in general and especially astrophysics. The creation of high-resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of rockets and artificial Earth satellites for extra-atmospheric astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of cosmic bodies: radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, X-ray sources, etc. The fundamentals of the theory of the evolution of stars and solar cosmogony were developed systems. The achievement of astrophysics of the 20th century was relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the Universe as a whole.

2009 was declared by the UN as the International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009). The main focus is on increasing public interest and understanding of astronomy. It is one of the few sciences where lay people can still play an active role. Amateur astronomy has contributed to a number of important astronomical discoveries.

Astronomical observations

In astronomy, information is primarily obtained from identifying and analyzing visible light and other spectra of electromagnetic radiation in space. Astronomical observations can be divided according to the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the measurements are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth (that is, its surface), while other observations are carried out only at high altitudes or in space (in spacecraft orbiting the Earth). Details of these study groups are provided below.

Optical astronomy

Historically, optical astronomy (also called visible light astronomy) is the oldest form of space exploration - astronomy. The optical images were first drawn by hand. During the late 19th century and much of the 20th century, research was based on images obtained using photographs taken with photographic equipment. Modern images are obtained using digital detectors, in particular charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors. Although visible light covers the range from approximately 4000 Ǻ to 7000 Ǻ (400-700 nanometers), the equipment used in this range can also be used to study the similar ultraviolet and infrared ranges.

Infrared astronomy

Infrared astronomy concerns the study, detection and analysis of infrared radiation in space. Although its wavelength is close to that of visible light, infrared radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, and the Earth's atmosphere has significant infrared radiation. Therefore, observatories for studying infrared radiation must be located in high and dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cool to emit visible light, such as planets and surrounding stellar disks. Infrared rays can pass through dust clouds that absorb visible light, allowing observations of young stars in molecular clouds and galactic nuclei. Some molecules emit powerful infrared radiation, and this can be used to study chemical processes in space (for example, detecting water in comets).

Ultraviolet astronomy

Ultraviolet astronomy is primarily used for detailed observation at ultraviolet wavelengths from approximately 100 to 3200 Ǻ (10 to 320 nanometers). Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so studies of this range are carried out from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is better suited for studying hot stars (UV stars), since most of the radiation occurs in this range. This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, so during measurements it is necessary to make allowances for the presence of the latter in the space environment.

Radio astronomy

Very Large Array of Radio Telescopes in Sirocco, New Mexico, USA

Radio astronomy is the study of radiation with wavelengths greater than one millimeter (approximately). Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations in that the radio waves being studied can be viewed as waves, rather than as individual photons. So, it is possible to measure both the amplitude and phase of a radio wave, which is not so easy to do on short wave bands.

Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects as thermal radiation, most radio emission observed from Earth is synchrotron radiation in origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field. In addition, some spectral lines are produced by interstellar gas, notably the 21 cm long neutral hydrogen spectral line.

A wide variety of cosmic objects are observed in the radio range, in particular supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars and active galactic nuclei.

X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X-ray range. Objects typically emit X-rays due to:

Because X-rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray observations are mainly carried out from orbital stations, rockets or spacecraft. Known X-ray sources in space include X-ray binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, galaxy clusters, and active galactic nuclei.

Gamma-ray astronomy

Astronomical gamma rays appear in studies of astronomical objects with short wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays can be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Telescope or specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes. These telescopes do not actually measure gamma rays directly, but record the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, due to various physical processes that occur with the charged particles that occur during absorption, such as the Compton effect or Cherenkov radiation.

Most gamma ray sources are actually gamma ray burst sources, which emit only gamma rays for a short period of time ranging from a few milliseconds to a thousand seconds before dissipating into space. Only 10% of gamma radiation sources are not transient sources. Stationary gamma-ray sources include pulsars, neutron stars, and black hole candidates in active galactic nuclei.

Astronomy of fields that are not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

Based on very large distances, not only electromagnetic radiation reaches the Earth, but also other types of elementary particles.

A new direction in the variety of astronomy methods could be gravitational wave astronomy, which seeks to use gravitational wave detectors to collect observational data about compact objects. Several observatories have already been built, such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO, but gravitational waves are very difficult to detect and remain elusive.

