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ancient chinese architecture

Among the numerous and diverse cultural monuments of China, ancient Chinese architecture occupies a very important place. Outstanding examples of ancient Chinese architecture such as palace "Gugong", Sky Temple", yiheyuan park in Beijing, ancient the city of Lijiang in Yunnan Province, ancient living quarters in the southern part of Anhui Province and others have already entered the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List.

Kinds ancient chinese buildings very diverse: these are palaces, and temples, and garden structures, and graves, and dwellings. In their external appearance, these structures are either solemn and magnificent, or elegant, refined and dynamic. Nevertheless, they have a characteristic feature that somehow brings them closer to each other - these are the building ideas and aesthetic aspirations that are unique to the Chinese nation.

In ancient China, the most typical house design was considered frame-pillar using wood for this. Wooden poles were installed on an adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them - a roof covered with tiles.

In China, they say that "the wall of the house may collapse, but the house will not collapse." This is due to the fact that the weight of the house is supported by the pillars, not the wall. Such a frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but also helped to prevent the destruction of the house during earthquakes. For example, in the northern province of China, Shanxi, there is a Buddhist temple over 60 meters high, the frame of which was wooden. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it is very well preserved until today.

Other feature of Chinese ancient architecture- this is the integrity of the composition, i.e. an ensemble of many houses is immediately created. In China, it is not customary to build free-standing buildings: be it palace buildings or private premises, they are always overgrown with additional buildings.

However, structures in an architectural ensemble are not necessarily placed symmetrically. For example, buildings in the mountainous regions of China or the premises of a landscape gardening complex sometimes deliberately allow violations of the symmetrical shape in order to create a richer variety of building compositions. The pursuit of such a variety of forms during the construction of houses led not only to the creation of a single building style in Chinese ancient architecture, but also demonstrated its diversity at the same time.

The ancient architectural structures of China also have another striking character: they are subjected to artistic development, giving them a specific decorative effect. For example, the roofs of houses were not even, but always concave. And in order to give the building a certain mood, the builders usually carved various animals and plants on the beams and cornices. Similar patterns were applied to engraved and wooden pillars of rooms, windows and doors.

In addition, ancient Chinese architecture is characterized by the use of paints. Usually the roofs of the palace were torn with yellow glazed tiles, the cornices were painted blue-green, the walls, pillars and courtyards red, the rooms were lined with white and dark marble platforms that sparkled under the blue sky. The combination of yellow, red and green colors with white and black in the decoration of houses not only emphasizes the majesty of the buildings, but also pleases the eye.

Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are in dark coffee color. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises still exist in the southern provinces of Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

Development architecture in China happened much earlier than in most European countries. Architects designing temples and buildings in the traditional Chinese style, back in the first millennium BC. e. created real masterpieces, with innovative, at that time, design solutions. The most famous example is the Forbidden or Imperial City located in Beijing, which has survived to this day.

The influence of social and geographical conditions on the architecture of China

In the II millennium BC. e. in the North of China, slaveholding relations began to emerge, replacing the tribal ones. More efficient, bronze tools and the widespread construction of irrigation facilities contributed to the emergence of the first slave states. Evidence of the development of Chinese architecture of that time are the buildings destroyed by time near the city of Sanyang, the archaeological excavations of which allowed scientists to present to the world the palace and temple platforms, the bases of stone columns.

Despite the fact that there are many deposits of marble, limestone, and granite in China, Chinese architects gave the greatest preference to wood. Weymouth pine, bamboo, Korean cedar were especially often used. There was also an abundance of ordinary forest in China. Therefore, not all the unique buildings of the past have been preserved. The architecture of the Shang, Zhou and other eras can now be judged only by a few surviving stone structures.

Confucianism, Taoism, Chan Buddhism had a strong influence on the formation of the Chinese style in architecture. Wars and natural disasters were the main reason for the destruction of ancient monuments. However, the surviving buildings, dating from the feudal period, demonstrate a variety of architectural forms and decor used for decoration. Their construction began in the II millennium BC. e.

Folk traditions in Chinese construction have developed thanks to the Taoist practice of Feng Shui (“wind and water”). With its help, experts determined a suitable place for buildings and outbuildings, so that the flows of qi energy, favorable for humans and living beings, had a positive effect on them. Based on this, the main facades of the buildings faced south, thereby providing the most comfortable temperature in the interior. Taoist soothsayers created a separate science - geomancy and tied together the terrain, magnetic fields, cosmic forces, as well as the five original elements, heaven and Earth. Only with a positive result of the analysis, the selected site was suitable for construction.

traditional chinese architecture

Geometric figures formed the basis for the planning of various buildings and large-scale architectural complexes. Usually it was a square and a circle. The types of structures were legalized in accordance with religious canons. All parts of the building were also designed according to centuries-old traditions, the observance of which imposed a number of restrictions on the work of architects. The cities of Beijing, Luoyang, Chang'an have such a layout. There are several important features characteristic of ancient cities:

• The city walls of the ancient cities of China were oriented to the cardinal points, just like individual buildings, rooms.
• The height of the buildings depended entirely on the social status of the homeowner. The higher his rank, the closer to the city center he could settle. Commoners could only build a one-story house.

There was a strict division of cities into districts - residential, administrative and commercial. Recreation areas - parks - were allocated.

Roofs were subjected to especially strict regulations, the color of which should be as follows:

• golden yellow (only the roofs of the imperial palaces were painted in this color);
• blue (at the main religious buildings, symbolized heavenly purity);
• green (near temples, pagodas, court houses);
• gray (near the houses of ordinary citizens).

Ancient buildings of China

An example of a traditional layout is the city of Changyang 长安, founded by Emperor Liu Bang in 202 BC. e. In which, in 2 AD. e. already lived at least 500,000 people, 9 markets worked. But later the city fell into decay, and after the crisis, in 582, it was abandoned altogether. Its excavations have been going on since 1956, and it is located on the site of the city.

Researches of scientists confirm that the planning of the city was carried out strictly according to the plan. City walls oriented to the cardinal points. In each wall there are three gates with three passages 6 m wide. The main streets originated from the gate. The streets were divided into three parts. In the central part, 20 m wide, the emperor with his retinue, his messengers and the nobility could move. Two side lanes, 12 m wide each, served as roads for commoners. The residential quarters were rectangular.

There were a lot of palace complexes in Chang'an, since at a certain period of time the emperor lived in the city. In the 1960s, the most famous palaces of Changle Gong and Weiyang Gong were excavated. The Changle Gong complex was the first building in Chang'an. Built in 200 BC. e. It was the residence of the emperor, then the empress. This palace was located in the southeast. The wall that surrounded it was 10 km long, and the width of its base reached 20 m. The area was about 6 km². The complex occupied one sixth of the city, it included residential and public buildings.

The main places of worship in ancient China were oriented along the north-south axis. In accordance with the basic urban planning principles, all auxiliary buildings were located along the perimeter, symmetrically to each other. Buildings erected on an axis are always taller than others. An example is the Songyuesi Pagoda, built in Henan Province, on Mount Songshan in 520 AD. e.

Chinese style decoration

Stone reliefs from the Han period testify to the fact that ancient builders two millennia ago could build multi-storey palaces with multi-tiered roofs. The tile was cylindrical and on the edges of the roof was decorated with circles with wishes and drawings. The southern façade has always been considered the main façade. They installed the front door and windows along the entire plane of the wall. Only the pillars were the carriers. Traditionally, no windows were installed on the facade that faced the street.

