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Belgian artists of the 19th century. Flemish painters of the 17th century

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Belgian artists

The peak of the flowering of painting in Belgium falls on the period of Burgundian rule in the 15th century. During the Renaissance, artists painted portraits with intricate detail. These were vital and non-idealized paintings in which the artists tried to achieve maximum realism and clarity. This style of painting is explained by the influence of the new Dutch school.

For Belgian painting, the 20th century was the second golden age. But artists have already retreated from the principles of realism in painting and turned to surrealism. One of these artists was Rene Magritte.

Belgian painting has an old tradition that the Belgians are justifiably proud of. The Rubens House Museum is located in Antwerp, and the Royal Museum of Fine Arts is located in Brussels. They became a manifestation of the deep respect of the Belgians for their artists and ancient traditions in painting.

Flemish primitivists

Even at the end of the Middle Ages in Europe, attention was paid to painting in Flanders and Brussels. Jan Van Eyck (circa 1400-1441) revolutionized Flemish art. He was the first to use oil to make durable paints, and to mix paints on canvas or wood. These innovations made it possible to keep the paintings longer. During the Renaissance, panel painting began to spread.

Jan Van Eyck became the founder of the Flemish primitivism school, depicting life in bright colors and in motion on canvases. In Ghent Cathedral there is an altar-polyptych "The Adoration of the Lamb", created by the famous artist and his brother.

Flemish primitivism in painting is distinguished by especially realistic portraits, clarity of lighting, and careful depiction of clothes and textures of fabrics. One of the best artists who worked in this direction was Rogierde la Pasture (Rogier van der Weyden) (circa 1400-1464). One of the famous paintings by Rogirde la Pasture is Descent from the Cross. The artist combined the power of religious feelings and realism. Rogierde la Pasture's paintings inspired many Belgian artists who inherited the new technique.

The possibilities of new technology were expanded by Dirk Bouts (1415-1475).

Hans Memling (circa 1433-1494) is considered the last Flemish primitivist, whose paintings depict 15th-century Bruges. The first paintings depicting industrial European cities were painted by Joachim Patinir (circa 1475-1524).

Bruegel dynasty

Belgian art in the early 16th century was greatly influenced by Italy. The painter Jan Gossaert (circa 1478-1533) studied in Rome. To paint pictures for the ruling dynasty of the Dukes of Brabant, he chose mythological subjects.

In the 16-17 centuries. The Bruegel family had the greatest influence on Flemish art. One of the best painters of the Flemish school was Pieter Brueghel the Elder (circa 1525-1569). He came to Brussels in 1563. His most famous works are canvases depicting comical figures of peasants. They provide an opportunity to plunge into the world of the Middle Ages. One of the famous paintings by Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564-1638), who painted canvases on religious themes, is The Census in Bethlehem (1610). Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568-1625), also known as Brueghel the Velvet, painted intricate still lifes depicting flowers against a background of velvet draperies. Jan Brueghel the Younger (1601-1678) painted magnificent landscapes and was court painter.

Artists of Antwerp

The center of Belgian painting in the 17th century moved from Brussels to Antwerp - the center of Flanders. To a large extent, this was influenced by the fact that one of the first world-famous Flemish artists Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) lived in Antwerp. Rubens painted magnificent landscapes, paintings with a mythological plot and was a court painter. But the most famous are his canvases depicting puffy women. The popularity of Rubens was so great that the Flemish weavers created a large collection of tapestries depicting his magnificent paintings.

Rubens' pupil, the court portrait painter Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), became the second Antwerp painter to achieve worldwide fame.

Jan Bruegel the Elder settled in Antwerp, and his son-in-law David Teniers II (1610-1690) established the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp in 1665.

European influence

In the 18th century, Rubens' influence on art still remained, so there were no significant changes in the development of Flemish art.

From the beginning of the 19th century, a strong influence of other European schools on the art of Belgium began to be felt. François Joseph Navez (1787-1869) added neoclassicism to Flemish painting. Constantin Meunier (1831-1905) preferred realism. Guillaume Vogels (1836-1896) painted in the Impressionist style. The supporter of the romantic trend in painting was the Brussels artist Antoine Wirtz (1806-1865).

Disturbing, distorted and blurry paintings by Antoine Wirtz, such as the work "Hasty Cruelty", executed around 1830, are the beginning of Surrealism in art. Fernand Khnopff (1858-1921), known for his frightening portraits of dubious women, is considered an early exponent of the Belgian symbolist school. His work was influenced by Gustav Klimt, a German romantic.

James Ensor (1860-1949) was another artist whose work moved from realism to surrealism. Mysterious and creepy skeletons are often depicted on his canvases. Society of Artists "LesVingt" (LesXX) in 1884-1894. organized an exhibition of works by famous foreign avant-garde artists in Brussels, thereby enlivening the cultural life in the city.

Surrealism

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Cezanne's influence has been felt in Belgian art. During this period, the Fauves appeared in Belgium, depicting bright landscapes drenched in the sun. A prominent representative of Fauvism was the sculptor and artist Rick Wauters (1882-1916).

Surrealism appeared in Brussels in the mid-twenties of the 20th century. Rene Magritte (1898-1967) became a prominent representative of this trend in art. Surrealism began to develop in the 16th century. Phantasmagoric paintings by Pieter Brueghel the Elder and Bosch were painted in this style. There are no landmarks in Magritte's canvases; he defined his surrealist style as "a return from the familiar to the alien."

Paul Delvaux (1897-1989) was a more shocking and emotional artist, his canvases depict bizarre, elegant interiors with misty figures.

The CoBrA movement in 1948 campaigned for abstract art. Abstractionism was replaced by conceptual art, headed by Marcel Brudtaers (1924-1976), an installation master. Broodtaers depicted familiar objects, such as a saucepan filled with mussels.

Tapestries and lace

Belgian tapestries and lace have been considered luxury for over six hundred years. In the 12th century, hand-made tapestries began to be made in Flanders, later they began to be made in Brussels, Tournai, Oudenarde and Mechelen.

From the beginning of the 16th century, the art of lace making began to develop in Belgium. Lace was woven in all provinces, but lace from Brussels and Bruges was most valued. Often the most skilled lacemakers were patronized by aristocrats. For the nobility, beautiful tapestries and exquisite lace were considered a sign of their position. In the 15-18 centuries. lace and tapestries were the main exports. And today Belgium is considered the birthplace of the best tapestries and lace.

The Flemish cities of Tournai and Arras (today located in France) by the beginning of the 13th century became famous European weaving centers. Craft and trade developed. The technique made it possible to make more delicate and expensive work; threads of real silver and gold began to be added to wool, which increased the cost of products even more.

The revolution in the manufacture of tapestries was made by Bernard van Orley (1492-1542), who combined Flemish realism and Italian idealism in drawings. Later, the Flemish masters were lured to Europe, and by the end of the 18th century, all the glory of the Flemish tapestries passed to the Parisian factory.

Belgium all year round

The Belgian climate is typical of northern Europe. It is for this reason that celebrations can be carried out both on the street and at home. The weather conditions perfectly allow the capital's artists to perform both at stadiums and in ancient buildings. The inhabitants of Belgium know how to use the change of seasons. For example, in the summer, a flower festival opens in the capital. The Grand Place is covered with millions of flowers every second of August. The opening of the dance, film and theater season takes place in January. Here, premieres from “car cinemas” to old abbeys are waiting for their viewers.

In Brussels, you can watch the passage of various festivals all year round. Here you can see luxurious, full of life historical processions. They have been held every year since medieval times. The latest experimental arts of Europe are demonstrated here.

