What is a biographical portrait. What is a portrait

Answer left Guest

1) Conservatives
The social basis of the direction of the conservatives was the reactionary nobles, clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants and a significant part of the peasants. Conservatism in the second half of the nineteenth century. remained true to the theory of "official nationality".
Autocracy was declared the foundation of the state, and Orthodoxy - the basis of the spiritual life of the people. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people. In this, the conservatives saw the originality of the historical path of Russia.
In the domestic political field, conservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s. In the economic sphere, they advocated the inviolability of private property, landownership and the community.
In the social field, they called for the unity of the Slavic peoples around Russia.
The ideologists of the conservatives were K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Tolstoy, M. N. Katkov.
2) Liberals
The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landowners, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.
They defended the idea of ​​a common path of historical development of Russia with Western Europe.
In the domestic political field, the liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles and the continuation of reforms.
Their political ideal was a constitutional monarchy.
In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise. They demanded the abolition of class privileges.
The liberals stood for the evolutionary path of development, considering reforms to be the main method of modernizing Russia.
They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activity mainly consisted in submitting "addresses" to the name of the tsar - petitions with a proposal for a program of transformations.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists: K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev and others.
3) Radicals
Representatives of the radical direction strove for violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (revolutionary path).
The radical movement was attended by people from different walks of life (raznochintsy), who devoted themselves to serving the people.
In the history of the movement of radicals of the second half of the XIX century. three stages are distinguished: 60s. - folding revolutionary-democratic ideology and the creation of secret raznochinsk circles; 70s - the formation of populism, the special scope of the agitational and terrorist activities of the revolutionary populists; 80s - 90s - the weakening of the popularity of populism and the beginning of the spread of Marxism.
In the 60s. there were two centers of radical direction. One is around the editorial office of The Bell, published by A. I. Herzen in London. He promoted the theory of "communal socialism" and sharply criticized the conditions for the emancipation of the peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N. G. Chernyshevsky, who was arrested and exiled to Siberia in 1862.

Portrait Portrait

(French portrait, from obsolete portraire - to depict), an image (image) of a person or group of people that exists or existed in reality. Portrait - one of the main genres of painting, sculpture, graphics. The most important criterion for portraiture is the similarity of the image with the model (original). It is achieved not only by the faithful transmission of the external appearance of the person portrayed, but also by the disclosure of his spiritual essence, the dialectical unity of individual and typical features that reflect a certain era, social environment, and nationality. At the same time, the attitude of the artist to the model, his own worldview, aesthetic credo, which are embodied in his creative manner, the way of interpreting the portrait, give the portrait image a subjective-authorial coloring. Historically, a wide and multifaceted typology of the portrait has developed: depending on the technique of execution, purpose, and features of the image of the characters, easel portraits (paintings, busts, graphic sheets) and monumental (frescoes, mosaics, statues), front and intimate, bust, full-length, full face, profile, etc. There are portraits on medals ( cm. medal art), gemmah ( cm. Glyptic), portrait miniature. According to the number of characters, the portrait is divided into individual, double, group. A specific genre of portraiture is self-portrait. The mobility of the genre boundaries of the portrait makes it possible to combine it with elements of other genres in one work. Such are the portrait-picture, where the person being portrayed is presented in connection with the world of things around him, with nature, architecture, other people, and the portrait-type is a collective image, a structurally close portrait. The possibility of identifying in the portrait not only the high spiritual and moral qualities of a person, but also the negative properties of the model led to the appearance of a portrait caricature, a cartoon, a satirical portrait. In general, the art of portraiture is able to deeply reflect the most important social phenomena in the complex interweaving of their contradictions.

Having originated in ancient times, the portrait reached a high level of development in ancient Eastern, especially in ancient Egyptian sculpture, where it mainly served as a "double" of the person being portrayed in the afterlife. Such a religious and magical purpose of the ancient Egyptian portrait led to the projection onto the canonical type of image of the individual features of a certain person. In ancient Greece, during the classical period, idealized sculptural portraits of poets, philosophers, and public figures were created. From the end of the 5th century BC e. The ancient Greek portrait is more and more individualized (the work of Demetrius from Alopeka, Lysippus), and in Hellenistic art it tends to dramatize the image. The ancient Roman portrait is marked by a clear transmission of the individual features of the model, the psychological reliability of the characteristics. In Hellenistic art and in ancient Rome, along with portrait, sometimes mythologized busts and statues, portraits on coins and gems were widespread. The picturesque Faiyum portraits (Egypt, 1st-4th centuries), largely associated with the ancient Eastern magical tradition of the "double portrait", were created under the influence of ancient art, bore a pronounced resemblance to the model, and in later samples - a specific spiritual expressiveness.

The era of the Middle Ages, when the personal principle was dissolved in impersonal corporatism, religious catholicity, left a special imprint on the evolution of the European portrait. Often it is an integral part of the church art ensemble (images of rulers, their entourage, donors). For all that, some sculptures of the Gothic era, Byzantine and ancient Russian mosaics and frescoes are characterized by a clear physiognomic certainty, the beginnings of a spiritual individuality. In China, despite being subject to a strict typological canon, medieval masters (especially of the Song period, the 10th-13th centuries) created many brightly individualized portraits, often emphasizing features of intellectualism in models. The portrait images of medieval Japanese painters and sculptors are expressive, the masters of portrait miniatures of Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan (Kemaleddin Behzad), Iran (Reza Abbasi), India came from living observations.