Planetary astronomy also uses direct study using spacecraft and Sample Return missions. These include flying missions using sensors; landers that can conduct experiments on the surface of objects, and also allow for remote sensing of materials or objects and missions to deliver samples to Earth for direct laboratory research.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics

One of the oldest subfields of astronomy, it deals with measuring the position of celestial objects. This branch of astronomy is called astrometry. Historically accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars plays an extremely important role in navigation. Careful measurements of the planets' positions have led to a deep understanding of gravitational disturbances, allowing them to be accurately determined in the past and predicted for the future. This branch is known as celestial mechanics. Now tracking near-Earth objects makes it possible to predict the approach to them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with the Earth.

Measuring the stellar parallaxes of nearby stars is fundamental to determining distances in deep space, which is used to measure the scale of the Universe. These measurements provided the basis for determining the properties of distant stars; properties can be compared with neighboring stars. Measurements of radial velocities and proper motions of celestial bodies make it possible to study the kinematics of these systems in our galaxy. Astrometric results can be used to measure the distribution of dark matter in a galaxy.

In the 1990s, astrometric methods for measuring stellar vibrations were used to detect large extrasolar planets (planets orbiting nearby stars).

Extra-atmospheric astronomy

Research using space technology occupies a special place among the methods of studying celestial bodies and the space environment. The beginning was made with the launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR in 1957. Spacecraft have made it possible to conduct research in all wavelength ranges of electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, modern astronomy is often called all-wave astronomy. Extra-atmospheric observations make it possible to receive radiation in space that is absorbed or greatly altered by the earth's atmosphere: radio emissions of certain wavelengths that do not reach the Earth, as well as corpuscular radiation from the Sun and other bodies. The study of these previously inaccessible types of radiation from stars and nebulae, the interplanetary and interstellar medium has greatly enriched our knowledge of the physical processes of the Universe. In particular, previously unknown sources of X-ray radiation were discovered - X-ray pulsars. A lot of information about the nature of bodies and their systems distant from us has also been obtained thanks to studies carried out using spectrographs installed on various spacecraft.

Theoretical astronomy

Main article: Theoretical astronomy

Theoretical astronomers use a wide range of tools that include analytical models (for example, polytropes predicting the approximate behavior of stars) and numerical simulation calculations. Each method has its own advantages. An analytical process model usually provides a better understanding of why something happens. Numerical models can indicate the presence of phenomena and effects that would likely not be visible otherwise.

Astronomy theorists strive to create theoretical models and explore the consequences of these simulations through research. This allows observers to look for data that may refute a model or helps in choosing between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists are also experimenting with creating or modifying the model to take account of new data. If there is a discrepancy, the general tendency is to try to make minimal changes to the model and adjust the result. In some cases, a large amount of conflicting data over time can lead to complete failure of the model.

Topics studied by theoretical astronomers: stellar dynamics and evolution of galaxies; large-scale structure of the Universe; the origin of cosmic rays, general relativity and physical cosmology, in particular stellar cosmology and astrophysics. Astrophysical relativities serve as a tool for assessing the properties of large-scale structures for which gravity plays a significant role in physical phenomena and as a basis for black hole research, astrophysics, and the study of gravitational waves. Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy are now included in Lambda-CDM models, the Big Bang, cosmic expansion, dark matter and fundamental theories of physics.

Amateur astronomy

Astronomy is one of the sciences in which amateur contributions can be significant. In general, all amateur astronomers observe various celestial objects and phenomena to a greater extent than scientists, although their technical resources are much less than those of state institutions; sometimes they build equipment for themselves (as was the case 2 centuries ago). Finally, most scientists came from this environment. The main objects of observation for amateur astronomers are the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers and various deep sky objects, namely star clusters, galaxies and nebulae. One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves photographic recording of areas of the night sky. Many amateurs would like to specialize in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.

Amateur astronomers continue to contribute to astronomy. Indeed, it is one of the few disciplines where amateur contributions can be significant. Quite often they carry out point measurements, which are used to clarify the orbits of small planets; in part, they also detect comets, and carry out regular observations of variable stars. And advances in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive progress in the field of astrophotography.