The curved roof was like the branches of trees, the wing of a flying bird. It was believed that evil spirits could not move along it. Figurines of animals, heads of dragons served as protection against various evil spirits. But the roof served other functions, more practical. This fixed the deflections of the truss beams with hinged supports, and also protected the walls from getting wet. The interiors were decorated with wooden lattices, the stone walls were covered with drawings and landscapes. Window openings were covered with oiled paper, their shape was different - in the form of leaves, flowers, vases.

All decorations in the form of animals had their own meaning:

• The crane is a symbol of happiness.
• The flower represented purity.
• The figurine of a turtle meant longevity. It was believed that the bisi tailed turtle carries the universe.

In the art of China, a real cult of animals has always reigned. The fox, tiger, phoenix were especially revered. Elephants, camels and lions decorated the burials.

The traditional architecture of China has not disappeared even today. Ancient palaces have been converted into museums, folk festivals are held in ancient parks, and cultural recreation is organized. The number of tourists coming to China is growing every year, and the industry brings significant income to the state. The urban planning art of the Middle Kingdom still continues to influence architects in all countries of the world.

China is the largest country in Asia, its civilization has existed since the 4th millennium BC. e. and belongs to the most developed in the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Over several millennia of existence, Chinese culture has produced wonderful works of art and many useful inventions. Classical Chinese literature, philosophy and art have reached extraordinary heights.

Already in the third millennium BC. e. in China there was a fairly developed culture, the first period of prosperity of which dates back to the reign of the Shang dynasty (about 1300 BC), which replaced the Yangshao culture (mid-3rd millennium BC-mid-2nd millennium BC) .).

The first monuments of ancient Chinese culture were discovered during excavations in the 1920s. our century. They give an idea of ​​the Yangshao culture (mid-III millennium BC - mid-II millennium BC), which was replaced by the monuments of the Shang (Yin) era (c. XVI-XI centuries BC) .

It was mythological stage development of philosophical thought. The main ideas were about the sky, which gives life, and about the earthly beginning, as well as the cult of ancestors, the spirits of heaven and earth, which intricately combined the features of animals, birds and people. They were sacrificed with wine and meat, for which special ritual vessels were cast from bronze. On vessels of the Shang (Yin) type, the original forms of hieroglyphic writing were also found.

In the XII-III centuries. BC e. the mythological stage of development of ideas about nature ends. Teachings are developing Taoism And Confucianism which revealed the theme of the world and man in it in a new way. The mythological deities themselves began to be perceived more conditionally, but the image of a person becomes more specific. In vessels of the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. there are whole scenes of labor, hunting, harvesting.

Chinese culture reached its highest rise during the reign of the Zhou dynasty, which lasted about 8 centuries (up to the 3rd century BC).

Mind Cultivation Gate

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the unity of the empire was broken for several centuries. Only in the VI century. BC e. its reunification takes place. During this period, waging wars of conquest, the Chinese penetrate far beyond the borders of their empire, have an impact on the culture of other peoples, simultaneously experiencing their influence. An example of this is the penetration from India Buddhism, which attracted people of that time by its appeal to the inner spiritual world of man, the thought of the inner relationship of all living things .. Along with it, new types of places of worship appear.

In China, the first pagodas and rock monasteries are being built, consisting of hundreds of large and small grottoes in the thickness of the rock. The visitor moved along the rickety floorings and looked inside the grottoes, from where the Buddha statues looked at him. Some giants, reaching 15-17 meters in height, can now be seen because of the collapse of the front walls of the grottoes. The murals of the temples of that time amaze with the inspiration of the masters in depicting Buddhist scenes. In the Tang era (7th-10th centuries), landscape motifs appeared in the paintings. Nature becomes not only a background, but also an object of worship.

Such an attitude to the landscape was preserved in the Song era (X-XIII centuries), when this genre of painting became the highest expression of the spiritual quest of Chinese artists. According to the creeds of that time, the world - man and nature - is one in its laws. Its essence is in the interaction of two principles - "yin" (water) and "yang" (mountains).

In 1127, the entire north of the country was captured by the nomadic tribes of the Jurchens. The rulers of China had to retreat to the south, where the new capital of Hangzhou was founded. The shame of defeat, longing for the abandoned lands largely determined the mood of the art of the XII-XIII centuries. Nature became, as it were, the only consolation in sorrow, and new features appeared in its interpretation. It becomes more proportionate to the person.

The development of Chinese architecture found its manifestation in the construction of palaces, monasteries, and temples. Materials other than stone were wood, bamboo, reed, clay, as well as terracotta, faience, and porcelain.

The coming to power of the first emperor from the Han dynasty (from 206 BC to 220 AD) was of great importance not only for the unification of a huge empire, the borders of which have not changed since then, but also for the development of the Chinese culture that has become the basis of the Chinese worldview up to the present day.

Glorious moments of past history are displayed in works of art, virtues are extolled, vices are condemned. At the same time, creators of works of art often draw their inspiration from nature.

The Han era (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD) is famous for its burial complexes, to which "spirit roads" led, framed by statues of mythological animals. Underground burials, decorated with reliefs and paintings, were also marked by ground structures, which were decorated with flat reliefs inside. If, in general, the development of art is characterized by a tendency to abstract from reality, then in the Han period, special attention is focused on depicting the surrounding reality.

As a result of the penetration of Buddhism from India, new types of places of worship appear in China. First of all, these are pagodas, which are towers made of brick or stone, having several tiers with protruding roofs, and in addition, cave temples similar to Indian ones.

Just as in India, in China, under the influence of bamboo structures, some architectural forms took on a peculiar character, for example, the corners of the roof were raised, and the roof itself turned out to be slightly bent.

At the beginning of our era, new large cities arise, and the construction of palaces again becomes an important task, which were entire complexes of buildings with pavilions, gates and pools in the middle of architecturally elaborate parks. The Chinese are characterized by a special love for nature, manifested in a sensitive attitude towards it and perception of it as an important part of the living environment. This is expressed in the construction of temples, combined into symmetrical complexes, surrounded by landscaped gardens, in which there are separate pagodas.

In addition to cities, temples and palaces, hydraulic structures, canals and dams were built.

the great Wall of China

An outstanding technical structure was the Great Wall of China, the construction of which was carried out by several generations.

The Great Wall of China is the oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us, dating back to earlier than the 3rd century BC. BC e., when (after 228 BC) Emperor Qing-shi Huang-di, who united China, built part of the Great Wall of China. The ability to produce such complex buildings in the III century. BC e. testifies to the long preceding period of development of Chinese architecture.

Throughout the history of China, there have been three main walls, each 10,000 li (5,000 km) long. Some sections of the defensive wall were built even before that in various small kingdoms at war with each other in the north.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang (or Qin Shi Huang), considered one of the greatest despots in history, recruited an entire army of peasants, soldiers, criminals, and political prisoners to renovate damaged areas and connect these areas. So there was a continuous rampart going through the mountains along the border of his empire.

The wall was conceived as a fortification against the raids of the militant nomadic Mongols from the north, and also, in all likelihood, as proof of the power and greatness of the emperor. Thousands of Confucian scholars, branded and shackled, ensured the timely completion of the work. In the popular mind, this great building appeared as a “wailing wall”. One old legend tells that the wall was destroyed by the tears of a loving wife for her husband who died at a construction site.

The Second Wall was built during the reign of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) in order to protect against the Huns, who made regular raids on Chinese territory and damaged the Wall built by Qin Shi Huang. In 607 AD during the Sui dynasty, the building was reconstructed. During this period, a million workers were employed in the construction, and half of them died.