Outstanding achievements in the art of portraiture are associated with the Renaissance, which affirmed the ideals of a heroic, active and effective personality. The sense of wholeness and harmony of the universe, characteristic of Renaissance artists, the recognition of man as the highest principle and center of earthly existence determined the new structure of the portrait, in which the model often appeared not against a conditional, unreal background, but in a real spatial environment, sometimes in direct communication with fictional (mythological) and gospel characters. The principles of the Renaissance portrait, outlined in the Italian art of the trecento, were firmly established in the 15th century. (painting by Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, Domenico Veneziano, D. Ghirlandaio, S. Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, Antonello da Messina, Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, statues by Donatello and A. Verrocchio, easel sculpture by Desiderio da Settignano, medals Pisanello). Masters of the High Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto deepen the content of portrait images, endow them with the power of intellect, consciousness of personal freedom, spiritual harmony, and sometimes inner drama. Greater in comparison with the Italian portrait of spiritual sharpness, object accuracy of the image was distinguished by the portrait work of the Dutch (J. van Eyck, Robert Campen, Rogier van der Weyden, Luke of Leiden) and German (A. Dürer, L. Cranach the Elder, H. Holbein the Younger) masters. The hero of their portraits often appears as an inseparable particle of the universe, organically included in its infinitely complex system. Renaissance humanism permeated the pictorial, graphic and sculptural portraits of French artists of this era (J. Fouquet, J. and F. Clouet, Corneille de Lyon, J. Pilon). In the art of the Late Renaissance and Mannerism, the portrait loses the harmonious clarity of Renaissance images: it is replaced by the intensity of the figurative structure and the emphasized dramatic spiritual expression (works by J. Pontormo, A. Bronzino in Italy, El Greco in Spain).

The Crisis of Renaissance Anthropocentrism in the Conditions of Socio-Political Shifts at the Turn of the 16th and 17th Centuries. determined the new character of the Western European portrait. Its deep democratization, the desire for a multilateral knowledge of the human personality in the 17th century. received the most complete embodiment in the art of Holland. Emotional saturation, love for a person, comprehension of the innermost depths of his soul, the subtlest shades of thought and feeling marked the portraits of Rembrandt's work. Full of life and movement, portraits by F. Hals reveal the multidimensionality and variability of the mental states of the model. The complexity and inconsistency of reality are reflected in the work of the Spaniard D. Velazquez, who created a gallery full of dignity, spiritual wealth of images of people from the people and a series of mercilessly truthful portraits of the court nobility. Bright, full-blooded natures attracted the Flemish painter P. P. Rubens, the subtle expressiveness of the characteristics marked the virtuoso portraits of his compatriot A. van Dyck. Realistic trends in art of the 17th century. also appeared in the portrait work of S. Cooper and J. Reil in England, F. De Champaigne, the Le Nain brothers in France, and V. Gislandi in Italy. A significant ideological and substantive renewal of the portrait, expressed, in particular, in expanding its genre boundaries (development of a group portrait and its development into a group portrait-painting, especially in the works of Rembrandt, Hals, Velazquez; wide and diverse development of easel forms of self-portrait by Rembrandt, van Dyck, the French artist N. Poussin, and others), was accompanied by the evolution of his expressive means, which gave the image greater vitality. At the same time, many portraits of the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries. did not go beyond the boundaries of purely external impressiveness, demonstrated a falsely idealized, often "mythologized" image of the customer (works by the French painters P. Mignard and I. Rigaud, the Englishman P. Lely).

Fresh realistic tendencies appeared in the portrait of the 18th century, associated with the humanistic ideals of the Enlightenment. Truthfulness of life, accuracy of social characteristics, sharp analyticity are characteristic of the works of French portrait painters (painting and easel graphics by M. K. de Latour and J. O. Fragonard, plastic art by J. A. Houdon and J. B. Pigalle, "genre" portraits of J. B. S. Chardin, pastels J. B. Perronneau) and British painters (W. Hogarth, J. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough).

In the conditions of economic and cultural growth of Russia in the XVII century. Here, portraits-parsunas, which were still conditionally icon-painting in nature, became widespread. Intensive development of secular easel portrait in the XVIII century. (paintings by I. N. Nikitin, A. M. Matveev, A. P. Antropov, I. P. Argunov) by the end of the century raised it to the level of the highest achievements of the modern world portrait (painting by F. S. Rokotov, D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, plastic art by F. I. Shubin, engravings by E. P. Chemesov).

The Great French Revolution of 1789-94, the national liberation movements of the first half of the 19th century. contributed to the formulation and solution of new tasks in the portrait genre. The essential aspects of the era are vividly and truthfully reflected in a whole gallery of portraits marked with features of classicism by the French artist J. L. David. Elevated romantic, passionately emotional, and sometimes grotesque satirical images were created in his portraits by the Spanish painter F. Goya. In the first half of the XIX century. along with the development of romanticism tendencies (painting portraits by T. Gericault and E. Delacroix in France, O. A. Kiprensky, K. P. Bryullov, partly V. A. Tropinin in Russia, F. O. Runge in Germany) a new vital The traditions of the portrait art of classicism were also filled with content (in the work of the French artist J. O. D. Ingres), significant examples of the satirical portrait appeared (graphics and sculpture by O. Daumier in France).

In the middle and in the second half of the XIX century. the geography of national schools of portraiture is expanding, many stylistic trends are emerging, whose representatives solved the problems of socio-psychological characteristics, displaying the ethical merits of a contemporary (A. Menzel and W. Leibl in Germany, J. Matejko in Poland, D. Sargent, J. Whistler, T Aikins in the USA, etc.). In the psychological, often socially typified portraits of the Wanderers V. G. Perov, N. N. Ge, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin, their interest in the representatives of the people, in the Raznochinsk intelligentsia as socially significant, full of spiritual nobility, was embodied .

The achievements of the French masters of impressionism and artists close to them (E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, sculptor O. Rodin) led in the last third of the 19th century. to the renewal of the ideological and artistic concepts of the portrait, which now conveys the variability of the appearance and behavior of the model in an equally changeable environment. Opposite tendencies found expression in the work of P. Cezanne, who sought to express the stable properties of the model in a monumental and artistic image, and in dramatic, nervously tense portraits and self-portraits of the Dutchman W. van Gogh, which deeply reflected the burning problems of the moral and spiritual life of modern man.