Holidays

New Year - January 1
Easter - floating date
Clean Monday - floating date
Labor Day - May 1
Ascension - floating date
Trinity day - floating date
Spirits Monday - floating date
Belgian National Day - July 21
Dormition - August 15
All Saints Day - November 1
Armistice - November 11
Christmas - December 25

Spring

As the days of spring lengthen in Belgium, cultural life is revitalized. Tourists are starting to come here. Music festivals are held right on the street. When the city parks are in bloom, Laiken's tropical greenhouses, which are known throughout the world, are opened for visitors. Belgian chocolate makers are busy preparing all kinds of sweets for the significant Easter holiday.

International Fantasy Film Festival (3rd and 4th week). Fans of miracles and oddities are waiting for new films in cinemas throughout the capital.
Ars Music (mid-March - mid-April). This holiday is one of the best European festivals. Famous performers come to it. Often, concerts take place in the Museum of Old Masters. All music connoisseurs are present at this festival.
Euroantique (last week). The Heysel Stadium is full of visitors and vendors looking to buy or sell antiques.
Easter (Easter Sunday). There is a belief that before Easter, church bells fly to Rome. Returning, they leave Easter eggs in the fields and forests especially for children. Thus, every year more than 1000 painted eggs are hidden by adults in the Royal Park, and the kids from all over the city gather to look for them.

April

Spring baroque on Sablon (3rd week). The famous Place de la Grande Sablon gathers young Belgian talents. They play music from the 17th century.
Royal greenhouses in Laiken (12 days, dates vary). When cacti begin to bloom, as well as all sorts of exotic plants, the personal greenhouses of the Belgian royal family are opened especially for the public. The rooms are made of glass and finished with iron. A large number of various rare plants are kept here from bad weather.
Festival in Flanders (mid-April - October) This festival is a musical feast that mixes all sorts of styles and trends. More than 120 famous orchestras and choirs perform here.
"Screen scenes". (3rd week - end). Especially for the audience, new European films are presented daily.

Celebration of Europe Day (May 7-9). Due to the fact that Brussels is the European capital, this is once again emphasized at the celebration. For example, even Mannequin Pis is dressed in a blue suit, which is decorated with yellow stars.
Kunstin-Festival of Arts (May 9-31). Young theater actors and dancers take part in this festival.
Queen Elizabeth Competition (May - mid-June). This music competition gathers fans of the classics. This competition has been running for over forty years. Young pianists, violinists and singers perform there. Famous conductors and soloists choose among them the most worthy performers.
20 km race in Brussels (last Sunday). Running in the capital, in which more than 20,000 amateurs and professional runners take an active part.
Jazz rally (last day off). Small jazz ensembles perform in bistros and cafes.

Summer

In July, the season of court splendor opens in Ommengang. This is a fairly old custom. A huge procession moves along the Grand Place and the surrounding streets. At this wonderful time of the year, you can hear the music of various directions. Performers can play music in various venues, such as the huge King Baudouin stadium in IJsel, or in small cafe bars. On Independence Day, all Belgians come to the Midi fair. It takes place on the square where the trays are installed and paths are being built.

Brussels Summer Festival (early June - September). Concert programs are held in famous ancient buildings.
Festival in Wallonia (June - October). Holding a series of gala concerts in Brussels and Flanders makes it possible to present the most gifted young Belgian soloists and orchestra players to the audience.
Festival cafe "Cooler" (last week). For three days, a very fashionable program takes place in the rebuilt Tour-e-Taxi warehouse. The audience is expected by African drummers, salsa, ethnic music and acid jazz.
Music Festival (last day off). Benefits and concerts are held for two weeks in a row in city halls and museums dedicated to world music.

July

Ommegang (1st weekend of July). Tourists come from all over the world to watch this action. This festival has been taking place in Brussels since 1549. This procession (or, as it is called, "detour") goes around the Grand Place, all the streets that adjoin it, and moves in a circle. More than 2000 participants take part here. Thanks to the costumes, they turn into renaissance city dwellers. The parade passes by high-ranking Belgian officials. Tickets must be ordered in advance.
Jazz-folk festival "Brosella" (2nd day off). The festival takes place in Osseghem Park. It attracts all the famous musicians from Europe.
Summer festival in Brussels (July - August). At this time of the year, musicians play classical pieces in the Lower and Upper Towns.
Midi Fair (mid-July - mid-August). Carrying out the fair at the famous Brussels station Gardu-Midi. This event runs for a whole month. It is very popular with children. This fair is considered the largest in Europe.

Belgium Day (July 21). Conducting a military parade in honor of Independence Day, which has been celebrated since 1831, after which fireworks are launched in the Brussels Park.
Open Days at the Royal Palace (last week of July - 2nd week of September). The doors of the Royal Palace are opened for visitors. This event is held for six weeks in a row.

August

Maypole (Meiboom) (August 9). This festival originated in 1213. Participants of this action dress up in huge costumes - dolls. The procession passes through the Lower City. It stops at the Grand Place, then a Maypole is placed there.
Flower carpet (mid-August, every 2 years). This holiday takes place every other year. This is a tribute to floriculture in Brussels. The entire Grand Place is covered with fresh flowers. The total area of such a carpet is approximately 2000 m².

Autumn

In autumn, Belgian entertainment moves under the roof - to cafes or cultural centers where you can listen to modern music. During "Heritage Days" the public has the opportunity to enjoy the architecture by visiting private houses that are closed to the public at other times and viewing the collections located there.

September

Birthday Mannequin Pis (last day off).
The famous sculpture of a pissing boy is dressed up in another suit, donated by some high-ranking foreign guest.

Festival "Happy City" (first day off).
At this time, about 60 concerts are held in three dozen of the best Brussels cafes.
Botanical Nights (last week).
The French cultural center "Les Botaniques", located in the former greenhouses of the Botanical Gardens, hosts a series of concerts that will delight all connoisseurs of jazz music.
Heritage days (2nd or 3rd day off).
For a few days, many protected buildings and private houses, as well as closed art collections, open their doors to visitors.

October

Audi Jazz Festival (mid-October - mid-November).
All over the country, the sounds of jazz are heard, diluting the autumn boredom. Local performers play, but some European stars often perform at the Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels.

Winter

In winter, it usually rains and snows in Belgium, so almost all events during this period are moved indoors. Art galleries host world-class exhibitions, and the Brussels Film Festival hosts the work of both established masters and young talents. Before the Christmas holidays, the Lower Town is lit up with bright illumination, and on Christmas the tables of the Belgians are decorated with traditional dishes.

"Sablon's Nocturne" (last day off). All shops and museums of the Grande Sablon are not closed until late in the evening. Carriages with harnessed horses drive around the fair, carrying customers, and on the main square everyone can taste real mulled wine.

December

St. Nicholas Day (December 6).
According to legend, on this day the patron saint of Christmas Santa Claus comes to the city, and all Belgian children receive sweets, chocolate and other gifts.
Christmas (December 24-25).
As in other Catholic countries, Christmas in Belgium is celebrated on the evening of December 24th. The Belgians exchange gifts, and the next day they go to visit their parents. All kinds of Christmas attributes adorn the streets of the capital until January 6th.

January

King's Day (January 6).
On this day, special almond "royal cakes" are prepared, and everyone who wants to search for the pea hidden there. The one who finds it is declared king for the whole festive night.
Brussels Film Festival (mid - end of January).
Premiere of new films with the participation of European movie stars.

February

Antiques Fair (2nd and 3rd week).
The Palace of Fine Arts gathers antique dealers from all over the world.
International Comics Festival (2nd and 3rd week).
Comic book writers and artists come to the city that has had a strong influence on the art of comic book drawing to share experiences and showcase new work.

Emile Claus (Dutch. Emile Claus, born September 27, 1849, Waregem - mind. June 14, 1924, Deinze) is a Belgian artist, one of the main representatives of impressionist painting in Belgium and the founder of Luminism.

E. Klaus was born in a large family of a rural shopkeeper. He began to study drawing at a local art school. On the advice of the composer Peter Benois, Klaus entered the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts in 1869, where he studied portrait, history and landscape painting. In 1874 he completed his studies at the Academy. In 1875 the artist successfully exhibited his works in Ghent, and in 1876 in Brussels.