About 1 million people were already sent to build the third wall (Ming dynasty 1368-1644), then the wall acquired its current appearance. During the construction, special attention was paid to ensuring that each of the towers of the Wall was in the visibility zone from two neighboring ones. From its watchtowers, by drumming, smoke signals, and at night by beacons, information could be spread throughout the country at a speed never before possible. In addition, all along the length from the Wall to the central city, at a distance of one equestrian crossing from each other, there were small strongholds where a messenger with urgent news could change a horse.

The total length of the wall exceeds 5 thousand km. It is laid along the highest and impregnable mountain ranges, like a comb that has grown into their stone flesh. Designed to guard the frontiers of the Chinese Empire against nomadic raids from the north, the Great Wall of China stretched over numerous treeless hills from the Mongol frontier almost to Beijing.

A well-thought-out decision made her almost impregnable. The name “wall” is not accurate, since in reality it is a fortification 6.5 m high and 6 m wide at the base (it narrowed by 1 m towards the top), which included a defensive rampart and watchtowers set up every 120 m. The outer cladding is made of stone and brick, while the inside is filled with rammed clay, the total volume of which is about 180 million square meters. m.

The military significance of the wall, when it was manned according to its length, became enormous. The wall was not only a rampart, but also a road. Its width is 5.5 meters; this allowed five infantrymen to march side by side or five cavalrymen to ride side by side. Even today, its average height is nine meters, and the height of the watchtowers is twelve meters. Over the centuries, however, it was abandoned and collapsed. In the recent past, parts of it have been restored for sightseers.

The Great Wall of China is a symbol of China for both the Chinese themselves and foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the wall there is an inscription, The Wall is indeed a symbol of China, both for the Chinese themselves and for foreigners. At the entrance to the restored part of the Wall, you can see an inscription made by order of Mao Tse Tung - "If you have not visited the Great Wall of China, you are not a real Chinese." The Great Wall of China is an unusually impressive structure. It has withstood the influence of wind and bad weather for many centuries.

Architecture of the Han period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD)

We have a clearer idea of ​​the architecture of the Han period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD). Thanks to the clay models of houses, towers, etc. found in the burials, we got an idea about the type of buildings of this era. In 1933, in the province of Henan, a whole ensemble of clay models of dwellings was excavated, giving a vivid idea of ​​the estate of a petty feudal lord of the Han era. We can judge the authentic architecture of the Han era only by paired stone pylons, which were placed in front of some burial places.

Entirely preserved architectural monuments date back no earlier than to the 6th century BC. n. e. From this period until the 20th century works of Chinese architecture can be divided into two main chronological groups.

To the first group include architectural monuments from the 6th to the 17th centuries; The main features of the style of these monuments are monumentality and the predominance of constructive forms over the decorative side. In the monuments of the last three centuries, architecture is losing its monumental character; the value of the decorative and ornamental element is enhanced; finally, there is an overload of buildings with ornamental details, grinding and fragmentation of architectural forms. The architecture of the first period reflects the ideology of feudal society; architecture of the second period - the ideology of the bourgeoisie, emerging in the bowels of the feudal formation, and from the XV11I century. the features of the influence of European architecture can already be traced.

The oldest monument of Chinese architecture that has come down to us in its entirety and is accurately dated (523) is Songyuesi Pagoda in Songshan, in the province of Henan. It is built on a twelve-sided base and has fifteen floors; ends with a small stupa. In this last circumstance and in the use of arches above the niches of a pointed horseshoe shape, one can see the influence of Indian art, brought along with Buddhism, perceived by the top of the aristocracy.

Tang era architecture (618-906), when there was a great development of literature and art in China, it is also represented mainly by pagodas. The pagodas of this period are characterized by majestic-monumental forms, the originality of their verticalism, softened by a number of horizontal ledges. The material for the construction of pagodas in this era are stone and brick.

An example of stone pagodas is built in 681. three-storey pagoda in Xiang-ji-si, near Xianfu. This pagoda is characterized by simplicity and austerity of forms, devoid of decorations, except for the denticles on the cornices. One of the most remarkable brick pagodas - " Big Wild Goose Pagoda”, built in 652. This pagoda stands on a high terrace and has a height of up to 60 m. Its general appearance resembles an elongated pyramid with a truncated top. The impression effect of the "Wild Goose Tower" is achieved by well-balanced proportions, a massive form, enhanced by the position of the pagoda on a natural elevation.

Song period architecture (960-1280) also represented exclusively by pagodas. Other types of architecture of the Sung era have not reached us. A characteristic feature of the Sung period are iron and bronze pagodas, which are a peculiar feature of Chinese architecture. Related to the X century. the thirteen-storey iron pagoda at Tan-yang-hsiang on the Yang-tzu gives a number of new features of the little-studied South Chinese style. In particular, one can note in it a previously unobserved motif of a roof, bent in parts, over individual floors, and a more detailed ornamental cutting of the faces.

About architecture of the Ming era (XIV - XVII centuries) we have a much better idea, since from this era, especially from its second half, a rather significant number of not only pagodas, but also other religious and civil buildings have come down to us. Architecture of the Minsk period until the second half of the 16th century. still has a strict monumental character and to a large extent repeats earlier samples, but from the end of the 16th century. enters a new phase, which lasts the XVII - XIX centuries. and is usually characterized as “associated with bourgeois ideology”, and since the 18th century. and with influences from European art.

The Temple of Heaven was built during the Ming Dynasty in 1420, when Emperor Yong Le moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. In the next five centuries, imperial prayers were held here on the day of the winter solstice with sacrifices to the glory of Heaven with a request to send down a good harvest.

Especially characteristic of this period is the wide development of the architectural ensemble; a residential estate, a temple, a palace, etc., are a harmoniously organized architectural complex, planned according to a certain system. Of great importance both in the construction of individual buildings and in the planning of architectural ensembles were the rules of "geomancy" established by the religious tradition. Geomantics is based on the so-called " Feng Shui(wind and water).

This was the name given to the pseudo-scientific system that teaches how temples, cemeteries, and dwellings should be located in order to place them under the protection of favorable conditions and protect them from harmful ones. According to the rules of geomancy, the orientation of buildings along the north-south axis, adopted from antiquity, was established with the most important parts facing south - in the direction of greatest favor.

"Feng Shui" did not lose its significance even after the introduction of Buddhism and played a role in the construction of buildings throughout the feudal period. The slowness of the change in the architectural type of buildings was also due to the strict state regulation of construction.

Analyzing the architectural ensembles of the early Minsk era, let us first consider the plan Beijing (Beiping), organized according to the same basic principle as the residential, palace and temple complexes. Beijing is a typical example of a large Chinese city, which in its main features had developed by the beginning of the 15th century. Beijing is a complex of three cities surrounded by a common wall up to 12 m high and up to 20-24 m wide.

These cities are as follows: the Manchurian, or Tatar city, the length of the walls of which reaches 23 km, inside it is the so-called forbidden city surrounded by a special wall, with all the mass of buildings of the former imperial palace; and, finally, the third - a Chinese city, the length of the walls of which is about 16 km; in the middle of it, along the north-south axis, runs the main street; in its southern part, among shady parks, extensive temple ensembles are located: the temple of Heaven and the temple of Agriculture. The powerful walls of Beijing have numerous bastions, grandiose towers with gates of a simple and majestic style.