In the pre-revolutionary era, the Russian realistic portrait received a new quality in the acutely psychological works of V. A. Serov, in the spiritually significant portraits of M. A. Vrubel filled with deep philosophical meaning, in the life-filled portraits-types and portraits-paintings of N. A. Kasatkin, A. E. Arkhipova, B. M. Kustodiev, F. A. Malyavin, in the hidden drama of the pictorial and graphic portraits of K. A. Somov, in the sculptural works of Konenkov S. T., P. P. Trubetskoy and others.

In the XX century. in the portrait genre, complex and contradictory trends in modern art appeared. On the basis of modernism, works arise that are devoid of the very specifics of a portrait, deliberately deforming or completely abolishing the image of a person. In contrast to them, there are intensive, sometimes contradictory searches for new means of expressing the complex spiritual essence of modern man, reflected in the graphics of K. Kollwitz (Germany), in the plastic arts of Ch. Despio (France), E. Barlach (Germany), in the painting of P. Picasso, A. Matisse (France), A. Modigliani (Italy). The painters R. Guttuso in Italy, D. Rivera and D. Siqueiros in Mexico, E. Wyeth in the USA, the sculptors V. Aaltonen in Finland, J. Manzu in Italy, and others have creatively developed and are developing the traditions of realistic portraiture. portrait painters of the socialist countries: J. Kisfaludi-Strobl in Hungary, F. Kremer in the GDR, K. Dunikovsky in Poland, K. Baba in Romania, and others.

The Soviet multinational art of portraiture is a qualitatively new stage in the development of world portraiture. Its main content is the image of the builder of communism, marked by such social and spiritual qualities as collectivism, revolutionary purposefulness, and socialist humanism. Soviet portraits-types and portraits-paintings reflected hitherto unseen phenomena in the working and social life of the country (works by I. D. Shadr, G. G. Rizhsky, A. N. Samokhvalov, S. V. Gerasimov). Based on the classical traditions of Western European and Russian realistic portraiture, creatively mastering the best achievements of portrait art of the 19th-20th centuries, Soviet masters created life-like portrait images of workers, collective farmers, soldiers of the Soviet Army (plastic art by E. V. Vuchetich, N. V. Tomsky, painting by A. A. Plastov, I. N. Klychev and others), representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia (painters K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, M. V. Nesterov, P. D. Korin, M. S. Saryan, K. K. Magalashvili, T. T. Salakhov, L. A. Muuga, sculptors Konenkov, S. D. Lebedeva, V. I. Mukhina, T. E. Zalkaln, graphic artists V. A. Favorsky, G. S. Vereisky) . Soviet group works (works by A. M. Gerasimov, V. P. Efanov, I. A. Serebryany, D. D. Zhilinsky, S. M. Veyverite) and historical-revolutionary works ("Leniniana" by N. A. Andreev) are marked by innovative features. , works by I. I. Brodsky, V. I. Kasiyan, Ya. I. Nikoladze and others) portraits. Developing in line with the unified ideological and artistic method of socialist realism, Soviet portrait art is distinguished by the richness and diversity of individual creative solutions, and by the bold search for new means of expression.

F. Hals. "The Banquet of the Officers of the Rifle Company of St. George". 1616. F. Hals Museum. Harlem.

"I. E. Repin. "Portrait of L. N. Tolstoy. 1887. Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

D. D. Zhilinsky. "Gymnasts of the USSR". Tempera. 1964. Art Fund of the USSR. Moscow.
Literature: The art of the portrait. Sat. Art., M., 1928; M. V. Alpatov, Essays on the history of the portrait, (M.-L.), 1937; V. N. Lazarev, Portrait in European art of the 17th century, M.-L., 1937; Essays on the history of Russian portraiture in the second half of the 19th century, ed. Edited by N. G. Mashkovtseva. Moscow, 1963. Essays on the history of Russian portraiture in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, ed. Edited by N. G. Mashkovtsev and N. I. Sokolova. Moscow, 1964. Essays on the history of the Russian portrait of the first half of the 19th century, (under the editorship of I. M. Schmidt), M., 1966; L. S. Singer, On the portrait. Problems of realism in the art of portraiture, (M., 1969); his, Soviet portrait painting 1917 - early 1930s, M., 1978; V. N. Stasevich, Art of a portrait, M., 1972; Problems of a portrait, M., 1973; M. I. Andronikova, On the art of the portrait, M., 1975; Portrait in European painting of the 15th - early 20th centuries. (Catalog), M., 1975; Waetzoldt W., Die Kunst des Portrdts, Lpz., 1908; Zeit und Bildnis, Bd 1-6, W., 1957.

Source: Popular Art Encyclopedia. Ed. Field V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)

portrait

(French portrait, from the obsolete portraire - to depict), one of the main genres of fine art. Depending on the technique of execution, easel portraits are distinguished ( paintings, busts) and monumental ( statues, frescoes, mosaics). In accordance with the attitude of the artist to the person being portrayed, portraits are ceremonial and intimate. According to the number of characters, portraits are divided into individual, double, group.

One of the most important qualities of a portrait is the similarity of the image with the model. However, the artist conveys not only the appearance of the person being portrayed, but also his individuality, as well as typical features that reflect a certain social environment and era. The portrait painter creates not just a mechanical cast of a person's facial features, but penetrates into his soul, reveals his character, feelings and views on the world. Creating a portrait is always a very complex creative act, which is influenced by many factors. These are the relationship between the artist and the model, and the peculiarities of the worldview of the era, which has its own ideals and ideas about what is due in a person, and much more.

Born in ancient times, the portrait first flourished in ancient Egyptian art, where sculptural busts and statues served as a “double” of a person in his afterlife. In ancient Greece, during the classical period, idealized sculptural portraits of public figures, philosophers, and poets (a bust of Pericles by Kresilaus, 5th century BC) became widespread. In ancient Greece, the right to be imprinted in a statue was obtained primarily by athletes who won the Olympic and other pan-Greek games. From con. 5th c. BC e. the ancient Greek portrait becomes more individualized (the work of Demetrius from Alopeka, Lysippus). The ancient Roman portrait is distinguished by unvarnished truthfulness in the transfer of individual traits and psychological authenticity. The faces of men and women captured in different periods of the history of the Roman state convey their inner world, the feelings and experiences of people who felt themselves the rulers of life at the dawn of the Roman era and fell into spiritual despair at the time of its decline. In Hellenistic art, along with busts and statues, profile portraits, minted on coins and gemmah.