Codes in knowledge classification systems

State rubricator of scientific and technical information (GRNTI) (as of 2001): 41 ASTRONOMY

Notes

, With. 5
Marochnik L.S. Physics of Space. - 1986.
Electromagnetic Spectrum. NASA. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved September 8, 2006.
Moore, P. Philip's Atlas of the Universe. - Great Britain: George Philis Limited, 1997. - ISBN 0-540-07465-9
Staff. Why infrared astronomy is a hot topic, ESA(11 September 2003). Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
Infrared Spectroscopy – An Overview, NASA/IPAC. Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
Allen's Astrophysical Quantities / Cox, A. N.. - New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000. - P. 124. - ISBN 0-387-98746-0
Penston, Margaret J. The electromagnetic spectrum. Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (14 August 2002). Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved August 17, 2006.
Gaisser Thomas K. Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics. - Cambridge University Press, 1990. - P. 1–2. - ISBN 0-521-33931-6
Tammann, G. A.; Thielemann, F. K.; Trautmann, D. Opening new windows in observing the Universe. Europhysics News (2003). Archived from the original on September 6, 2012. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
Calvert, James B. Celestial Mechanics. University of Denver (March 28, 2003). Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved August 21, 2006.
Hall of Precision Astrometry. University of Virginia Department of Astronomy. Archived from the original on August 26, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
Wolszczan, A.; Frail, D. A. (1992). "A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257+12." Nature 355 (6356): 145–147. DOI:10.1038/355145a0. Bibcode: 1992Natur.355..145W.
Roth, H. (1932). "A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability". Physical Review 39 (3): 525–529. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.39.525. Bibcode: 1932PhRv...39..525R.
Eddington A.S. Internal Constitution of the Stars. - Cambridge University Press, 1926. - ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3
Mims III, Forrest M. (1999). "Amateur Science-Strong Tradition, Bright Future." Science 284 (5411): 55–56. DOI:10.1126/science.284.5411.55. Bibcode: 1999Sci...284...55M. “Astronomy has traditionally been among the most fertile fields for serious amateurs [...]”
The American Meteor Society. Archived from the original on August 22, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
Lodriguss, Jerry Catching the Light: Astrophotography. Archived from the original on September 1, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
Ghigo, F. Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves. National Radio Astronomy Observatory (7 February 2006). Archived from the original on August 31, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
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American Association of Variable Star Observers. AAVSO. Archived from the original on February 2, 2010. Retrieved February 3, 2010.

Literature

Kononovich E. V., Moroz V. I. General course of Astronomy / Ed. Ivanova V.V.. - 2nd ed. - M.: Editorial URSS, 2004. - 544 p. - (Classical university textbook). - ISBN 5-354-00866-2 (Retrieved October 31, 2012)
Stephen Maran. Astronomy for dummies = Astronomy For Dummies. - M.: “Dialectics”, 2006. - P. 256. -

Lesson #1.

Topic: “What astronomy studies”

Lesson objectives:

Personal: discuss human needs for knowledge, as the most significant insatiable need, understanding the differences between mythological and scientific consciousness.

Metasubject: formulate the concept of “subject of astronomy”; prove the independence and significance of astronomy as a science.

Subject: explain the reasons for the emergence and development of astronomy, give examples confirming these reasons; illustrate with examples the practical orientation of astronomy; reproduce information on the history of the development of astronomy, its connection with other sciences.

Main material:

Astronomy as a science.

The history of the formation of astronomy in connection with practical needs.

Interrelation and mutual influence of astronomy and other sciences.

New material

What does astronomy study?

People have long tried to unravel the mystery of the world around them, to determine their place in the Universe, which ancient Greek philosophers called the Cosmos. So a person closely watched the rising and setting of the Sun, the order of the changing phases of the Moon - after all, his life and work activity depended on this. The man was interested in the daily cycle of the stars, but was frightened by unpredictable phenomena - the eclipse of the Moon and the Sun, the appearance of bright comets. People tried to understand the pattern of celestial phenomena and comprehend their place in the boundless world.

Astronomy (derived from the Greek wordsastron – star,nomos - law) -a science that studies the structure, movement, origin and development of celestial bodies, their systems and the entire Universe as a whole.

Astronomy as a science is an important type of human activity, providing a system of knowledge about the patterns in the development of nature.

Purpose of astronomy – study the origin, structure and evolution of the Universe.

Importanttasks of astronomy are:

Explaining and predicting astronomical phenomena (for example, solar and lunar eclipses, the appearance of periodic comets, the passage of asteroids, large meteoroids or comets near the Earth).

Study of physical processes occurring in the interior of planets, on the surface and in their atmospheres to better understand the structure and evolution of our planet.