In the early period of his work, E. Klaus was mainly engaged in portrait and genre painting. He paints in a realistic manner, mostly in dark colors and uses social themes (for example, the canvas Wealth and Poverty (1880)). In 1879 the artist travels to Spain, Morocco and Algeria. In 1882 he made his debut at the Paris Salon, where Klaus presents his painting Cockfight in Flanders (1882). From that moment on, he spends a lot of time in Paris - especially in winter, and falls under the creative influence of the French artist Bastien-Lepage, who also painted on social topics in a realistic manner.

With the advent of financial prosperity in 1883, the artist buys the villa Zonneschijn (Sunshine) in his homeland. In 1886 he marries Charlotte Dufour, the daughter of a notary from nearby Deinze. During this period, Klaus paints mainly landscapes of his native nature, sustained in a realistic style. During his life in the countryside, he maintains friendly relations and conducts a lively correspondence with the artist Albin van den Abele, the sculptor Constantine Meunier, the writers Cyril Beuysse and Emile Verhaern. Through them, and also through the artist Henri Le Sidanet, Klaus discovers the phenomenon of French Impressionism. Acquaintance with the works of the Impressionists also changes the painting of E. Claus himself - his colors become lighter and warmer: he pays more attention to the interaction of light and shadow, due to which formal issues recede into the background (Kingfishers (1891)). Among the French impressionists, Claude Monet had a special influence on the painting of E. Claus. In the works of both artists, not only the color scheme is similar, but even the almost identical selection of subjects for their canvases (during the London period). The constant search for new forms of expression and light experiments made E. Claus the immediate predecessor of such a trend in Belgian painting as luminism. In Paris, Klaus is also friends with famous cultural figures, including writers Emile Zola and Maurice Maeterlinck.

Until the outbreak of the First World War, the artist trained many students, including Anna de Werth, Robert Hutton Monks, Torajiro Kojima, Georges Morren, Leon de Smet and others. In November 1893 he joined the art group Union Artistique. Its purpose was - like similar groups of French impressionists - the organization of exhibitions and the sale of paintings. In addition, Klaus's works appear at the exhibitions of the Brussels Union of Artists La Libre Esthétique in 1896 and at the Berlin Secession. In 1904, E. Klaus, together with the painter Georges Beuysset, created the Vie et Lumière group, which later included such artists as James Ensor, William Deguve de Nuncque and Adrian Heymans.

Until the First World War, E. Klaus traveled a lot - he repeatedly visited Paris, the Netherlands: in 1907 he made a trip to the United States, in 1914 - to the Cote d'Azur of France. Just before the entry of German troops in 1914 into his native town, the artist manages to emigrate to England. Here he lives in London, in a house on the banks of the Thames. The main theme for the master's work during the years of exile was this London river. Paintings by E. Klaus with landscapes of the Thames, written in a post-impressionist manner, enjoyed great success both in London and in Brussels after the war.

After the end of hostilities, E. Klaus returns to his villa in Asten. Here he died in 1924 and was buried in his garden. A marble monument by Georges Minnet was erected on the master's grave.

L. Aleshina

A small country that in the past gave the world a number of the greatest artists - suffice it to name the van Eyck brothers, Brueghel and Rubens - Belgium by the beginning of the 19th century. experienced a long stagnation of art. A certain role in this was played by the politically and economically subordinate position of Belgium, which until 1830 did not have national independence. Only when, from the beginning of the new century, the national liberation movement develops more and more strongly, does art come to life, which soon occupied a very important place in the cultural life of the country. It is at least significant that, compared with other European countries, the number of artists in small Belgium relative to the population was very large.

In the formation of the Belgian artistic culture of the 19th century. the great traditions of national painting played an important role. The connection with traditions was expressed not only in the direct imitation of many artists of their outstanding predecessors, although this was characteristic of Belgian painting, especially in the middle of the century. The influence of traditions affected the specifics of the Belgian art school of modern times. One of these specific features is the commitment of Belgian artists to the objective world, to the real flesh of things. Hence the success of realistic art in Belgium, but also some limitations in the interpretation of realism.

A characteristic feature of the artistic life of the country was the close interaction throughout the century of Belgian culture with the culture of France. Young artists and architects go there to improve their knowledge. In turn, many French masters not only visit Belgium, but also live in it for many years, participating in the artistic life of their little neighbor.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated the painting, sculpture and architecture of Belgium, as in many other European countries. The most important painter of this period was François Joseph Navez (1787-1869). He studied first in Brussels, then from 1813 in Paris with David, whom he accompanied in exile to Brussels. During the years of his Belgian exile, the remarkable French master enjoyed the greatest prestige among local artists. Navez was one of David's favorite students. His work is incomparable. Mythological and biblical compositions, in which he followed the canons of classicism, are lifeless and cold. Portraits, which make up most of his heritage, are very interesting. In his portraits, close and attentive observation and study of nature were combined with a sublimely ideal idea of \u200b\u200bthe human personality. The best features of the classic method - strong compositional construction, plastic fullness of form - are harmoniously fused in Navez's portraits with the expressiveness and specificity of the life image. The portrait of the Hemptinne family (1816; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art) seems to be the highest in its artistic qualities.

The difficult task of a portrait with three characters is successfully solved by the artist. All members of the young family - a married couple with a little daughter - are depicted in lively, relaxed poses, but with a sense of strong inner connection. The color scheme of the portrait testifies to Navez's desire to comprehend the classical traditions of Flemish painting, dating back to van Eyck. Pure radiant colors merge into a joyful harmonic chord. An excellent portrait of the Hemptinne family is close in its plastic strength, documentary accuracy to the late portrait works of David, and in lyrics, the desire to convey the inner life of the soul is associated with the already emerging romanticism. Even closer to romanticism is Navez's self-portrait at a young age (1810s; Brussels, private collection), where the artist depicted himself with a pencil and an album in his hands, staring vividly and intently at something in front of him. Navez played a very significant role as a teacher. Many artists studied with him, who later formed the core of the realistic trend in Belgian painting.

The growth of revolutionary sentiment in the country contributed to the triumph of romantic art. The struggle for national independence led to a revolutionary explosion in the summer of 1830, as a result of which Belgium broke ties with the Netherlands and formed an independent state. Art played an important role in the unfolding events. It aroused patriotic feelings, kindled rebellious moods. As is well known, the performance of Aubert's opera The Mute from Portici served as the immediate cause for the revolutionary uprising in Brussels.

On the eve of the revolution in Belgian painting, a patriotic direction of the historical genre is taking shape. The leader of this trend was the young artist Gustave Wappers (1803-1874), who in 1830 exhibited the painting “The Self-Sacrifice of Burgomaster van der Werf at the Siege of Leiden” (Utrecht, Museum). Singing the heroic deeds of their ancestors, the masters of this direction turn to the romantic language of forms. The pathetic exaltation of the figurative structure, the increased colorful sound of color was perceived by contemporaries as a revival of the primordially national pictorial traditions, most vividly represented by Rubens.

In the 30s. Belgian painting, thanks to the canvases of the historical genre, is gaining recognition in European art. Its programmatic and patriotic character, which served the common tasks of the country's development, determined this success. Wappers, Nicaise de Keyser (1813-1887), Louis Galle were among the most popular artists in Europe. However, very soon this direction revealed its limited sides. The most successful were those works that reflected the pathos of the national liberation movement of the people, which were inspired by the heroism of past and present battles for freedom. It is no coincidence that Wappers's September Days of 1830 (1834-1835; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art) had the greatest success. The artist created a historical canvas on modern material, revealed the significance of revolutionary events. One of the episodes of the revolution is shown. The action takes place in the central square of Brussels. The stormy surge of the popular movement is conveyed by an unbalanced diagonal composition. The arrangement of the groups and some of the figures evoke Delacroix's painting "Liberty Leading the People", which was an undoubted model for the artist. At the same time, Wappers in this canvas is somewhat external and declarative. His images are partly characterized by theatrical showiness, demonstrativeness in expressing feelings.