The first pictorial portraits were created in Egypt in the 1st-4th centuries. n. e. They were tomb images made in the technique encaustics(see art. Fayum portrait). In the Middle Ages, when the personal principle was dissolved in a religious impulse, portrait images of rulers, their entourage, donors were part of the monumental and decorative ensemble of the temple.

A new page in the history of the portrait was opened by an Italian artist Giotto di Bondone. According to J. Vasari, "he introduced the custom of drawing living people from life, which has not been done for more than two hundred years." Having acquired the right to exist in religious compositions, the portrait gradually stands out as an independent image on the board, and later on canvas. In the era Renaissance the portrait declared itself as one of the main genres, glorifying man as the “crown of the universe”, glorifying his beauty, courage and limitless possibilities. In the era of the Early Renaissance, the masters faced the task of accurately reproducing the facial features and appearance of the model, the artists did not hide the flaws in appearance (D. Ghirlandaio). At the same time, the tradition of the profile portrait was taking shape ( Piero della Francesca, Pisanello, etc.).

16th century was marked by the flourishing of portraiture in Italy. Masters of the High Renaissance ( Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto) endow the heroes of their paintings not only with the power of intellect and the consciousness of personal freedom, but also with inner drama. Balanced and calm images alternate in the work of Raphael and Titian with dramatic psychological portraits. Symbolic (based on the plot of literary works) and allegorical portraits are gaining popularity.

In the art of the late Renaissance and mannerism the portrait loses harmony, it is replaced by emphasized drama and tension of the figurative structure (J. Pontormo, El Greco).

All R. 15th c. the rapid development of the portrait takes place in the northern countries. Renaissance humanism is imbued with the works of the Dutch (J. van Eik, R. van der Weiden, P. Christus, H. Memling), French (J. Fouquet, F. Clouet, Corneille de Lyon) and German (L. Cranach, A. Durer) artists of this time. In England, portraiture is represented by the work of foreign masters - H. Holbein Junior and the Dutch.
The desire for the most complete and multifaceted knowledge of human nature in all its complexity is characteristic of the art of Holland in the 17th century. Emotional tension, penetration into the innermost depths of the human soul amaze portrait images Rembrandt. Life-affirming power is full of group portraits of F. Khalsa. The inconsistency and complexity of reality was reflected in the portrait work of the Spaniard D. Velasquez, who created a gallery full of dignity images of people from the people and a series of ruthlessly truthful portraits of the court nobility. Full-blooded and bright natures attracted P.P. Rubens. The virtuosity of technique and subtle expressiveness are distinguished by the brush of his compatriot A. Van Dyck.
Realistic tendencies associated with the ideals of the era Enlightenment, characteristic of many portraits of the 18th century. The accuracy of social characteristics and acute truthfulness characterize the art of French artists (J. O. Fragonard, M. C. de Latour, J. B. S. Chardin). The heroic spirit of the era of the French Revolution was embodied in the portrait works of J. L. David. Emotional, grotesque-satirical, and sometimes tragic images were created in his portraits by the Spaniard F. Goya. Romantic tendencies are reflected in the portrait work of T. géricault and E. Delacroix in France, F.O. Runge in Germany.
In the second floor. 19th century there are many stylistic trends and national portrait schools. The Impressionists, as well as close to them E. Manet and E. Degas changed the traditional view of the portrait, emphasizing, first of all, the variability of the appearance and state of the model in an equally changeable environment.
In the 20th century The portrait revealed the contradictory tendencies of art, which was looking for new means of expressing the complex spiritual life of modern man (P. Picasso, A. Matisse and etc.).
In the history of Russian art, the portrait occupies a special place. Compared with Western European painting, in Rus' the portrait genre arose rather late, but it was he who became the first secular genre in art, the development of the real world by artists began with it. The eighteenth century is often referred to as the "age of the portrait". The first Russian artist who studied in Italy and achieved undoubted mastery in the portrait genre was I.N. Nikitin. Artists of the second floor. 18th century they learned how to masterfully convey the diversity of the surrounding world - thin silvery lace, velvet overflows, brocade shine, soft fur, warmth of human skin. The works of major portrait painters (D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, F.S. Rokotova) represented not so much a specific person as a universal ideal.
Epoch romanticism forced the artists (O. A. Kiprensky, V. A. Tropinina, K.P. Bryullov) take a fresh look at the portrayed, feel the unique individuality of each, variability, the dynamics of a person’s inner life, “the soul’s wonderful impulses”. In the second floor. 19th century in creativity Wanderers(V. G. Perov, I. N. Kramskoy, I. E. Repin) develops and reaches the heights of a psychological portrait, the line of which was brilliantly continued in the work of V.A. Serov.
Artists of the turn of the 19th–20th centuries sought to enhance the emotional impact of portraits on the viewer. The desire to capture external similarity is replaced by the search for sharp comparisons, subtle associations, symbolic overtones (M.A. Vrubel, artists associations " World of Art" And " Jack of Diamonds"). At 20 - early. 21st century the portrait still expresses the spiritual and creative searches of artists of various trends (V. E. Popkov, N.I. Nesterov, T. G. Nazarenko and etc.).

Detailed solution paragraph § 12 on history for students of grade 9, authors Arsentiev N.M., Danilov A.A., Levandovsky A.A. 2016

• Gdz history workbook for grade 9 can be found

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 1. What are the features of the social movement of the 1830-1850s. do you think are the main ones? Justify your answer.