Study of the movement of celestial bodies makes it possible to clarify the question of the stability of the solar system and the likelihood of a collision of the Earth with asteroids and comets.

Discovery of new objects of the Solar system and study of their movement .

Studying the processes occurring on the Sun and predicting their further development (since the existence of all life on Earth depends on it).

Studying the evolution of other stars and comparing them with the Sun (this helps to understand the stages of development of our star).

So, astronomy studies the structure and evolution of the Universe.

The Universe is the largest region of space, including all celestial bodies and their systems available for study.

The emergence of astronomy

Astronomy arose in ancient times. It is known that even primitive people observed the starry sky and then painted what they saw on the walls of caves. As human society developed with the advent of agriculture, the need arose to count time and create a calendar. The observed patterns in the movement of celestial bodies and changes in the appearance of the Moon allowed ancient man to find and determine units of time (day, month, year) and calculate the onset of certain seasons of the year in order to carry out sowing work and harvest on time.

Since ancient times, observing the starry sky has shaped man himself as a thinking being. So in Ancient Egypt, by the appearance of the star Sirius in the pre-dawn sky, priests predicted periods of spring floods of the Nile, which determined the timing of agricultural work. In Arabia, where due to the heat of the day many works were transferred to the night, observation of the phases of the Moon played a significant role. In countries where navigation was developed, especially before the invention of the compass, special attention was paid to methods of orientation by the stars.

In the earliest written documents (3rd – 2nd millennium BC) of the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylon, China, India and America, there are traces of astronomical activity. In various places on Earth, our ancestors left structures made of stone blocks and processed pillars, oriented in astronomically significant directions. These directions coincide, for example, with the points of sunrise on the days of the equinoxes and solstices. Similar stone solar-lunar markers were found in southern England (Stonehenge), in Russia in the southern Urals (Arkaim) and on the shore of Lake Yanovo near the city of Polotsk. The age of such ancient observatories is about 5–6 thousand years.

The meaning and connection of astronomy with other sciences

In the course of human observations of the surrounding world and the Universe, the acquisition and generalization of acquired knowledge, astronomy was more or less associated with various sciences, for example:

With mathematics (using approximate calculation techniques, replacing trigonometric functions of angles with the values of the angles themselves, expressed in radian measure);

With physics (movement in gravitational and magnetic fields, description of states of matter; radiation processes; induction currents in plasma forming space objects);

With chemistry (the discovery of new chemical elements in the atmosphere of stars, the development of spectral methods; the chemical properties of the gases that make up celestial bodies);

With biology (hypotheses of the origin of life, adaptability and evolution of living organisms; pollution of the surrounding cosmic space by matter and radiation);

With geography (the nature of clouds on Earth and other planets; tides in the ocean, atmosphere and solid crust of the Earth; evaporation of water from the surface of the oceans under the influence of solar radiation; uneven heating by the Sun of various parts of the earth's surface, creating the circulation of atmospheric flows);

With literature (ancient myths and legends as literary works, in which, for example, the patron muse of the science of astronomy, Urania, is glorified; science fiction literature).

Sections of astronomy

Such close interaction with the listed sciences allowed the rapid development of astronomy as a science. Today, astronomy includes a number of sections that are closely related to each other. They differ from each other in the subject of research, methods and means of cognition.

The correct, scientific idea of the Earth as a celestial body appeared in Ancient Greece. Alexandrian astronomer Eratosthenes in 240 BC very accurately determined the size of the globe from observations of the Sun. Developing trade and navigation required the development of orientation methods, determining the geographical position of the observer, and accurate measurements based on astronomical observations. I started solving these problemspractical astronomy .

Since ancient times, people believed that the Earth was a stationary object around which the Sun and planets revolved. The founder of such a world system isgeocentric system of the world - is Ptolemy. In 1530, Nicolaus Copernicus revolutionized the idea of the structure of the Universe. According to his theory, the Earth, like all planets, revolves around the Sun. The Copernican world system came to be calledheliocentric . Such a “device” of the solar system was not accepted by society for a long time. But the Italian astronomer, physicist, mechanic Galileo Galilei, using observations through a simple telescope, discovered changes in the phases of Venus, which indicates the rotation of the planet around the Sun. After lengthy calculations, Johannes Kepler managed to find the laws of planetary motion, which played a significant role in the development of ideas about the structure of the solar system. The branch of astronomy that studies the movement of celestial bodies is calledcelestial mechanics. Celestial mechanics made it possible to explain and pre-calculate with very high accuracy almost all movements observed both in the Solar System and in the Galaxy.