Shortly after Belgium gained independence, history painting lost its depth of content. The theme of national liberation is losing its relevance, its social basis. The historical picture turns into a magnificent costumed spectacle with an entertaining plot. Two trends are crystallizing in historical painting; on the one hand, these are monumental pompous canvases; the other direction is characterized by a genre interpretation of history. The national traditions of painting are understood very superficially - as the sum of techniques and means not determined by the influence of the era. There are many artists who see their whole vocation in painting genres, like "masters of the 17th century", or historical scenes, "like Rubens".

Antoine Joseph Wirtz (1806-1865) pretentiously, but unsuccessfully, strives to combine the achievements of Michelangelo and Rubens in his huge historical and symbolic canvases. Hendrik Leys (1815-1869) first paints small genre-historical paintings, imitating the colors of Rembrandt. From the 60s. he switches to extensive multi-figure compositions with everyday scenes from the Northern Renaissance, in the manner of execution of which he follows the naive accuracy and detail of the masters of this period.

Among the numerous historical painters of the middle of the century, Louis Galle (1810-1887) deserves mention, whose paintings are distinguished by restraint and laconic composition, and whose images are known for their inner significance and nobility. A typical example is the painting “Last Honors to the Remains of Counts Egmont and Horn” (1851; Tournai, Museum, repetition of 1863 - Pushkin Museum). These same qualities are even more characteristic of his genre paintings, such as "The Fisherman's Family" (1848) and "Slavonets" (1854; both Hermitage).

Gradually, the historical painting of Belgium loses its leading role in the system of genres, and to the fore from about the 60s. household painting comes out. The genre painters of the mid-century, as a rule, imitated the artists of the 17th century, turning to the creation of entertaining scenes in taverns or cozy home interiors. Such are the many paintings by Jean Baptiste Madou (1796-1877). Hendrik de Brakeler (1840-1888) is very traditional in his subjects, depicting lonely figures at a quiet occupation in light-filled interiors. His merit lies in solving the problem of lighting and airy atmosphere by means of modern painting.

The capitalist development of the country, which took place at a very rapid pace after gaining independence, already in the 60s. posed new problems for art. Modernity is increasingly beginning to invade the artistic culture of Belgium. The younger generation of artists puts forward the slogan of realism, displaying the characteristic aspects of the surrounding life. In their aspirations, they relied on the example of Courbet. In 1868, the Free Society of Fine Arts was founded in Brussels. The most significant of its participants were Charles de Groux, Constantin Meunier, Felicien Rops, Louis Dubois. All of them came up with the slogan of realism, with a call to fight against the old art, with its themes far from life and outdated artistic language. The journal Free Art, which began publication in 1871, became the herald of the aesthetic views of this society. became known for paintings from the life of the lower strata of society. His manner of writing is close to Courbet. The coloring is sustained in dark restrained tones, emotionally corresponding to the painful gloominess of the depicted. Such is the picture "Coffee Roaster" (60s; Antwerp, Museum); here the poor are shown warming themselves on a dark, cold winter day outside by a brazier where coffee beans are roasted. Deep sympathy for the disadvantaged characterizes the artist's work.

Realism in Belgium very soon won a strong position in all genres of art. A whole galaxy of landscape painters appears, truthfully and at the same time diversely displaying their native nature - the so-called Tervuren school (after the name of a place located in a forest near Brussels). The head of the school, Hippolyte Boulanger (1837-1874), paints subtle, somewhat melancholy forest landscapes, similar in color to the Barbizon. More energetically perceives the nature of Louis Artan (1837-1890). Most often, he depicted views of the sea and coast. His smear is dynamic and resilient; the artist seeks to convey the changing atmosphere, the mood of the landscape.

Felicien Rops (1833-1898) occupied a special place in Belgian art. Despite the fact that the master spent a significant part of his creative life in France, he was an active participant in the Belgian artistic process. The rather scandalous fame of the artist - as a singer of Parisian cocottes often obscures his very important role in the cultural life of Belgium. Rops is one of the founders of the literary and artistic magazine Ulenspiegel (founded in Brussels in 1856) and the first illustrator of the famous novel by Charles de Coster (1867). The illustrations made in the etching technique give sharp and interesting incarnations of the images of the main characters of the novel. Rops was a brilliant master of drawing and an attentive observer of modern life, as evidenced by many of his works.

Belgian architecture until the end of the 19th century. did not create anything significant. In the first half of the century, several buildings were built in the style of classicism, marked by strict taste (Palace of the Academy in Brussels -1823-1826, architect Charles van der Straten; greenhouses in the Botanical Garden of Brussels - 1826-1829, architects F.-T. Seys and P.-F. Ginest). Since the middle of the century, unbridled eclecticism and the desire to create magnificent pompous buildings have been growing in architecture. Characteristic, for example, are the stock exchange building in Brussels (1873-1876, architect L. Seiss), the building of the Museum of Ancient Art in the same place (1875-1885, architect A. Bala). Prosperous Belgian capitalism seeks to create a monument to its power. This is how the building of the Palace of Justice in Brussels (1866-1883, architect J. Poulart) arises - one of the most grandiose structures in Europe, distinguished by a pretentious and absurd piling up and mixing of all kinds of architectural forms. At the same time, stylization plays an important role in the architecture of Belgium. Many churches are being built, town halls and other public buildings imitating Gothic, Flemish Renaissance, Romanesque style.

Belgian sculpture up to the last quarter of the 19th century. lagged behind in its development from painting. In the 30s. under the influence of patriotic ideas, several interesting statues were nevertheless created. First of all, it is necessary to note the works of Willem Gefs (1805-1883 - his tombstone of Count Frederic de Merode, who fell in revolutionary battles in Brussels (1837, Brussels, St. Gudula Cathedral), and the statue of General Belliard, standing on one of the squares of the capital ( 1836.) The middle of the century in Belgium, as in many other countries, was marked by the decline of the art of sculpture.

In these difficult years for monumental art, the work of the largest Belgian artist Constantin Meunier (1831-4905) is being formed. Meunier began his studies at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts in the sculpture class. Here, in the middle of the century, a conservative academic system dominated; teachers in their work and in their teaching followed the pattern and routine, demanding embellishment of nature in the name of an abstract ideal. The first plastic works of Meunier were still very close to this direction ("Garland"; was exhibited in 1851, has not been preserved). Soon, however, he abandoned sculpture and turned to painting, becoming Navez's student. The latter, although in those years a symbol of obsolete classicism, could teach a confident command of drawing, plastic modeling of form in painting, and an understanding of grand style. Another stream of influences on the young master at that time was connected with his friendship with Charles de Groux, with his acquaintance with the works of the French realists - Courbet and Millet. Meunier is looking for deeply meaningful art, the art of big ideas, but at first he turns not to a modern theme, but to religious and historical painting. Particularly interesting is the painting "Episode from the Peasants' War of 1797" (1875; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art). The artist chooses one of the final scenes of the uprising, which ended in defeat. He portrays what happened as a national tragedy and at the same time shows the unbending will of the people. The picture is very different from other works of the Belgian historical genre of those years. Here is a different approach to understanding history, and realism in the depiction of characters, and the penetrating emotionality of the depicted, and the introduction of the landscape as an actively sounding environment.