Turning to the consideration of palace ensembles, let's take for example such a complex complex as the former imperial palace in Beijing, which was imitated in the future when planning other architectural ensembles. Here, the layout along the north-south axis is observed in accordance with the rules of geomantics; on the sides of this axis there are a number of buildings, and between them - palaces, arches, etc. The buildings are buildings with galleries surrounding them on columns; the double arched roofs of these buildings are covered with colored tiles. The architectural ensemble here is closely connected with the landscape; here everything is buried in the greenery of gardens, so that the structure of the architectural complex can be perceived by the viewer only when he passes through the entire ensemble.

The same architectural composition and the same type of buildings are repeated on a smaller scale in other palace and temple ensembles. Regarding temple buildings, it should be noted that both Confucian and Taoist and Buddhist temples were built according to the same type.

At the end of the Minsk period, approximately from Wan Li era (1573-1619), elements of a new style are beginning to take shape in Chinese architecture. On the example of founded at the beginning of the XV century. and later repeatedly rebuilt (XVII - XIX centuries) ensemble of the former imperial palace, one can observe how architecture enters a new phase, how buildings during restructuring begin to acquire complex details, elaborate ornaments, as a result of which they lose their original monumental character.

A very striking manifestation of the new style can be buildings on the sacred mountain of Buddhists Wu-tai-shan, in Shanxi province. The terrace with five bronze pagodas presents a picture of the victory of new trends in Chinese art; we see here magnificently decorated roofs, complex, bizarrely shaped stupa; everywhere there is lace of abundant and complex ornament - an element of a kind of "Chinese baroque".

In the XVIII century. these decorative and ornamental tendencies continue in a sharpened and more developed form. At that time, in China, European-style construction arose, which, however, had little influence on the further development of Chinese architecture in terms of plans, structures, but in some ways affected the details, ornamentation, and decoration.

In the 40s of the XVIII century. French architects near Beiping built the Yuan-ming-yuan summer palace in the European Baroque style, from which only ruins now remain. From this, approximately, the reverse influence begins - Chinese architecture on European, which affected in the 18th century. buildings "in Chinese style".

August Choisy. History of architecture. August Choisy. Histoire De L'Architecture

The flow of influences, the direction of which we have traced from Mesopotamia to Persia and from Persia to India, did not stop there: the history of Chinese art does not stand alone in the general picture of the development of architecture. Chinese architecture, apparently, is connected with Mesopotamia with its origins. In turn, the impact of Chinese art on other countries, despite China's tendency to isolation, spread extremely widely, and this should be taken into account. Since ancient times, as a result of trade relations, along with Chinese products, Chinese ornamental forms have also spread. Thanks to the common Buddhist religion, constant relations between China and India were established over several centuries, which were also reflected in architecture; in a word, China has never been a world completely enclosed in itself.

The Forbidden City in the center of Beijing, the main palace complex of Chinese emperors from the 15th to the beginning of the 20th century. Ming era drawing

Note: The hypothesis of the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture was put forward in the 70s of the XIX century. French scientist Therrien de Lacouperie. This superficial and unsubstantiated theory is currently not supported by anyone. Now science is dominated by the opinion that the bulk of the Chinese population has lived in China since ancient times. This is confirmed by the results of recent excavations. Excavations by the Swedish scientist Anderson were carried out in the early 1920s. (See his An Earby Chinese Culture, Peking, 1923). Stone tools were found, painted pottery made with a potter's wheel; discovered a culture of the third millennium BC, belonging to the Neolithic period.

Historically, trade relations between China and the West can be established no earlier than from the 3rd century BC. BC e. The era of the Han Dynasty (3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD) includes China's trade relations with Central Asia, Persia of the Arshakid era, with India and Rome. The first acquaintance of the Chinese with Buddhism dates back to the middle of the 1st century. n. e., but Buddhism received any significant spread in China only starting from the 3rd century BC. n. e.

Simultaneously with the history of Chinese art, we will also consider the art of Japan that has grown on its basis. Japanese architecture is more graceful and free in its forms, but it seems to have the same constructive techniques as Chinese art. The originality of each people manifested itself only in the details of the application of these methods.

Note: Despite the fact that the architecture of China and Japan has some common features, that China in other periods had a significant influence on the development of Japanese art and Japanese architecture, Choisi's attempt to consider the art of China and Japan together cannot be recognized as correct. The art of each country should be considered on the basis of studying the socio-economic development of this country, in connection with other manifestations of ideology: religion, literature, etc.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

In China, as in ancient India, almost exclusively wooden buildings are built. This happens not because there is a lack of stone, but because of the abundance of resin-rich forest species suitable for construction. Wooden architecture is most in line with the utilitarian worldview of a country that does not look into the future. In Japan, with its volcanic soil, where buildings are constantly threatened by tremors, wooden construction is quite natural. In both countries, stone and brick are used only for parts of buildings exposed to dampness.

APPLICATION OF STONE AND BRICK

The Japanese, who have at their disposal mainly stones of volcanic origin, that is, stones devoid of a layered structure, use mainly polygonal masonry. The Chinese, on the other hand, having types of stones that split into layers, usually use this property of theirs for proper laying in rows.

In Japan, rows of masonry are rarely horizontal. In a longitudinal section, the masonry is a curve with a concavity facing the ground. A uniform of this kind was considered a guarantee against earthquakes; however, it is possible that in Japan, as in Egypt, this form was simply the result of using twine to level the masonry.

Rice. 126

China and Japan are countries with a highly developed ceramic industry; brick-making had long ago reached a rare perfection there. As early as the 3rd century BC. BC, when European peoples exclusively used unfired bricks laid on clay, minor parts of the Great Wall of China were built of fired bricks, or at least faced with fired bricks on a layer of clay as a mortar. Solid masonry is rarely used in the construction of walls in Chinese houses, hollow walls offer a twofold advantage: they require fewer building materials and better protect against sudden temperature fluctuations. Figure 126 depicts, according to Chambers's description, the masonry technique used in Canton until the 18th century.

Note: Excavations by the Swedish scientist Andersen in the 20s of the XX century. the presence of painted ceramics was established as early as the third millennium BC. By the second millennium, white ceramics with a “thunder line” decoration, as on bronzes of the same era, belong. From the Han era to our time, one can trace the continuous change in the style and technology of Chinese ceramics, which, along with Greek, is the most outstanding type of this branch of applied art.

The wedge arch, alien to India, has been used in China for a long time. Two examples of its use at the gates of Beijing date back to the 13th century, which corresponds to the testimony of Marco Polo. But, apparently, the Chinese knew only the box vault; the spherical vault, that is, the dome, was probably completely unknown to them.

WOODEN STRUCTURES AND FLOORS

Masonry is usually limited to the foundation of houses; the body of the building is built of wood. In Japan, in order to protect against earthquakes, the wooden parts of the building are left separate from the stone foundation: the wooden structure rests on its foundation, without being connected to it in any way. A characteristic feature of Japanese and Chinese wooden architecture, which distinguishes it from the architecture of other countries studied by us, are sloping ceilings.

In Egypt, Persia, even in India, usually the roofs are terraces, poorly adapted for the flow of water. For China, with its rainy climate, roofs are needed to ensure that rainwater flows completely.

China is the first Asian country to systematically use steep-pitched roofs. In simple buildings, the roofs are covered with straw, shingles or bamboo trunks, split and stacked one on top of the other like grooved tiles.

Rice. 127

Buildings of greater importance are covered with tiles ( figure 127), the shape of which, having a profile in the form of a French letter S, greatly simplifies installation. To protect against the destructive action of the wind, the tiles are laid on a layer of mortar, and for even greater strength, the external seams are also covered with mortar, forming small rollers B. In all cases, a crate with a greater or lesser angle of inclination is necessary to support the roof.