More and more advanced telescopes were used in astronomical observations, with the help of which new discoveries were made, not only related to the bodies of the solar system, but also to the world of distant stars. In 1655, Huygens examined the rings of Saturn and discovered its moon Titan. In 1761, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov discovered the atmosphere of Venus and conducted a study of comets. Taking the Earth as a standard, scientists compared it with other planets and satellites. This is how it was borncomparative planetology.

Huge and ever-increasing opportunities for studying the physical nature and chemical composition of stars were provided by the discovery of spectral analysis, which inXIXcentury becomes the main method in studying the physical nature of celestial bodies. The branch of astronomy that studies physical phenomena and chemical processes occurring in celestial bodies, their systems and in outer space is calledastrophysics .

The further development of astronomy is associated with the improvement of observational techniques. Great progress has been made in the creation of new types of radiation detectors. Photomultiplier tubes, electron-optical converters, and methods of electronic photography and television have increased the accuracy and sensitivity of photometric observations and further expanded the spectral range of recorded radiation. The world of distant galaxies located at a distance of billions of light years has become accessible to observation. New areas of astronomy have emerged:stellar astronomy, cosmology and cosmogony.

The time of birth of stellar astronomy is considered to be 1837-1839, when the first results in determining distances to stars were obtained independently of each other in Russia, Germany and England.Stellar astronomy studies the patterns in the spatial distribution and movement of stars in our star system - the Galaxy, studies the properties and distribution of other star systems.

Cosmology - a branch of astronomy that studies the origin, structure and evolution of the Universe as a whole. The conclusions of cosmology are based on the laws of physics and data from observational astronomy, as well as on the entire system of knowledge of a certain era. This section of astronomy began to develop intensively in the first half of the twentieth century, after the development of the general theory of relativity by Albert Einstein.

Cosmogony – a branch of astronomy that studies the origin and development of celestial bodies and systems. Since all celestial bodies arise and develop, ideas about their evolution are closely related to ideas about the nature of these bodies in general. The study of stars and galaxies uses the results of observations of many similar objects that arise at different times and are at different stages of development. In modern cosmogony, the laws of physics and chemistry are widely used.

Structure and scale of the Universe

Watching the video “Planets”

The video is launched by clicking on the illustration

The meaning of astronomy

Astronomy and its methods are of great importance in the life of modern society. Issues related to measuring time and providing humanity with knowledge of exact time are now being resolved by special laboratories - time services, organized, as a rule, at astronomical institutions.

Astronomical orientation methods, along with others, are still widely used in navigation and aviation, and in recent years - in astronautics. The calculation and compilation of the calendar, which is widely used in the national economy, is also based on astronomical knowledge.

Drawing up geographical and topographic maps, calculating the onset of sea tides, determining the force of gravity at various points on the earth's surface in order to detect mineral deposits - all this is based on astronomical methods.

Consolidating new material

Answer the questions:

What does astronomy study?

What problems does astronomy solve?

How did the science of astronomy arise? Describe the main periods of its development.

What branches does astronomy consist of? Briefly describe each of them.

What is the significance of astronomy for the practical activities of mankind?

Homework

Project “Astronomy Development Tree”

I've always been interested in stars. I even do not know why. Since childhood I have loved looking at the night sky. We lived on the outskirts of the city, we had almost no lights and the stars were clearly visible. I even took an astronomy textbook from my older neighbor, began reading it and looking for constellations in the sky. I can still see some of them in the night sky.

What kind of science is astronomy?

Astronomy is just that, a science. studying the universe and her celestial bodies and objects. And these include:

stars;
planets;
asteroids;
satellites;
nebulae;
and even galaxies.

This same astronomy studies not only what these bodies are made of, but also their origin, development and movement.

This science is one of the most the most ancient. What’s so difficult about it: lift your head into the sky and watch. This is how they did it in ancient times, until they began to invent different sky observation devices.

Since time immemorial, the study of the sky has helped people in practice. The location and movement of celestial bodies made it possible to determine the onset of seasons, draw up calendars, predict the weather, navigate sea navigation, and much more.

How did this science develop?