Key Features:

Narrow social base. A conservative direction in the form of a clearly formulated concept of “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Nationality” was supported only by a relatively narrow circle of publicists and a small part of the bureaucracy, while the majority of the population simply believed in the tsar-priest and followed the instructions of the official authorities. There is nothing to say about the opposition currents. Because of this, the social movement was not an important part of the life of society as a whole.

Lack of real action. The radicals who stood up for the revolution did not go further than calls. This stems in part from a previous feature: a narrow social base.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. Explain the essence of the theory of official nationality.

The theory of official nationality is best expressed in the triad "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality", which implies a moral and spiritual state based on Orthodoxy with autocracy as the best form of government, as well as the unity of the people within themselves and with the autocrat (nationality).

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. List the most important ideas of Westerners, Slavophiles.

The most important ideas of Westerners:

All countries of the world have a single path of development, it's just that European countries have moved further along it, while Russia has lagged behind;

Praise for the reforms of Peter I, who brought Russia out of stagnation onto the European path of development;

The requirement to introduce a parliament to limit the power of the monarch;

Demanding the abolition of serfdom and the destruction of the rural community.

The most important ideas of the Slavophiles:

Russia has its own path of development, different from the Western one, therefore it should not be guided by Europe;

Condemnation of the reforms of Peter I, which alienated Russia from the true path of development, introduced despotism and serfdom;

The demand to resume the collection of Zemsky Sobors, but not to limit the power of the monarch, but for the sake of his better connection with the people;

The demand to abolish serfdom, but with the preservation of the rural community as the basis of truly Russian life.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What were the fundamental differences between the positions of Westerners and Slavophiles?

Fundamental differences:

The Westerners believed that Russia should follow the Western path of development, the Slavophils - their own;

That is why the Westerners extolled the reforms of Peter I, the Slavophils condemned them;

According to Westerners, popular representation in Russia should limit the power of the monarch; according to Slavophiles, it should improve the relationship between the monarch and the people, but not limit power;

Westerners considered the rural community a relic of feudalism and offered to get rid of it, the Slavophiles saw in the community the basis of true Russian life and stood for its preservation.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 5. What were the main ideas of the utopian socialists? How did they plan to implement them?

The main idea was to build a society of equals - socialism. It was proposed to build it with the help of the revolution. But the ideas about socialism were different for different thinkers (as in Europe at that time), a single socialist doctrine did not exist before Marxism.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 1. Explain the words of A. I. Herzen: Westernizers and Slavophiles “looked in different directions”, but “the heart beat the same”.

This means that both of them sincerely wanted the good for Russia, while both movements were liberal, therefore they used similar methods, their representatives were equally cordial about their work. Many figures of different movements were initially friends with each other and broke up solely because of the difference in views. But at the same time, the Westerners focused on Europe, and the Slavophiles - on pre-Petrine Russia.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 2. Make a biographical portrait of one of the representatives of the conservative, liberal or radical movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

Timofey Nikolaevich Granovsky lived only 42 years and died in 1855, not having time to see the long-awaited reforms on the model of European modernization.

Granovsky was educated first at Moscow University, and then at Berlin University. A lively mind and curiosity made him an excellent scientist who laid the foundation for Russian medieval studies (the science of the history of the Middle Ages). He was also a brilliant lecturer. Other professors naturally continued to read their own dissertations or the monographs of their colleagues. In the Middle Ages, this is exactly what was meant by a lecture (“lecture” in Latin means “reading”), but times have already changed. Granovsky always spoke from himself, constantly throwing new ideas into the audience, the results of his research. His public lectures were attended not only by students of the entire university, but also by simply interested people - the audience turned out to be so full that it was difficult for the professor to get into the department, because they even sat on the floor in tight rows.

Granovsky was a Westerner. He believed that Russia should follow the European path of development, which he knew and understood very well. As a medievalist, he found much from the European Middle Ages in the state system and life of the homeland. He knew how all this was overcome in the West and believed that the same measures should be taken in Russia.

Timofey Nikolaevich was a bright phenomenon of his time. He can be considered a representative of the first generations of the Russian intelligentsia. He considered himself obliged to take care of the welfare of the fatherland and tried to choose his path not because he was a nobleman (and his origin was really noble), but because he had education and understanding for this.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 3. Than the radical circles of the 1830s–1840s. different from the secret societies of the Decembrists?

What is striking, first of all, is the difference that the Decembrists raised an uprising, while the circles of the next two decades did not go beyond talk. But something else was more important. The Decembrists were mostly officers, many of them were heroes of the Patriotic War, the most worthy people of their generation. And even those who did not wear uniforms were nobles. At the same time, many public figures of the 1830-1840s did not come from the nobility, some were even the sons of serfs. Most of them came to the fore thanks to their teaching or social activities (primarily journalism). That is, if Decembrism was a noble movement, then in the following decades, the intelligentsia came to the fore, in which people from the nobility were just an organic part; and even they were first of all intellectuals, and then already nobles.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 4. Gather information about the activities of the Petrashevsky circle. Find out what participation the writer F. M. Dostoevsky took in the activities of the circle.

The Petrashevites were engaged in disputes about the future of Russia and propagandized their ideas orally and in writing. At the same time, these ideas themselves were not the same among different representatives of the circle. Some leaned towards utopian socialism, but not all comrades shared their views.

Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, like most other Petrashevites, was condemned not for the socialist ideas themselves, but for reading Belinsky's letter to Gogol and for not denouncing other readers. Nevertheless, this was enough to sentence the writer to death, so that later, at the very last moment, when the convicts were standing in front of the firing squad, they would replace the execution with hard labor, like other convicts.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 5. The position of which of the currents of public life in the 1830-1850s. seems to you the most realistic about the conditions of the then Russia? Justify your answer.

The positions of all currents were largely utopian, but the hopes of the Westerners were the least unfulfilled. In the next century and a half, Russia more than once followed the path of Western countries, and this often led to the next round of development (in the second half of the 19th century, at the end of the 20th). Meanwhile, the position of the conservatives was already defeated in the Crimean War. The Slavophiles imagined an idealized Russia that never existed in reality and that they could not build. Socialists are called utopians because their ideas were too unrealistic.

NATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY OF NICHOLAS I. ETHNO-CULTURAL IMAGE OF THE COUNTRY

(Material for independent work and project activities of students)

Question for working with the text of paragraph 1. What were the reasons for the aggravation of the Polish question in 1830?

Many nobles of Poland were not satisfied with anything other than the restoration of independence;

Nicholas I introduced the secret police in the Kingdom of Poland;

He tightened control over the press;

The Sejm's powers were limited;

The governor Konstantin Pavlovich increasingly began to act around the Sejm;

A number of opposition-minded deputies of the Sejm were arrested;

In 1830, there was a general rise in revolutionary sentiment in Europe (the new regimes won in France and Belgium);

As part of the Holy Alliance, Russia was going to send troops to suppress the revolution in France, which was sympathized in Poland;

Among the troops sent to suppress the uprising could be actually Polish units.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 2. What changes took place under Nicholas I in Finland and the Baltic states?

In Finland, formally, everything remains the same. However, the diet almost never convened. Nevertheless, autonomy, including its own legislation and the appointment of local natives to all posts, was preserved. There was no autonomy in the Baltics, but the situation was similar - the Germans served throughout the empire, all the more they were officials in their homeland. In addition, the peasant reform carried out there earlier (the liberation of peasants without land) contributed to the development of industry in these provinces.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 3. What was characteristic of economic development and social movement in Ukraine?

The economic development of the Southwestern Territory (later the Kiev General Government) was characterized by the rapid development of industry, mainly due to the rich deposits of coal in the Donbass and Kryvorizhzhia, due to which, first of all, metalworking enterprises developed.

Question for working with the text of paragraph No. 4. What were the main tendencies of the authorities' policy towards the Jewish population in the Russian Empire?

In general, the autonomy of the Jewish population and its oppression in the form of a Pale of Settlement (not counting everyday anti-Semitism) were preserved. At the same time, attempts to assimilate Jews intensified through the introduction of recruitment among them (which led to the inevitable baptism) and attempts to resettle some of them to Siberia for the agricultural development of the local lands. Both initiatives met with only marginal success. There were special laws for the Jews. This applies to the same Pale of Settlement. In addition, even recruiting for them had its own characteristics: the right to replace recruits with boys was granted, because the community gave away orphans and children from dysfunctional families, retaining members that were more valuable from their point of view.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 1. What do you think, what does the subordination of the Uniate Church directly to the Synod mean?

Such submission unequivocally showed the intention of the official authorities to subjugate the Uniate Church and became the forerunner of a complete forcible union with the Orthodox.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 2. Name and describe the reasons that contributed to the penetration of Russia into Central Asia.

The Russian Empire has always sought to expand its territories;

The steppe lands bordering on Russia lagged far behind in development, many neighbors tried to subdue them - St. Petersburg did not want to cede to them;

In the region, the English influence began to be felt more and more actively, which Russia decided to resist;

Russia needed the region's resources, primarily cotton.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 3. Explain why the government gave special administrative status to those territories that had a border location.

The security of the empire directly depended on stability in such lands, because in the event of an external war, support by the local population of one side or another could play a significant role. Therefore, in some of these areas (for example, in Finland), the government granted more freedoms than in the rest of the empire, hoping in this way to win the favor of the population. In others, on the contrary, it behaved tougher than in the original Russian lands (for example, in Poland); in such cases, it did not hope for love, but calculated that the measures taken would not allow a rebellion to be raised in spite of anyone's aspirations.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 4. Make a chronology of the main events of the Polish uprising of 1830-1831 in your notebook.

Chronology of the uprising:

January 25, 1831 - the failure of negotiations with Nicholas I, the Sejm proclaimed him deposed from the post of ruler of the Kingdom of Poland;

the end of January 1831 - Joseph Khlopitsky was deprived of his powers for advocating a compromise with the tsar, and refused to command the troops, going to fight as a combat officer;

February 25, 1831 - the battle of Grochow, which ended in a draw and heavy losses on both sides;

March-April 1831 - a successful counteroffensive of the Poles on the Vistula;

May 17, 1831 - the death of the commander of the Russian troops, General Dibich, from cholera, which suspended the offensive;

We think, compare, reflect: question number 5. Using additional materials, compare the way of life of Finns and Ukrainians in the middle of the 19th century. Make a presentation illustrating the main similarities and differences.

Title: Comparison of lifestyles of Finns and Ukrainians in the middle of the 19th century

Image with caption: map of the Russian Empire with highlighted territories of the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Kyiv Governor-General

Text: To compare the ways of life of these peoples, it is worth referring to ethnographic materials: most of them were collected just in the middle and in the second half of the 19th century.

Title: Dwellings

Image with caption 1: Traditional Finnish dwelling

Caption image 2: Traditional Ukrainian dwelling

Text: The traditional dwelling of the Finns is a wooden building covered with clay. Initially, the roof was covered with turf, but in the middle of the 19th century it was often replaced by tiles, less often by straw. Ukrainian huts were also covered with clay. But the difference was in the thickness of the walls (because of the climate).

Image with caption 1: Finnish farm

Image with caption 2: Ukrainian village

Text: The main difference is not in the construction of the house. Ukrainians usually settled in large villages, where yards were tightly adjacent to each other, separated by wattle fences. The Finns usually lived in farms separated from each other by large spaces. And even on the same farm, the houses stood at a distance from each other.

Title: Transport

Image with caption 1: Ukrainian horse-drawn sleigh

Image with caption 2: Finnish reindeer team

Text: The Finns, as a Nordic people, traditionally used reindeer teams or skis. Ukrainians harnessed horses to sledges in winter and carts in summer. The Finns, in the summer, in a land with dense forests and bad roads, but with wide rivers and deep lakes, preferred to travel by boat. Boats with 16-20 pairs of oars have been preserved, on which up to 100 people could sail.