In China and Japan, battens are made of two kinds of materials: from the trunks of trees with a fibrous structure or from tree species with hollow trunks, such as bamboo. Only materials of the first kind are suitable for ordinary lathing, and since under the influence of the winds that exist in these countries, tree trunks usually bend more or less, curved lines in these constructions play a significant role. As for bamboo, it is suitable only for crates made by tying - a kind of architectural wickerwork, which is widespread throughout East Asia from Japan to the islands of Oceania.

Bamboo structures.- Consider, first of all, structures made of bamboo, i.e., of reed, the strong part of which is only the outer shell. On figure 128 shows the methods of linking the main parts of the structure: the pillar, puff and horizontal beam; the top of the column has the shape of a "fork", the teeth of which pass through the tightening and at the same time hold the longitudinal crossbar; the rafter legs are attached with a rope put on through spikes.

When hollow wood trunks are used instead of hollow bamboo trunks, the connection is made by means of a through cut A and, for the stability of the corners, is fixed with braces of flexible wood.

Rice. 128 Rice. 129

In light structures built from small wooden parts, the walls are formed from racks dug into the ground and connected by transverse struts secured with simple ropes; in the construction of the roof of such buildings, in addition to rafter legs and lathing, also oblique puffs are included, which divide it into triangles or serve as angle rafters that form the roof ridge. It is enough to look at drawing 129 to understand with what ease this type of construction allows not only to remove the roof ridge, but also to leave a gap R, intended both for ventilation and for lighting.

In buildings of small sizes, the roof structure is reduced to the elements shown in figure 130: corner rafters A, horizontal tightening S and crate of poles. These latter rest at one end against the rafter leg A, at the other against the puff S; it should be noted that the puff tied with a rope cannot be in the same plane with the rafters. As a result, the crate cannot form a flat slope, and a concave curve of the line is inevitably formed, raised to the corners.

Rice. 130

The raised edges of the roof (a bizarre shape so characteristic of Chinese and Japanese roofs) are the result of a system of fastening with ropes that does not allow puffs and rafters to be assembled in the same plane. The taste of the builder could emphasize this feature of a purely geometric origin, but fantasy did not play any role in the creation.

Note: Curved, curved roofs are not the original covering in Chinese architecture and do not at all reproduce the roof of a nomad's tent, as some scholars have claimed. As we can see on the clay models of the dwellings of the Han era found during excavations of burials, the roofs of houses in this era were not yet curved, so curved roofs appeared later than the Han era and, apparently, not earlier than the Tang era (618-907 AD). .).

Wooden structures carpentry work.- Wooden structures, in which instead of thin trunks, solid or hollow, carpentry material is used, nevertheless, they are influenced by bamboo structures, representing almost a variety of them. On figure 131 several examples are given, borrowed from the Chinese treatise "On the Art of Building" (Kong Ching-tso-fa).

Rice. 131

Support structure- usually from round wood, consists of vertical racks connected by means of spikes with horizontal runs. There are no inclined braces that prevent the deformation of our wooden structures. The only guarantee of stability is the strength of the spikes. The stability of our wooden structures is ensured by non-deformable triangular joints; the Chinese, for this purpose, resort to rigid rectangular structures.

Thus, instead of a single post held in a vertical position by struts, we have ( see figure 131) paired risers, such as P and P, connected in their upper part by a bar T and thus forming a rigid and fairly stable system. In figure A, the main vertical post R passes through two floors, and on the first floor this post is duplicated by an external counter-post S, and on the second floor - by an internal counter-post N, which has a fulcrum on the ceiling beams of the lower floor.

The roof consists of round timber studs and rectangular horizontal purlins, reminiscent in shape, if not in purpose, of our carpenter's headstocks, braces and girders. The weight of the roof is transferred to the crossbar B by means of the headstock. In turn, the weight of the crossbar B is transmitted by means of two communication posts C, which are thus loaded only at the ends. Instead of straight knurling, curved materials are often used, which are not difficult to find in China. This design is a simple connection of vertical and horizontal parts; its principle is completely different from that on which the construction of our roofs is based.

Our truss truss has the form of a triangle, consisting of two inclined legs connected by a transverse part - a puff; rafter legs convert gravity into obliquely directed forces, which are destroyed by tightening resistance; in the Chinese design, the part corresponding to our rafter leg is missing. In turn, the Chinese tightening is completely different from ours in its purpose. Our tightening serves as a fastener, while the Chinese one is the bearing part of the bending structure, and therefore it is of little use for large spans, even if it is made of beams of a very large section. This primitive design technique, in which the tightening works to bend, was used by all peoples of antiquity, with the exception of the Romans; even the Greeks did not know another method.

Rice. 132 Rice. 133

On figures 132 and 133 some details of the monumental wooden structure are depicted. Figure 132 gives an idea of ​​the structure, the gradually protruding parts of which form a kind of console between the top of the post and the horizontal beams supported by it. One above the other, rims are sequentially arranged with a gradually increasing overhang.

Figure 132, A gives a general view of this design; figure 132, B- its components, namely: a pillar with grooves at the top in which the first rim is fixed, this rim itself and, finally, the second rim together with small cubic inserts located between both rims.

As a final example of timber structures on Figure 133, A the front gate is reproduced, the imitation of which we found in the Indian stupa in Sanchi. This is a door frame, the parts of which are held together with simple wedges.

Temples.- Religions that have left their mark on the architecture of China followed chronologically in this order. In primitive times there was a religion, probably akin to the astronomical cults of Mesopotamia.

Note: The opinion about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture is not currently supported by anyone.

The religion of Lao Tzu (Taoism) appears in the 6th century. BC e. along with the teachings of Confucius. Buddhism enters China in the 1st century BC. Christian era. Transferred from India, it fades in the 7th century. on native soil in order to penetrate at about the same time into Japan and to this day to establish itself among the peoples of the yellow race.

From its primitive cult, China has retained the tradition of sacrifices performed during the solstices in sanctuaries shaped like a terrace and reminiscent of Mesopotamian altars. Perhaps one should see reminiscences associated with Mesopotamia, also in the multi-storey towers, the images of which are found in ancient Chinese drawings, and in the pagodas in the form of towers, of which the tower in Canton is the most famous.

As for the architecture associated with the religions of Lao Tzu and Confucius, it has merged with Buddhist art so much that the monuments of both cults can only be distinguished by the details of the symbolic images.

In Japan, the monuments of the ancient Shinto cult differ from the Buddhist ones in the severity of style. In general, the history of religious architecture in both Japan and China is reduced to a description of Buddhist temples.

Figures 134, A and 135, A give an idea of ​​these temples, almost always in the form of two-story pavilions: the lower floor, with windows mainly from the side of the main facade, is surrounded by a veranda with a wide porch. The second floor is covered with a magnificently constructed roof.

Rice. 134 Rice. 135

This sanctuary is surrounded by a fence with porticos, reminiscent of a monastery, behind which are located hospitable institutions and cells of the bonzes. Wherever Buddhism flourishes, monastic life develops, and the enclosure of temples almost always encloses a monastery. The entrance to the fence leads through a portico, in front of which there are gates without alignments ( figure 134, B). On the square around the sanctuary there are reservoirs for ablution, bells, incense burners; immediately there are five- and even seven-story towers with balconies and canopies of bizarre and bold contours.