At the end of the 70s. Meunier falls into the "black country" - the industrial regions of Belgium. Here he opens up a completely new world, not yet reflected in art by anyone. Life phenomena with their completely different aspects of beauty dictated a new artistic language, their own special color. Meunier creates paintings dedicated to the work of miners, he paints types of miners and women miners, captures the landscapes of this "black country". The main note in his paintings is not compassion, but the strength of the working people. This is precisely the innovative significance of Meunier's work. The people are not as an object of pity and sympathy, the people as a creator of great life values, thereby already demanding a worthy attitude towards themselves. In this recognition of the great significance of the working people in the life of society, Meunier objectively stood on a level with the most advanced thinkers of the era.

In his paintings, Meunier uses the language of generalization. He sculpts the form with the help of color. Its coloring is strict and restrained - one or two bright colorful spots are interspersed in earthy gray tones, making the entire harsh range sound. Its composition is simple and monumental, it uses the rhythm of simple, clear lines. Characteristic is the painting "Return from the Mine" (c. 1890; Antwerp, Museum). Three workers, as if passing along the canvas, are drawn in a clear silhouette against the smoky sky. The movement of the figures repeats each other and at the same time varies the general motif. The rhythm of the group and the rhythm of the space of the picture create a harmonious balanced solution. The figures are shifted to the left edge of the picture, between them and the right side frame there is an open free piece of space. The clarity and generalization of the silhouette of the group, the laconism of the image of each figure give the composition the character of an almost plastic bas-relief. Turning to a new topic that fascinated him, Meunier very soon remembered his original vocation. Generalization, laconism of the means of plastic language could not be better used to sing the beauty of human labor. Since the mid 80s. one after another, statues and reliefs of Meunier appear, glorifying his name, constituting an era in the development of plastic arts in the 19th century. The main theme and image of the sculptor is labor, working people: hammerers, miners, fishermen, miner girls, peasants. The sculpture, which was previously limited to a narrow circle of conditional subjects and figures far from modernity, the people of labor entered with a heavy, confident tread. Plastic language, until then completely emasculated, again acquired weighty brute force, powerful persuasiveness. The human body showed the new possibilities of beauty hidden in it. In the relief "Industry" (1901; Brussels, Meunier Museum), the tension of all muscles, the elastic flexibility and strength of the figures, the labored breathing that tears the chest, heavy swollen hands - all this does not disfigure a person, but gives him special power and beauty. Meunier became the founder of a new remarkable tradition - the tradition of depicting the working class, the poetry of the labor process.

The people portrayed by Meunier do not assume exquisitely beautiful or traditionally classical poses. They are seen and presented by the sculptor in a truly real position. Their movements are rude, as, for example, in the strong, snooty "The Hauler" (1888; Brussels, Meunier Museum), sometimes even clumsy ("The Pudding Man", 1886; Brussels, Museum of Ancient Art). In the way these figures stand or sit, you feel the imprint left by labor on their appearance and character. And at the same time, their poses are full of captivating plastic beauty and strength. This is a sculpture in the true sense of the word, living in space, organizing it around itself. The human body reveals under Meunier's hand all its elastic power and severe intense dynamics.

Meunier's plastic language is generalized and concise. Thus, in the statue "The Loader" (c. 1905; Brussels, Meunier Museum), not so much a portrait was created as a generalized type, and this is what gives it great power of persuasiveness. Meunier refuses conventional academic draperies, his worker wears, so to speak, "overalls", but these clothes do not crush and do not shrink the form. The wide surfaces of the fabric seem to stick around the muscles, a few separate folds emphasize the movement of the body. One of Meunier's best works is Antwerp (1900; Brussels, Meunier Museum). The sculptor chose not some abstract allegories, but a very specific image of a port worker as the personification of a hardworking and active city. Severe and masculine head, fashioned with the utmost laconism, is firmly planted on muscular shoulders. Singing labor, Meunier does not turn a blind eye to its severity. One of his most striking plastic works is the Mine Gas group (1893; Brussels, Museum of Ancient Art). This is a truly modern version of the eternal theme of mourning by the mother of her dead son. It captures the tragic aftermath of the disaster at the mine. The mournful female figure bent in restrained, mute despair over the convulsively stretched naked body.

Having created countless types and images of working people, Meunier conceived in the 90s. monumental monument to Labor. It was supposed to include several reliefs glorifying various types of labor - "Industry", "Harvest", "Port", etc., as well as a round sculpture - statues of "The Sower", "Motherhood", "Worker", etc. This idea never found its final embodiment due to the death of the master, but in 1930 it was carried out in Brussels according to the sculptor's originals. The monument as a whole does not make a monumental impression. More convincing are its individual fragments. Combining them together in the architectural version proposed by the architect Orta turned out to be rather external and fractional.

The work of Meunier in a peculiar way summed up the development of Belgian art in the 19th century. It turned out to be the highest achievement of realism in this country in the period under review. At the same time, the significance of the realistic conquests of Meunier went beyond the limits of only national art. The remarkable works of the sculptor had a huge impact on the development of world plastics.

N. Stepanlin (fine arts); O. Shvidkovsky, S. Khan-Magomedov (architecture)

Already in the last decade of the 19th century. in the art of Belgium, the first signs of a departure from the democratic, folk foundations that shaped the work of the largest Belgian artist Constantin Meunier appear. The vitality and grandeur of Meunier's images were inaccessible to his younger contemporaries. In the future, the fate of Belgian art develops in many ways contradictory and dramatic.

The realistic trend that arose in Belgian painting in the 19th century was developed by such masters as Leon Frederic (1856-1940), Eugene Larmanet (1864-1940) and others. Ordinary people, their everyday life - this is the theme of the works of these masters, but in its interpretation they depart from the heroic monumentality, activity and integrity, so characteristic of sculpture and paintings by C. Meunier. People on the canvases of L. Frederick appear in a much more ordinary, everyday way. Mystical tendencies are combined in Belgian art with elements of naturalism, photographic accuracy in the transfer of landscape, type, with a special despondency, leading the viewer to the thought of the eternity of the tragic hopelessness of the world order. Even such a work as significant in its theme as “Evening of the Strike” by E. Larmans (1894), not to mention the painting “Death” (1904; both - Brussels, Museum of Modern Art), is distinguished by a mood of despair and aimlessness of action.

Most characteristic of the development of Belgian art is the work of James Ensor (1860-1949). From genre realistic paintings, Ensor gradually comes to symbolism. The fantastic, eerie images of this artist, his craving for allegories, the depiction of masks and skeletons, for defiantly bright, almost noisy coloring, was undoubtedly a kind of protest against the petty-bourgeois narrow-mindedness and vulgarity of the bourgeois world. However, Ensor's satire is devoid of a concrete social content, it seems to be a satire on the human race, and in these properties of his art it is impossible not to see the germ of further formalistic deviations in the art of Belgium.

J. Ensor occupies a special place in the graphics of Belgium. His original, full of nervous energy etchings are very expressive, they convey an atmosphere of inner excitement and anxiety. Particularly dramatic are the landscapes “View of Mariakerke” (1887) and “The Cathedral” (1886; both in the engraving room of the Royal Library in Brussels), built on a sharp and paradoxical contrast between the majestic creation of man and the crowd swarming like an alarmed anthill at the foot of the Gothic temple. The combination of satire with fantasy - the national tradition of Belgian art, dating back to I. Bosch - finds a new and sharp refraction here.

The literary symbolism associated with the name of Maurice Maeterlinck, the appearance in the architect and applied art of Belgium of new stylistic phenomena associated with the Art Nouveau trend (architect A. van de Velde and others), played a significant role in the fine arts of Belgium. Under their influence in 1898-1899. the “1st Latem group” was formed (named after the place where the artists settled, the village of Latem-Saint-Martin near Ghent). This group was headed by the sculptor J. Minnet, it included G. van de Wusteine, V. de Sadeler and others. Their work was based on the idea of the priority of the "higher" spiritual world over reality. Overcoming impressionistic trends, these masters tried to move away "from the surface of phenomena", "to express the spiritual beauty of things." The Latemians turned to national pictorial traditions, to the Dutch primitives of the 14th-16th centuries, but in their work, which most fully expressed the ideas of symbolism and then developed under the sign of ever stronger expressionism, they were, in essence, very far from those traditions to which they referred. II in the strict, beautiful landscapes of Valerius de Sadeler (1867-1914) and in the works permeated with mysticism of the younger member of the group - Gustav van de Wusteine (1881-1947) - there is no place for the image of a person.