Name: Clothes

Image with caption 1: Finn in traditional costume

Image with caption 2: Ukrainian in traditional costume

Text: The clothes of the common people in Finland and Ukraine were similar: bast shoes, trousers and a shirt (women have a long dress). Similar was and other neighboring peoples. The greatest difference is in the ornament that covered the collar and ends of the sleeves, as well as in the headdresses.

Title: Kitchen

Captioned image: Traditional Ukrainian borscht

Text: Traditional Ukrainian cuisine uses a fairly large amount of herbs and vegetables, which grow in abundance on these lands due to the warm climate. Of course, meat products (including the famous lard) also come into play, but on the table of the common people they were more of a part of the festive holiday than of everyday life.

Image with caption 1: Cutaway Finnish traditional kalakukko pie

Text: There are far fewer vegetables in Finnish cuisine, because they are more difficult to grow in the northern climate, but there are much more fish, especially river fish. Moreover, the fish is often combined with meat or lard (as in a calacucco pie). At the same time, with proper preparation, the fish acquires the taste of bacon. So the Finns beat off the taste of annoying fish and created the illusion among the guests that they were eating mostly pork, which was scarce for the peasants.

We think, compare, reflect: question number 6. Explore additional materials on the history of Kyiv University (St. Volodymyr's University). Determine which areas of study were most fully represented in it.

The humanities were most fully represented there. Technical initially was not studied at all. Only later, the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics was separated from the Faculty of Philosophy. No wonder. It was in Kyiv that they saw the cradle of Russian Orthodoxy, therefore it was precisely theology and philosophy that was correct from the point of view of the official authorities that they paid the most attention to here. Technical and engineering specialties were concentrated in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

Portrait painting and drawing tell about a person, his beauty, character and aspirations. The portrait painter deals with the character of a person, his complex personality. To understand a person, to understand his essence in appearance, you need a lot of life and professional experience. The artist requires a deep knowledge of the person being depicted.

Portrait(fr. portrait - image) - a genre of fine art depicting one person or a group of people. In addition to external, individual similarities, artists strive to convey the character of a person, his spiritual world in a portrait.

There are many types of portraiture. The portrait genre includes: a half-length portrait, a bust (in sculpture), a full-length portrait, a group portrait, a portrait in an interior, a portrait against a landscape. By the nature of the image, two main groups are distinguished: ceremonial and chamber portraits. As a rule, a ceremonial portrait involves a full-length image of a person (on a horse, standing or sitting). In a chamber portrait, a half-length, chest, shoulder image is used. In a ceremonial portrait, the figure is usually given against an architectural or landscape background, and in a chamber portrait, more often against a neutral background.

According to the number of images on one canvas, in addition to the usual, individual, there are double and group portraits. Paired are called portraits painted on different canvases, if they are consistent with each other in composition, format and color. Most often these are portraits of spouses. Quite often portraits form the whole ensembles - portrait galleries.

A portrait in which a person is presented in the form of any allegorical, mythological, historical, theatrical or literary character is called a costume portrait. The names of such portraits usually include the words "in the form" or "in the image" (for example, Catherine II in the form of Minerva).

Portraits are also distinguished by size, for example, miniature. You can also highlight a self-portrait - an image by the artist of himself. The portrait conveys not only the individual features of the person portrayed or, as the artists say, models, but also reflects the era in which the depicted person lived.

The art of portraiture dates back several millennia. Already in ancient Egypt, sculptors created a fairly accurate likeness of the external appearance of a person. The statue was given a portrait resemblance so that after the death of a person, his soul could move into it, easily find its owner. Faiyum picturesque portraits made in the technique of encaustic (wax painting) in the 1st-4th centuries served the same purpose. Idealized portraits of poets, philosophers, public figures were common in the sculpture of ancient Greece. Truthfulness and accurate psychological characteristics were distinguished by ancient Roman sculptural portrait busts. They reflected the character and personality of a particular person.

The image of a person's face in sculpture or painting has attracted artists at all times. The portrait genre flourished especially in the Renaissance, when the humanistic, effective human personality was recognized as the main value (Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto). Renaissance masters deepen the content of portrait images, endow them with intellect, spiritual harmony, and sometimes inner drama.

In the 17th century in European painting, a chamber, intimate portrait comes to the fore, as opposed to a ceremonial, official, exalting portrait. The outstanding masters of this era - Rembrandt, Van Rijn, F. Hals, Van Dyck, D. Velazquez - created a gallery of wonderful images of simple, unfamous people, discovered in them the greatest wealth of kindness and humanity.

In Russia, the portrait genre began to develop actively from the beginning of the 18th century. F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovikovsky created a series of magnificent portraits of noble people. Especially lovely and charming, imbued with lyricism and spirituality were the female images painted by these artists. In the first half of the XIX century. the protagonist of portrait art becomes a dreamy and at the same time prone to heroic impulse romantic personality (in the paintings of O. Kiprensky, K. Bryullov).

The formation of realism in the art of the Wanderers was reflected in the art of portraiture. Artists V. Perov, I. Kramskoy, I. Repin created a whole portrait gallery of outstanding contemporaries. Artists convey individual and typical features of the portrayed, their spiritual features with the help of characteristic facial expressions, postures, gestures. The person was depicted in all his psychological complexity, and his role in society was also evaluated. In the XX century. the portrait combines the most controversial trends - vivid realistic individual characteristics and abstract expressive deformations of models (P. Picasso, A. Modigliani, A. Bourdelle in France, V. Serov, M. Vrubel, S. Konenkov, M. Nesterov, P. Korin in Russia).

Portraits convey to us not only images of people from different eras, reflect a part of history, but also speak about how the artist saw the world, how he treated the person being portrayed.