As with the Hindus, sacred enclosures are sometimes surrounded, in turn, by other enclosures, and the original temple forms, as it were, the core of a group of buildings, which gradually grows as a result of subsequent additions.

On the plains of China, these buildings are arranged according to the requirements of symmetry. On the mountainous surface of Japan, the monastic courtyards rise in terraces, which gives them a special picturesqueness. Centuries-old vegetation harmonizes here with architecture; the enclosed space is a hilly park where the temples loom in their graceful silhouettes. Hieratism is not so narrow here: the Chinese temple is official, the Japanese temple is a living individual work of art.

Tombs.- A Chinese tomb usually consists of a crypt hidden in a burial mound lined with trees and surrounded by a fence. Near the mounds of the royal tombs, temples are erected, to which alleys lead, bordered by colossal statues. At the entrance to the alley, triumphal gates rise, such as those depicted on figure 134.

Dwelling.- The style of residential buildings, apparently, is no different from the architectural style of temples. The Chinese do not have that sharp distinction between civil and religious architecture, which is observed among other peoples.

Just as for temples and tombs, an unshakable tradition determines all the details of the location of a residential building. In China, a special law determines the shape and size of dwellings for each class, and the rules prescribed by law seem to date back to the most remote antiquity. Reliefs from the Han Dynasty depict a house similar in appearance to the modern one: a pavilion-shaped structure with wooden pillars and a veranda on each floor. The pillars are crowned according to the pattern shown in Figure 132; the edges of the roof are bent upwards, and animal figures loom above the ridge against the sky. From these curious images, one can even determine the location of the service premises: in the basement there are kitchens; the first floor is intended for receiving guests; in the second there are rooms for women.

Note: In 1933, in the province of Henan, a whole ensemble of clay models of houses was excavated in a burial, giving a vivid idea of ​​the composition of the estate of a petty feudal lord of the Han era. This model of a small estate is kept in the Toronto Museum in Canada. It belongs to the 2nd century. n. e.; the length of the model is about 1.26 m. The estate is surrounded by a wall; the wall separates the front and back yards. The estate consists of 7 rooms: a covered entrance, a central house where the cult of ancestors and family ceremonies take place; there is a two-story room in the depths of the backyard with a sentinel window and 4 side houses (bedrooms, kitchens). Here the roofs of buildings, although sloping, are not yet curved, but straight.

Plan M (Figure 135) gives an idea of ​​the urban dwelling. The house consists of separate pavilions separated by small gardens. The plan we have taken as a model includes vestibule V, reception hall S, main hall C and office space R. If the site on which the building is located allows, then the dwelling is separated from the street by a front courtyard. By the decorations of the outer wall, which hides the interior of the courtyard from the street, one can determine the social status of the owner of the house.

The suburban dwelling, especially among the Japanese, consists of pavilions scattered among the greenery. The main room of the pavilion - the hall for receiving guests - goes across the entire width to a deep veranda. The rest of the rooms occupy the back of the building. The entire pavilion is raised above the damp soil and rests on a foundation in which holes are left for air circulation. The walls of the building consist of plastered bamboo lattice; the ceiling consists of thin lacquered wooden boards, and the internal movable partitions are light frames covered with paper wallpaper. Instead of glass, transparent paper has been stretched in the window frames, the shutters have been replaced by curtains; everything that, due to its fragility or massiveness, could suffer from an earthquake, has been eliminated.

The garden around these pavilions is an artificial landscape. There is no geometric correctness in it: winding paths are everywhere, uneven ground, unexpected effects, sharp contrasts.

Buildings of public importance and fortifications.- As an example of public buildings, we will confine ourselves to mentioning bridges, mostly wooden, sometimes hanging, which are thrown over canals in China, and over ravines in Japan.

In China, the main monument of military architecture is the Great Wall of China. This is a grandiose fortress wall with square towers; it was built in the 3rd century. BC e. to protect against Tatar invasions. We have very incomplete information about the details of this structure. At the heart of the plans for the military architecture of Japan, which we know somewhat better, is, apparently, a jagged line.

Note: Here, obviously, the nomadic neighbors of China in general are meant, since the Tatars appeared much later. The earliest part of the Great Wall of China was built shortly after 228 BC. e. under Emperor Qing Shi Huang Di, who united China; later it was repeatedly completed and rebuilt.

EPOCH. INFLUENCES

The peoples of Western and South Asia from Mesopotamia to India, in terms of their state system, represented monarchies or theocracies, where every intermediate link between the supreme power and the last subject was destroyed. Therefore, the works of these countries could not be anything other than monuments intended to glorify the authorities, before which everything else is of no importance.

China, on the contrary, is a country of the middle classes; the intelligentsia, merchants, and small proprietors occupy their definite place there and play no small role. The architecture of China, serving utilitarian purposes, is the art of the bourgeoisie, which, even in the construction of temples, is not so much concerned with the duration of their existence as with the immediate satisfaction of urgent needs.

Note: China around 1000 BC e. entered the period of feudalism. The bourgeoisie as a class takes shape and begins to acquire a certain significance around the 17th century. and especially under the Manchurian dynasty (1644-1912). During this period, bourgeois ideology also manifested itself in art. Thus, here Choisi relates the social phenomena of the last centuries to the entire history of China, where feudal ideology played such a large role, the remnants of which have not disappeared to this day.

External influences.- Chinese chronicles have preserved memories of China's relations with the countries of Western Asia since ancient times. Pottier translated descriptions of the campaigns of Emperor Mu Wang in Western Asia. And thanks to the brilliant commentaries we borrowed from the unpublished work of Fournier, the route of these gaits provides a clue to the sources of all influences. In the X century. BC e., i.e., in the era of the greatest flourishing of Mesopotamian culture,

My Wang occupied Mesopotamia, subjugated the Hittites, penetrated to the Mediterranean Sea and established a Chinese protectorate over Mesopotamia for 60 years. During this campaign, Mu Wang admired the multi-storey towers and took with him the architects who were supposed to build similar structures in China. These were probably the first examples of those terraced sanctuaries, of which the Temple of Heaven is a distant imitation, and from which multi-storey pagodas originated.

Note: The information reported here by Shuazi from the legendary history of China and his conclusions about the Babylonian origin of Chinese culture and art must be recognized as outdated and erroneous.

The beginning of the artistic culture of China dates back to this time. My Wang is interested in wood painting and lacquer making. Lacquer decoration appears to have been inherited from the Mesopotamian industry. Glaze was as well known in Mesopotamia as it was in Egypt. The methods of glazing from which the preparation of porcelain subsequently arose were probably taken by China from the Mesopotamian expedition. But the attention of the Chinese conqueror in Mesopotamia is drawn not only to art: he also admires the state of science. And, probably, then China borrowed its astronomical system from Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian philosophy astonishes the emperor, and there is no doubt that from Mesopotamia originated the principles of the sixth-century doctrine of Lao Tzu, a metaphysical doctrine so little in keeping with the positivism of the Chinese.

The era of Lao Tzu and Confucius almost coincides with the era of Sakiya Muni in India. This is the last time of active life. Then for China, as for India, there comes a period of immobility, hieratism, the dominance of narrow traditions.

In the II century. China is fenced off by the Great Wall of China and emerges from its isolation only at the beginning of our era, at a time when Buddhist propaganda resumes relations between it and India; it is then that Indo-Persian elements penetrate Chinese art.