At the beginning of the century, pointillism also received a rather strong development, the brightest representative of which in Belgium was Theo van Reiselberghe (1862-1926).

In the early 20s. the “2nd Latem group” was created, working under the influence of expressionism, although expressionism itself in Belgium, associated with the tragic events of the First World War, takes on a special color. The head of this direction was Constant Permeke (1886-1952). In the large, widely painted canvases of this master, the subjects familiar to Belgian art - land, sea, images of peasants - are painted in tones of tragedy and deep spiritual confusion. Through all the deliberate deformation, the emphasis on the spiritual limitations and rudeness of Permeke's peasant images, his sympathy and sympathy for people who allowed the artist to create emotionally impressive images breaks through. The gloomy, dull coloring, the indistinctness of the action, the immobility of human characters convey the mood of mournful forebodings and hopelessness (“The Betrothed”, 1923; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art).

Gustave de Smet (1877-1943), Jean Brusselmans (1884-1953) reworked the principles of expressionism in their own way, the first by simplifying the forms, attaching great importance to the compositional harmony of their paintings, the second by increasing, bringing to a piercing power the color system of their landscapes. Interest in color as a carrier of emotional impact in painting connected Brusselmans with the Brabant Fauvists group, which included R. Woutsrs, E. Taitgat, and F. Cox. Of particular value is the art of Rick Wouters (1882-1916). Passion for brightly decorative color combinations does not obscure for this artist the psychological qualities of his models; in contrast to the French Fauvists, Wauters is looking for plasticity, the volume of things - such are his “Lesson” (1912; Brussels, Museum of Fine Arts), the late “Self-Portrait with a Black Bandage” (1915; Antwerp, collection of L. van Bogart), “Nele in red" (1915; private collection).

Since the 30s. surrealism develops in Belgium, two representatives of which are becoming widely known - these are R. Magritte (b. 1898) and P. Delvaux (b. 1897). These masters are characterized by a combination of purely salon prettiness with a sick fantasy in the very combinations of individual parts of the composition, obsessive ideas of an erotic plan, etc. At the same time, “intimist” artists Albert van Dyck (1902-1951), Jacques Mas (b. 1905) worked with them. ), who limited their creativity to narrowly intimate landscape and genre painting. The painters L. van Lint (b. 1909) and R. Slabbink (b. 1914) were first associated with the "Intimists", who moved into the postwar and especially into the 1950s. to abstract painting, which was widely spread and recognized in Belgium.

Few of the masters of Belgian painting remain in the 20th century. in realistic positions. The most significant of them is Isidore Opsomer (b. 1878), the author of sharp, vitally expressive and deep psychological portraits (“Portrait of K. Huysmans”, 1927; Antwerp, Royal Museum of Fine Arts). Opsomer created a number of still lifes, very picturesque, fresh and bright in color.

Social themes, the themes of the struggle of the Belgian people for their rights are heard in the works of Pierre Polus (b. 1881) and Kurt Peiser (1887-1962), and especially the young progressive artist Roger Somville (b. 1923), who also works in the field of monumental painting, stained glass and carpet art. Large thematic paintings on the themes of the struggle of the Belgian people are created by E. Dubrenfo, L. Deltour, R. Saumville, these artists work in close contact with architects.

The modern Belgian graphic school is characterized by a bold statement of new themes and new stylistic problems. In addition to the already named D. Ensor, Jules de Breuker (1870-1945) was the largest etcher in Belgium. His sheets are devoted to the life of urban slums, the social contrasts of the modern capitalist world. Breaker's piercing gaze sees the tragicomic side of life, and, despite the analytical nature of his work, they are fanned with deep compassion for people. In this sense, many of Breaker's sheets ("Death soars over Flanders", 1916) are connected with the folk traditions of Belgian art.

The most prominent representative of modern Belgian graphics is Frans Mazerel (b. 1889), who also worked in the field of monumental and easel painting. Maserel's creative activity is inextricably linked with the interests of the advanced circles of not only the Belgian, but also the French and German intelligentsia. Starting from the First World War, when Maserel came out with a series of sharp anti-militarist newspaper drawings, he asserts himself as a master who devoted his entire work to the struggle of mankind for high humanistic ideals. During this period, Maserel was closely associated with leading journalists and artists, and was friendly with Romain Rolland; at the same time, his work as an illustrator began, the first woodcut series were created (“The Way of the Cross of a Man”, 1918; “My Book of Hours”, 1919, etc.) - In these series, as in a silent chronicle, the life path of modern man passes, his struggle, the growth of his consciousness, his joys and sorrows. The sharpness of contrasts, brevity and expressiveness of visual means often bring Maserel's engravings closer to the poster.

Along with the greatest masters of modern European culture, F. Mazerel strives for the organic development of the traditions of democratic culture of the 19th century, the traditions of realism and humanism, and high, effective philanthropy. At the same time, while solving the fundamental social problems of our time in art, Maserel constantly strove to expand the means of realistic art, to create a new realistic pictorial language, consonant with the modern worldview.

The language of Maserel's engravings is characterized by brevity, pithiness, saturated with deep metaphorical associations. Mazerel's sheets have a subtext; for all their expressive catchiness, they unfold their content gradually. The depth of the author's intention is hidden not only in each sheet, but also in the ratio of the sheets of each thematic series, in their order, in their plot and emotional difference and ideological and artistic unity. The language of contrast, characteristic of engraving, in the hands of Maserel becomes a flexible weapon of social characterization, serves to convey the subtlest lyrical experiences and direct agitational appeal.

A series of engravings dedicated to the modern city (“City”, 1925) is magnificent. The expressiveness of the drawing and the whole composition never turns into excessive deformation, Maserel's language is understandable. Even resorting to symbolism (Siren, 1932), the artist does not deviate from pictorial concreteness, he consciously strives for clarity, for the opportunity to speak with people with his art. Notes of optimism are especially strong in Maserel's latest works, his series "From Black to White" (1939), "Youth" (1948), in the artist's paintings. Exposing the vices of modern bourgeois society, Maserel never loses a clear social criterion, he believes in progressive forces, believes in the final victory and greatness of man. Deeply folk art Maserel is imbued with the idea of struggle for peace, Maserel is an example of an artist-fighter, serving with his art the high ideals of justice. “I am not an esthete enough to be only an artist,” Maserel said.

L. Spilliart (1881-1946), who almost did not experience the influence of expressionism, is somewhat apart in the Belgian graphics, a master of lyrical, restrained in color watercolors (“A Gust of Wind”, 1904; “White Clothes”, 1912).

The most significant figure in Belgian sculpture of the 20th century is Georges Minnet (1866-1941). A student of Rodin, Minne had little to do with the creative principles of his teacher, his friendship with Maeterlinck had a much greater influence on the formation of his personality. Based on abstract, general ideas, Minne gives a somewhat abstract spirituality to his work. This is a master of subtle and precise transmission of gesture; the constant desire to express concepts, rather than specific manifestations of human feelings, leads the sculptor to some far-fetched images, distortion of the plastic form. Such are his "Mother Mourning Her Child" (1886, bronze; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art), "Young Man on Her Knees" (1898, marble; Essen, Folkwang Museum). In 1908-1912. Minnet turns to the present, his portraits of Belgian workers are based on careful observation of nature and continue the tradition of 19th century sculpture. At the end of his life, in drawings on religious subjects, the symbolic and mystical features characteristic of Minne's work appear again.