Astronomy was especially developed ancient Greeks(they were then ahead of the rest). More Pythagoras suggested that the Earth is round. And his other compatriot - Aristarch Generally stated that the Earth rotates around the sun(and previously they thought it was the other way around). And they didn’t have anything for it. But the poor Italian Giordano Bruno for the assumption about infinity of the universe They burned him at the stake, and before that they kept him in prison for 7 years, forcing him to renounce his speculations. The Catholic Church tried. This was not how she imagined the Universe.

What kind of astronomy is there?

Conventionally, in the last century, astronomy was divided into observational and theoretical. Theoretical - this is when computer, mathematical or analytical models for studying astronomy.

But observational is more exciting. Just looking at the stars is interesting, let alone studying the sky in telescope, I think, even more interesting. Therefore, there are many people in the world who like to look at the night sky. And even they have benefits! And although amateurs have fewer technical capabilities (no one can buy a huge telescope for themselves, they simply don’t sell them), the volume of their observations is much greater. Some scientists in this science came out of amateurs.

In Soviet times and a little later, astronomy was taught in high school as a separate item. But for almost 15 years such an item has not existed. It's a pity. Since according to statistics, 30% of Russians again think that this The sun revolves around the earth, and not vice versa.

Encyclopedic YouTube

1 / 5

✪ What is astronomy. Astronomy lesson at school.

✪ Surdin Vladimir - Lecture "Astronomy and other sciences: The Universe as a large laboratory. Part 1"

✪ Astronomy 1. What astronomy studies. Why do stars twinkle - Academy of Entertaining Sciences

✪ Surdin Vladimir - Lecture "Astronomy and other sciences: The Universe as a large laboratory. Part 2"

Subtitles

Story

Astronomy is one of the most ancient and oldest sciences. It arose from the practical needs of mankind.

Since people have existed on Earth, they have always been interested in what they saw in the sky. Even in ancient times, they noticed the relationship between the movement of celestial bodies across the sky and periodic weather changes. Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology.

By the location of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the onset of the seasons. Nomadic tribes were guided by the Sun and stars. The need for chronology led to the creation of a calendar. Even prehistoric people knew about the basic phenomena associated with the rising and setting of the Sun, Moon and some stars. The periodic recurrence of eclipses of the Sun and Moon has been known for a very long time. Among the oldest written sources there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive calculation schemes for predicting the time of sunrise and sunset of bright celestial bodies, methods of counting time and maintaining a calendar.

Astronomy developed successfully in Ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India. The Chinese chronicle describes an eclipse of the Sun that took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Theories that, on the basis of advanced arithmetic and geometry, explained and predicted the movements of the Sun, Moon and bright planets, were created in the Mediterranean countries in the last centuries of the pre-Christian era. Together with simple but effective devices, they served practical purposes until the Renaissance.

Astronomy reached especially great development in Ancient Greece. Pythagoras first came to the conclusion that the Earth is spherical, and Aristarchus of Samos suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hipparchus in the 2nd century. BC e. compiled one of the first star catalogs. In Ptolemy’s work “Almagest”, written in the 2nd century. n. e., a geocentric system of the world is outlined, which has been generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years. In the Middle Ages, astronomy achieved significant development in the countries of the East. In the 15th century Ulugbek built an observatory near Samarkand with instruments that were accurate at that time. The first catalog of stars after Hipparchus was compiled here.

From the 16th century The development of astronomy in Europe begins. New demands were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the emergence of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.

The final identification of scientific astronomy occurred during the Renaissance and took a long time. But only the invention of the telescope allowed astronomy to develop into a modern independent science.

Historically, astronomy included astrometry, star navigation, observational astronomy, calendar making, and even astrology. These days, professional astronomy is often considered synonymous with astrophysics.

The scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century had an extremely great influence on the development of astronomy and especially astrophysics.

The advent of large optical telescopes, the creation of high-resolution radio telescopes and systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billions of stars - a galaxy. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers discovered that this system was one of millions of similar galaxies.

The discovery of other galaxies became the impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy. The study of the spectra of galaxies allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to identify the phenomenon of “scattering galaxies,” which was subsequently explained on the basis of the general expansion of the Universe.

The use of rockets and artificial Earth satellites for extra-atmospheric astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of cosmic bodies: radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, X-ray sources, etc. The foundations of the theory of the evolution of stars and the cosmogony of the Solar System were developed. The achievement of astrophysics of the 20th century was relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the Universe.