Original elements of Chinese art and their distribution.- We have determined the role of foreign influences; Let us do the same with respect to the original genius of the Chinese people. The carpentry art of China originated, apparently, on the soil of this country. The sloping roof system belongs entirely to China. And the design of the whisks described above is too different from the designs adopted in India in order to be able to attribute an Indian origin to them. Reproductions of this construction, as well as of sloping roofs, we find with all the details on the reliefs of the first centuries of our era. Obviously, we find them there not at the first stage of their development, but we are dealing with works of art that has long been established.

Relations with India affect only the details of the ornament. The ancient decoration of a realistic character gives way to the creativity of the Hindu fantasy. This is the only result of intercourse between China and India, caused by a common religion and lasting 600 years. The return of India to Brahminism in the 8th century. breaks both religious relations and the influences that mutually linked the architecture of both countries. In the same era, China transferred to Japan, along with the doctrines of Buddhism, its art and its literature. At the same time, the art of China spread to the eastern limits of the Asian continent.

Yu Yuan Gardens is an ancient architecture of the Ming and Qing Dynasty in southeast China. This garden was built by a high-ranking chief Peng Yunduan in 1577. The name of the garden Yu means in Chinese "relaxation", "satisfaction". It was built for the parents of a wealthy official to enjoy the beauty. In 1760, the gardens of Yu were bought by patrons, but they had to restore the garden and buildings for 20 years. And in the 19th century, the gardens were destroyed and only in 1956 they were restored again. Yu Yuan Gardens cover an area of ​​20 thousand square meters. meters, but it is unlikely that the numbers can convey the grandeur and beauty of the gardens, whose history dates back to the Ming Dynasty and is four hundred years old. Picturesque pavilions, rock gardens, ponds and monasteries, not to mention the magnificent landscapes. Architecture of ancient civilizations of America

The identity of China's architecture

The architecture of China has a number of traditional features inherent only to it, and the nature of decoration makes it possible to recognize Chinese buildings all over the world.

Most of the buildings of Ancient China were built of wood, which was typical for residential buildings and for the imperial palace. The construction consisted of wooden pillars, which were connected to each other by beams, which in turn served as the foundation of the building, and the roof, covered with tiles, completed the construction. The openings were filled with bamboo, clay, bricks.

One of the first to use the "flow method" in architecture was the ancient Chinese. The peculiarity of the method was that, based on the standard size of the structure, it was possible to accurately determine the size of its remaining parts, which allowed builders to manufacture separately from the general structure of the building, and then assemble the parts on site. This method of construction allowed Chinese builders to significantly reduce the time for building a building.

Remark 1

Examples of this are the Forbidden City in Beijing - the imperial residence, 720 thousand square meters of which were built in just 13 years, while it took about three decades to erect the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Possessing flexibility and elasticity, wooden buildings, unlike stone ones, were more resistant to earthquakes. However, for many advantages, wooden structures turned out to be relatively short-lived and fire hazardous. Many architectural monuments were damaged or not preserved at all as a result of lightning strikes or fires.

The architecture of China is distinguished by its bright originality. Its main principles and style developed in the third century BC. Like other countries of the East, it is characterized by adherence to once found and fixed by tradition forms, known for conservatism.

Buildings in China could be periodically rebuilt, accurately reproducing the forms of the previous structure. The main material for construction was wood. Although China is a large country with diverse climatic zones, various building materials may have been used in different regions. Pile structures were typical for the humid southern regions, while brick was common in the north. It depended on the purpose of the building (pagodas were built of stone), as well as on the social status of the owner. The emperor in China was elevated to the rank of a deity, and secular power was endowed with great power. Unlike India, temple buildings were rare in Chinese architecture.

Traditional Chinese structures are post-and-beam structures with wooden infill. The wall is a partition of insignificant thickness and does not carry a tectonic load. Despite the presence of a post-and-beam frame, revealed in the external forms of the structure, Chinese architecture is atectonical: traditional Chinese palaces and temples are characterized by high roofs with a strong overhang. But this is precisely one of the main features of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of its most attractive features.

Such forms of the roof are associated with a love for the decorative interpretation of forms, as well as with climatic conditions - an abundance of rain. The buildings were distinguished by a picturesque bizarre silhouette, with roofs arranged in several tiers. For pagodas, this was a characteristic feature. In secular buildings, several tiers of roofs spoke of the high social position of their owner.

Remark 2

The architecture of Ancient China is characterized by color combined with decorative elements.

The architectural forms are dynamic, the dougongs echo the silhouettes of the roofs. Picturesque and sculptural images of dragons were considered symbols of renewal, the protector of Chinese land and imperial power. The masters of China loved figurativeness, similitude and comparison, which is also characteristic of the art of other peoples of the East. So, the shape of the roof can be compared with the spread wings of a flying crane. At the same time, the natural motif is exposed to a frankly decorative interpretation.

The transition from beams to roofing was carried out with the help of a complex system of carved brackets arranged in several tiers - dougong, which are an important and original element of traditional Chinese architecture. Light, openwork also removed the feeling of heaviness of the architectural masses, the pressure of the ceilings. Dougongs, brightly colored and covered with carvings, performed not only a constructive, but also a purely decorative function (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Architectural painting of He Xi in the Forbidden City. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Basically, the structure of Chinese buildings is extremely simple. As a rule, this is a regular-shaped quadrilateral with beam ceilings. From individual cells of this type, more complex structures were formed. They could be supplemented by external porticoes. Along with the form of the roof mentioned above, they contributed to the connection of buildings with the natural environment. This relationship, as well as the significant role of space in the architectural image, is an important component of the style of Chinese architecture.

In the palace ensemble, vast free spaces create an atmosphere of solemnity, their paved surfaces contrast with elegant palace buildings. The most significant buildings are distinguished by their scale and the shape of the roofs (two-tier four-pitched roofs, which were supposed to be only for the most important buildings). The main chambers of the Gugong palace complex (Fig. 2) are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Complete Harmony and the Hall of Preservation of Harmony.

Figure 2. The Forbidden City in Beijing (Gugong). Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Architectural landmarks of China

The richness and unique style of architectural structures in China is very diverse, among them:

• palace architecture(Forbidden City, Mountain refuge from the summer heat)
• Temples and altars(Temple of Heaven, Temple of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Cereals, Residence of Heavenly Guides, Longmen Cave Temples, Fengxian Cave Temples, Mogao Caves, Yungang, Putozongcheng, Nanyue Damiao, Palace of Supreme Purity, Daqin Pagoda, Baochu Pagoda, True Unity Temple, Six Pagoda Harmonium, Porcelain Pagoda, Iron Pagoda, Tianning Temple).
• Memorial buildings(Temple of Confucius, Temple of Baogong, Pailou, Steles (on a turtle pedestal)
• tombs(Ming Dynasty Tombs, Hanging Coffins, Ming Changling Tomb, Qin Shi Huang Tomb)
• Bridges(Anji Bridge, Lugou Bridge, Baodai Bridge, curved bridges "moon bridge")
• Fortifications(The Great Wall of China, City Walls - Beijing (demolished), Nanjing (partially preserved), Wanping Fortress in Beijing)
• residential buildings(Siheyuan residential complex, serf-type residential complexes - tulou (Fujian), fortified mansions of diaolou (Guangdong), a typical peasant house of northern China - fanza, heated bench - kang).

Now only the lazy one does not talk about the incredible economic development of China, which is becoming a new superpower before our eyes. The architecture of the Middle Kingdom is one of the proofs of the greatness of this beautiful country. Our review presents 27 examples of incredible architecture in China that everyone should see.

A very original building for one of China's leading companies, Alibaba, was built in Hangzhou in 2009. The goal of its construction was to create the most open and free space that would contribute to a productive, but at the same time relaxed workflow. The headquarters area of ​​150,000 square meters can accommodate about 9,000 employees of the company.