In general, modern Belgian sculpture is developing under the sign of naturalistic and formalist quests, with the exception of the work of Ch. Leple (b. 1903), who creates emotional, beautiful portrait busts and sculptural compositions, and O. Jespers (b. 1887), a master who deliberately imitates Negro primitives.

The medal art, traditional for this country, is being greatly developed in Belgium. Modern Belgian decorative ceramics (workshop in Dura), decorative sculpture (master P. Kay; b. 1912), painted decorative vessels with a desire for decorative brightness, naturalness of forms and decor, an organic connection with modern architectural interior.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. in Belgium there is a rapid growth of industrial and commercial cities based on the intensive development of the country's natural resources (iron ore and coal) and the predatory exploitation of vast African colonies. The spontaneous location of industry, private ownership of land, and the administrative independence of the suburbs (communes) characteristic of Belgium impeded the normal development and growth of large cities, reconstruction work in which was mainly limited to the improvement of the center and the development of urban transport. The aggravation of the housing crisis caused various forms of housing construction of "cheap" residential buildings for workers: joint-stock, cooperative and charitable societies.

During this period, extensive construction of new types of industrial, business and public buildings began in the cities of Belgium, reflecting both the development of the economy and the emergence of a new customer, in particular, such as the working class organized in trade unions - the construction of so-called people's houses on a cooperative basis. (for example, in Brussels, designed by the architect V. Horta in 1896-1899), where trade, cultural, educational and office premises were combined in one building.

In the early 1890s Belgium becomes one of the main (in European architecture) centers of struggle against the canons of classicism and eclecticism (including the so-called national romanticism). The Belgian architects A. van de Velde, V. Horta, P. Ankar, whose work during this period was characterized by the rejection of the stylistic eclecticism of architecture of the 19th century, were at the origins of the emergence of a new “style” - European Art Nouveau. and persistent attempts to find a modern style based on the use of the possibilities of new materials, designs and taking into account new functional requirements for buildings.

Henri van de Velde (1863-1957) was one of the largest representatives and ideologists of European modernity. He opposed the canons of the classics and "facade", fought for a three-dimensional composition, for a new approach to creating interiors and household items. At the same time, he was against the introduction of industrial methods of mass production into the processes of building buildings and the manufacture of household items, defended artisanal methods for the production of household products and advocated the individuality of each project.

The second largest supporter of Art Nouveau, Victor Horta (1861-1947), was the architect who not only applied the creative principles of Art Nouveau for the first time in practice (the mansion on Turen Street in Brussels, 1892-1893), but also largely determined the direction of the search for the architectural decor of this " style." At the turn of the 1880-1890s. For several years he was engaged in intensive laboratory formal-aesthetic searches for a new decor and was the first to use the elastic meandering line of “strike with a whip” (Horta line), which then became one of the characteristic features of all decorative Art Nouveau and became most widespread in almost all European countries at the end of 1890- early 1900s.

On the development of creative directions of Belgian architecture of the 20-30s. The fact that before the war Belgium was one of the main centers for the development of modernity could not but have an impact, and such major architects as van de Velde and Horta continued to work intensively in the postwar years, and although they moved away from orthodox modernity, but were very far in their work from radical innovation. True, van de Velde tried during this period to develop the rationalistic aspects of modernity. However, he actually experienced in his work a stage that, on the whole, had already been passed by the rationalist trends in European architecture in the prewar years. Horta, under the influence of American architecture (he was in the USA in 1916-1919), tried to spread neoclassicism in Belgian architecture using a simplified order devoid of decorative elements (Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels, 1922-1928).

Rationalist trend in the architecture of Belgium in the 20-30s. was associated primarily with the work of young architects, whose main field of activity was the so-called "social" construction of cheap housing, carried out by municipalities and cooperatives using state loans. This construction, due to the extremely limited funds allocated for it, required architects to use new effective building materials and structures in their projects, to create a rational layout of apartments. The construction of cheap houses was actually that creative laboratory, where architects, in the conditions of austerity, trying to create a relatively comfortable housing for workers, tried to use the principles of typification and achievement of applied sciences (for example, the requirement of insolation, that is, lighting with direct sunlight), introduced into mass housing modern sanitary and technical equipment, central heating, electricity, garbage chutes and built-in furniture, and also sought to connect the architectural image of the building with its new functional and constructive basis.

One of the first modern residential complexes not only in Belgium, but also in Europe was designed by Victor Bourgeois (1897-1962) near Brussels in 1922-1925. the village of Cite Modern (modern city). Here, planning techniques new for those years were applied: special landscaped places for recreation were provided in the quarters, playgrounds for children were arranged, and houses were placed taking into account the most advantageous orientation. Moreover, Bourgeois was so consistent in pursuing the principle of the most advantageous orientation of apartments that he designed a number of houses that could not be placed in the north-south direction for reasons of the general composition of the village layout (for example, to create a closed space of the central square), he designed with ledges (sawtooth in plan). Apartments in the houses of the village were designed with cross-ventilation and with mandatory lighting of all rooms with daylight. The external appearance of the houses reflected such features characteristic of reinforced concrete as a flat roof, corner and recumbent windows, and light canopies over the entrances.

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Of great interest from the point of view of the development of rationalist trends in post-war Belgian architecture is school construction, where the search for a functional solution to the plan and volumetric-spatial composition of the building, taking into account the new requirements of the educational process, was carried out in the same way as in the construction of cheap housing, in conditions of the strictest cost savings.

New trends in the field of architecture, although with difficulty, still made their way in the construction of unique public buildings. The International Exhibition of 1935 in Brussels became a kind of arena for the struggle of rationalist trends with neoclassicism and eclecticism, the traditional appearance of many pavilions of which hid their modern constructive basis. Such, for example, is the Great Palace of the Century, built according to the design of the architect Jean van Peek. The bold design of the ceiling of its huge hall (reinforced concrete parabolic arches) is not revealed in the external appearance of the building, the facade of which is a stepped composition stylized in the spirit of neoclassicism. However, already at this exhibition, in a number of pavilions (though not the main ones), new materials and structures (glass, reinforced concrete) were boldly used to create the appearance of a modern building.

The destruction caused by the Second World War required extensive restoration work. Moreover, unlike restoration construction after the First World War, when the desire to restore much in its former form prevailed, under the new conditions, restoration was combined with reconstruction work, especially in old areas of cities, where intricate planning and narrow streets caused transport difficulties. Broadcast urban plans, which were created in large numbers in post-war Belgium, ultimately came down to specific measures to unleash traffic in the central region of Brussels, timed to coincide with the organization of the 1958 International Exhibition in Brussels. In order to unload the transport network of the central part of the city from the transit traffic of passengers between two dead-end railway stations in Brussels, a through tunnel connected their tracks with an underground station in the city center.

Housing construction in post-war Belgium is of considerable interest. Here we can note the overcoming of the traditions of building cities with single-family houses with "vertical" apartments, individual premises of which are located on several floors, and a decisive transition to the construction of modern types of apartment buildings (sectional, gallery, tower), combined into residential complexes, including a number of public buildings (mainly household and commercial). Such residential complexes are usually located on undeveloped sites: the Kiel complexes in Antwerp (architects R. Brahm, R. Mas and V. Marmans, 1950-1955), on Manevrov Square in Liege (project by architects of the EGAU group, 1956) and others. Residential complexes are built up, as a rule, with houses of several types, and in order to increase the area of undeveloped territory, many houses are placed on supports, often V-shaped, which gives the composition of new Belgian residential complexes spatiality, a certain formal sharpness and originality.

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In densely built-up old areas of cities, where houses of different eras with narrow multi-storey facades stand in continuous rows along the streets, new houses have to be built into this “layer cake”. Moreover, Belgian architects do not seek in these cases to imitate the external appearance of neighboring houses, but boldly introduce a modern building made of concrete and glass into a number of houses of different eras, which gives a special flavor to the entire building. These new buildings are, as a rule, profitable houses, in the design of which architects have to show truly virtuoso skill and ingenuity, since a narrow plot makes it possible to arrange window openings only on the torns of the house (towards the street and into the courtyard).