Dedicated to the transfer of the image of one person, as well as a group of two or three people on canvas or paper. The style chosen by the artist is of particular importance. Drawing a person's face in a portrait is one of the most difficult areas in painting. The master of the brush must convey the characteristic features of appearance, emotional state, and the inner world of the posing person. The size of a portrait determines its appearance. The image can be bust, generational, half-length or full-length. The pose involves three angles: face (full face), turn "three quarters" in one direction or another and in profile. A portrait as contains unlimited possibilities for the realization of artistic ideas. First, a sketch is made, then the drawing itself.

History of the portrait genre

The oldest attempt to depict a human face dates back 27,000 years. The "painting" was discovered in a cave near the French city of Angouleme. The portrait is a contour outlined in chalk, vaguely resembling the features of a human face. The ancient artist outlined the main lines of the eyes, nose, mouth. Later (also in caves) in the Balkans and Italy, clearer and more definite images began to appear, among which faces drawn in profile predominated. It is human nature to create, talented people cannot live without leaving some trace behind. It can be a pattern laid out of pebbles in the middle of a field, a carved ornament on the bark of a tree, someone's face drawn with charcoal on a rock. Opportunities for creativity are plentiful.

stucco images

Once upon a time, the portrait genre tended to be embodied in sculpture, since in ancient times there were no artists who thoroughly mastered the brush and were able to convey the play of light and shadow. The image of a face in clay was better, and therefore in those distant times it was stucco portraits that dominated. The art of painting appeared much later, when mankind realized the need for cultural communication.

Burials

The appearance of images close to the drawing also belongs to a later period, and the first portraits were found in the ancient eastern territories. In the Egyptian state, the deification of the dead took place. During the burial, a kind of portrait was created, which was conditionally considered a double of the deceased. The principle of mummification appeared, and then portraiture. The history of the portrait genre contains many examples of iconic images in both drawing and sculpture. The drawings of the faces of the dead became more and more similar to the original. And then copying the face of the departed to another world was replaced with a mask. The Egyptian dead began to be buried in sarcophagi, on the lid of which the deceased was depicted in full growth with a beautiful stylized face. Such funerals were arranged exclusively for the nobility. Egyptian pharaohs, for example, were placed not only in a sarcophagus, but also in a tomb, which was a huge structure.

Variety of solutions

The artist has a choice when painting a portrait: depict the face and clothes of a person in accordance with the original, or be creative, creating an exquisite creative picture. The main condition for this remains the similarity, which plays a dominant role. Independent - portrait art, open to experiments of the widest spectrum. The artist has the opportunity to improve his skills, applying the latest technical achievements.

Indeed, the execution technique is decisive for achieving the optimal result. The most common way of portrait painting by professional artists is This style is rooted in the depths of centuries. It was used by ancient artists. Their work has survived to this day. The portrait as a genre of fine art has existed since time immemorial, and today it is a popular means of artistic expression.

"Dry brush"

Recently, a technique has become popular when the image is created not with strokes, but by rubbing a small amount of paint. At the same time, the brush is almost dry, and the method itself allows you to get beautiful halftones. Since the most subtle genre of painting is a portrait, and the image of a face in paints requires precisely delicate shades, the "dry brush" technique is the best suited for this purpose.

Types

The genre of the portrait is divided into several types: ceremonial, chamber, intimate and plot. There is also a special type called self-portrait, when the artist depicts himself. As a rule, this is a purely individual drawing. In general, the portrait genre is completely independent, subject to certain rules. These rules are never violated, although their scope may be extended under certain circumstances.

In addition to those already listed, there is another genre of portraiture, which includes special artistic features, a specialized variety that requires a systematic approach. This is a costumed portrait, when a modern person is depicted on the canvas in the clothes of the past. The range of subjects is not limited: from the skins worn by a primitive man to the wedding dress of the Renaissance. In this portrait variety there are elements of theatricality. In the Russian Federation, especially in Moscow, the costumed portrait was widely used, but this did not happen for the sake of fashion, but rather as a tribute to art.

Genre of portraiture in art

Picturesque canvases, written at different times, are united by one obligatory condition - the pictures must be authentic. An important role is played by the portrait component, in other words, the image of the faces of the characters. The success of the picture depends on how carefully the facial features are written out. The expression of the eyes, smiles or, conversely, frowned eyebrows, all the nuances should be reflected on the canvas. The task is not easy, but the reliability factor testifies to the skill of the artist. That is why the portrait genre in art is so unambiguous and requires full dedication from the master. Experienced artists are best at paintings that involve people, close-ups of their faces and accentuated movement.

Literary portraits

Writers, as well as artists, quite often depict a person's face. There are much more literary techniques for this, the rich Russian language allows the use of numerous artistic forms, turns of phrase and phrases. The goal that the writer is striving for is identical in meaning to the artist’s intention, the writer describes facial expressions as a result of a person’s moods, a reflection of his thoughts, emotions and experiences. the portrait is rather complicated. It is necessary to describe, avoiding superficial formulations. This requires the skill of a true creator. Among Russian writers who are able to express in a few words the essence of the human form, the great Maxim Gorky occupies the first place. His American follower also masterfully mastered the art of verbal portrait drawing. The genre of a literary portrait is diverse, the description follows a certain style, it can be cheerful or sad, short or lengthy, it all depends on each individual work.

Photo

With the advent of daguerreotype, the possibilities of fine art expanded, and portraits were no exception. A photographic portrait cost much less than an oil painting, and recognition was one hundred percent. And although artists caustically remarked that photography was for the poor, "the general public turned towards a more accurate image on a silver-plated plate. The portrait photography genre quickly became fashionable, there was no end to those who wanted to capture themselves and their loved ones.

However, the new method, the daguerreotype, had its drawbacks. Photography, unlike a picturesque portrait, did not allow changing anything. The image froze once and for all, it was impossible to fix something. And given that the person was photographed sitting or standing (in a tense pose), then he did not come out in the picture in the best way. Therefore, there were many disappointments, claims and discontent. Nevertheless, portrait shots took root, people learned how to pose artistically, and everything fell into place.