Since the second half of the 50s. in Belgian architecture, the influence of the American variety of functionalism, the school of Mies van der Rohe, increased. First of all, this applies to the construction of office buildings, one of which is the Social Security Building in Brussels, built in 1958 according to the project of the architect Hugo van Cuijk. Successfully located on one of the high points of the city, this building is a flat high glass prism with a rectangular base, as if growing out of a wider stylobate. The building closes the perspective of one of the main thoroughfares of the city and is the compositional center of a complex but expressive ensemble, including the surrounding multi-temporal buildings and a picturesquely planned shady square in front of the building, in which numerous Msnier sculptures are placed outdoors. These realistic sculptures contrast sharply with the building's modern appearance, whose urban character is further emphasized by the stream of cars speeding along the modern highway, which leads into the tunnel near the building.

One of the most famous and undoubtedly one of the best works of Belgian architecture of the post-war period is the building of the new Brussels air terminal, built in connection with the 1958 exhibition by the architect M. Brunfo. In the planning and spatial composition of this building, both purely utilitarian and artistic tasks are successfully solved. The interior of the main operating room makes the greatest impression. The hall is covered with cantilever aluminum trusses 50 m long, resting on ^-shaped supports. One of the longitudinal walls of the hall has been turned into a huge glass screen facing the summer field.

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A significant event in the architectural life of Belgium was the International Brussels Exhibition in 1958. Belgian architects were directly involved in the creation of many exhibition pavilions and other buildings, the construction of which was associated with its opening. Among these buildings, one can note such peculiar structures as the Atomium (engineer A. Waterkeyn, architects A. and J. Polak), which can be classified as symbolic monuments; pavilion "Reinforced Concrete Arrow" - with a cantilever of 80 m (engineer A. Paduard, architect J. van Dorselaer), which demonstrated the constructive capabilities of reinforced concrete, as well as the Pavilion of the Information Center built in the center of Brussels, the ceiling of which is a saddle-shaped shell resting on two reinforced concrete supports in the form of a hyperbolic paraboloid, made of a wooden three-layer glued slab (architects L. J. Bochet, J. P. Blondel and O. F. Philippon, engineer R. Sarge).

There are several museums along the way. In this article I will tell you about the Royal Museums of Fine Arts in Brussels. Rather, it is a whole complex consisting of six museums.

Four in the center of Brussels:

*Museum of Ancient Art.
A wonderful collection of old masters from the 15th to 18th centuries.
The bulk of this collection consists of paintings by South Netherlandish (Flemish) artists. The masterpieces of such masters as Rogier van der Weyden, Petrus Christus, Dirk Bouts, Hans Memling, Hieronymus Bosch, Lucas Cranach, Gerard David, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, Rubens and others…
The collection originated during the French Revolution, when many works of art were seized by the invaders. A significant part was transported to Paris, and from what was stored, the museum was founded by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1801. All confiscated valuables returned from Paris to Brussels only after the deposition of Napoleon. Since 1811 the museum became the property of the city of Brussels. With the emergence of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands under King William I, the museum's funds expanded significantly.

Robert Campin. "Annunciation", 1420-1440

Jacob Jordanes. Satyr and peasants, 1620

*Modern Art Museum.
The contemporary art collection covers works from the late 18th century to the present day. The basis of the collection is the work of Belgian artists.
The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David - the death of Marat can be seen in the old part of the museum. The collection illustrates Belgian neoclassicism and is based on works dedicated to the Belgian Revolution and the founding of the country.
It is now presented to the public in the form of temporary exhibitions in the so-called "Patio" room. These allow regular rotation of contemporary art pieces.
The museum houses "Salome" by Alfred Stevens, the most famous representative of Belgian impressionism. And also such famous works as "Russian Music" by James Ensor and "Tenderness of the Sphinx" by Fernand Khnopf are presented. Among the masters of the 19th century represented in the museum, the masterpieces of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Gustave Courbet and Henri Fantin-Latour stand out. French painting of the late 19th century. represented by "Portrait of Suzanne Bambridge" by Paul Gauguin, "Spring" by Georges Seurat, "Bay" by Paul Signac, "Two Disciples" by Edouard Vuillard, landscape by Maurice Vlaminck and sculpture by Auguste Rodin "Caryatid", "Portrait of a Peasant" by Vincent van Gogh (1885. ) and Still Life with Flowers by Lovis Corinth.

Jean Louis David. "Death of Marat", 1793

Gustav Wappers. "Episode of the September days", 1834

* Magritte Museum.
Opened in June 2009. In honor of the Belgian surrealist painter René Magritte (November 21, 1898 – August 15, 1967). The museum's collection contains more than 200 works of oil on canvas, gouache, drawings, sculptures and painted objects, as well as advertising posters (he worked for many years as a poster and advertising artist in a paper factory), old photographs and films shot by Magritte himself.
At the end of the 20s, Magritte signed a contract with the Cento Gallery in Brussels and thus devoted himself entirely to painting. He created the surrealistic painting "The Lost Jockey", which he considered his first successful painting of its kind. In 1927 he arranges his first exhibition. However, critics recognize it as unsuccessful, and Magritte leaves for Paris, where he meets Andre Breton and joins his circle of surrealists. He acquires a signature style that makes his paintings recognizable. Upon returning to Brussels, he continues his work in a new style.
The museum is also a research center for the legacy of the surrealist artist.

*Museum of the end of the century (Fin de siècle).
The museum brings together works of the late 19th and early 20th century, the so-called "end of the century", mainly with an avant-garde character. Painting, sculpture and graphics on the one hand, but also applied arts, literature, photography, film and music on the other.
Mostly Belgian artists are represented, but also works by foreign masters that fit into the context. Works by artists who were members of the great progressive movements of Belgian artists of the time.

And two in the suburbs:

*Wirtz Museum
Wirtz (Antoine-Joseph Wiertz) - Belgian painter (1806-1865). In 1835, he painted his first significant painting, The Struggle of the Greeks with the Trojans for the Possession of the Corpse of Patroclus, which was not accepted for an exhibition in Paris, but aroused strong enthusiasm in Belgium. It was followed by: “The death of St. Dionysius", the triptych "The Entombment" (with the figures of Eve and Satan on the wings), "The Flight into Egypt", "The Revolt of the Angels" and the best work of the artist, "The Triumph of Christ". The originality of the concept and composition, the vigor of colors, the bold play of light effects and the sweeping stroke of the brush gave the majority of Belgians a reason to look at Wirtz as the revivalist of their old national historical painting, as the direct heir of Rubens. The further, the more eccentric his stories became. For his works, mostly of enormous size, as well as for experiments in the application of matte painting invented by him, the Belgian government built him an extensive workshop in Brussels. Here Wirtz, who did not sell any of his paintings and existed only as portrait orders, collected all his, in his opinion, capital works and bequeathed them, together with the workshop itself, as a legacy to the Belgian people. Now this workshop is the Wirtz Museum. It stores up to 42 paintings, including the aforementioned six.

*Meunier Museum
The museum was opened in honor of Constantin Meunier (1831-1905) who was born and raised in a poor family of immigrants from the Belgian coal mining region Borinage. From childhood, he was familiar with the difficult social situation and often miserable existence of miners and their families. Meunier captured his impressions of the life of the mining region in plastic forms, demonstrating a man of labor as a harmoniously developed personality. The sculptor has developed such an image of a worker, which reflects his pride and strength, and who is not ashamed of his profession as a loader or docker. Recognizing some idealization with which Meunier created his heroes, one must also recognize his great historical merit in the fact that he was one of the first masters to make a man engaged in physical labor the central theme of his work, while showing him as a creator full of inner dignity.

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