Built in 1990, the 315-meter (including two antennas, the height of the building reaches 367 meters) skyscraper of the Bank of China for 3 years was considered the tallest building in Asia. What distinguishes the Hong Kong tower from most other skyscrapers is its unusual futuristic design, which has made the building extremely popular among residents and tourists.

The modern theater in the small town of Wuzhen, designed by Taiwanese architect Chris Yao of the ARTECH bureau, resembles two lotus flowers sprouting from one stem and fused together. Exquisite wooden screens cover about half of the facade, while the other part is covered with brickwork. This theater has become a real hallmark of Vuzhen.

Interior of the New Age Center

Built in 2010, the Novy Vek multifunctional complex is officially recognized as the largest solid building in the world. The area of ​​the building is 1.76 million square meters, which is three times the size of the Pentagon. The unique complex includes retail space, offices, conference rooms, a university complex, two commercial centers, two five-star hotels, an IMAX cinema and a water park with an artificial beach.

The construction of the basketball palace, designed for 18 thousand, was completed by the beginning of the Games in 2008. It was in this sports facility that the preliminary and final basketball competitions were held as part of the Olympics. Among the architectural features, it is worth highlighting an extremely unusual facade made of special artistic wood panels.

6. New Beijing International Airport Terminal

The new terminal, built for the Olympic Games by the legendary Baron Norman Foster, has a colossal size - 3.25 km long and 1.3 million square meters, which makes it the largest building in the world. It is interesting that the British architect tried to put into his brainchild all the understanding of Chinese traditional architecture - the red and gold scale, the sharp bend of the ceilings and the general silhouette, similar to the silhouette of a dragon, give the building oriental features.

7. Skyscraper "Taipei 101" in Taipei

Skyscraper "Taipei 101" in Taipei

Taipei 101 at sunset

The 509-meter skyscraper, built in 2003 in Taipei, is the fifth tallest building in the world. On the lower floors there are various shopping centers and service rooms, while the upper floors are occupied by the offices of the largest corporations from around the world. It is extremely interesting that the Taipei 101 skyscraper has the fastest elevators in the world, rising at a speed of 60.6 km / h. The Taipei Tower is considered the main symbol of Taiwan and one of the most important architectural structures in all of China.

The 27-story horseshoe-shaped building of the world famous Sheraton hotel chain in Huzhou was completed in 2013. Due to its shape, the building received the nickname "horseshoe". It looks especially bewitching at night, reflected in Lake Tahu and forming with its reflection the silhouette of the number "8". It is worth noting that this beautiful modern hotel is one of the ten most expensive in the world.

9. Olympic Stadium "Bird's Nest" in Beijing

Olympic Stadium "Bird's Nest" in Beijing

Bird's Nest in Beijing

Beijing's main Olympic venue was built ahead of the 2008 Games. The bowl of the stadium has a very interesting and unusual appearance, which was made possible thanks to the construction of high-quality steel coated with polymers. A fan who enters the stadium for the first time will be surprised by the thoughtfulness and integrity of the main symbol of the new Beijing - even the lamps along the paths leading to the entrances to the stadium look like miniature bird nests.

In 2009, the construction of a unique CCTV headquarters building in the Chinese capital was completed. The new headquarters of CCTV, located on 20 hectares of land, is considered the most significant project of the famous Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas. The modern skyscraper consists of two towers (54 and 44 floors), the height of the largest of them is 234 m. The two buildings are connected to each other using horizontal structures at the level of the last floors and at the base. Interestingly, because of such an unusual shape, the structure was nicknamed "big pants".

The sixth tallest building in the world was completed in 2008. The peculiarities of the Chinese landscape forced the chief architect, Dafyd Malotte, to create a structural system that could withstand an earthquake of up to 7 magnitudes. The structure of the 101-storey giant includes all kinds of shops, restaurants, conference rooms, offices of various companies and the highest observation deck, located on the 100th floor. The unofficial name of the complex is "opener".

12. Sports Center "Vostok" in Shanghai

East Sports Center in Shanghai

The main building of the sports center "Vostok"

The sports center "Vostok", intended mainly for holding various water sports competitions, is a complex of a multifunctional stadium, a special indoor water sports center, an outdoor pool and a large media center. The German architects from DMP designed all of these structures in the same style, and each of them resembles seashells. The main stadium is designed for 18 thousand people, the other two are able to take about five thousand spectators.

Built in 2010, Cube Tube is located in the new economic center of Zhejiang Province. The building, which consists of office and entertainment parts, was erected according to a system of rectangular modules, which are used both as windows with terraces and as decoration for interiors. Cube Tube has become the most significant facility in Jinhua, which attracts many tourists who want to enjoy the "square magic".

Multifunctional complex Galaxy Soho, designed by the unique Zaha Hadid in 2010, has become a real gem of Beijing. The complex consists of five domed structures without right angles up to 67 m high, smoothly connected to each other at different levels by a system of covered and open passages. The first floors are occupied by restaurants and shops, while the upper floors are occupied by offices of large companies. Galaxy Soho was Hadid's first work in China.

The modern building of the glass museum is a place for thematic exhibitions and presentations of products from the most popular and fashionable material. Particular attention should be paid to the unusual facade of the building - the outer walls are covered with polished and enameled dark glass. On the façade, one can read words in different languages, which to some extent are related to the transparent material.

Designed by renowned Japanese architect Kengo Kuma, Sanlitun Soho is a sunkun garden surrounded by various buildings in the style of the traditional neighborhoods of old Beijing. The Japanese also used the principles of human scale and a very high building density. The new complex was divided into four sectors according to the parts of the world, and the transitions between them are a system of winding labyrinths. Of particular interest are also the Sanlitun Soho cases, lined with multi-colored acrylic panels that change color with changing lighting.

17. Multifunctional complex "Circle" in Guangzhou

Multifunctional complex "Krug" in Guangzhou

Circle in Guangzhou

The 33-storey building with a height of 138 m was built in 2013 in Guangzhou according to the project of the Italian Giuseppe Di Pasquale. In the center of the "Circle" there is a round hole with a diameter of about 50 m. When the building is reflected in the river, an image is obtained that looks like the number 8, which is considered lucky by the Chinese. The Guangzhou complex is considered the largest round building in the world.

18. Gutai Art Center in Chongqing

Guotai Arts Center in Chongqing

Art Center "Gotai"

Completed in February 2013, the incredible building of the Guotai Art Center is located in the heart of the developing city of Chongqing. The building consists of two parts - the Bolshoi Theater and the Chongqing Art Museum. Interestingly, the author of this amazing project, Jing Quan, decided to use the traditional Chinese wind instrument "sheng" as the main idea.

19. Piano and Violin House in Huainan

Piano and Violin House in Huainan

"Piano and violin" with night illumination

The Piano and Violin House is an incredible building that was completed in 2007 in the small town of Huainan. It serves as an exhibition hall for the planned development of the city's newly established Shannan District. A transparent violin serves as an entrance area with escalators and stairs, while the main building of the complex is a huge piano. It is curious that the building, built on a scale of 1:50, gained incredible popularity among tourists and became almost the main "romantic" building of the country.

20. Oriental Pearl TV Tower in Shanghai

Oriental Pearl TV Tower in Shanghai

"Oriental Pearl"" with Shanghai in the background

The 468-meter Oriental Pearl TV Tower is the third tallest building in Asia (468 meters high) and the fifth tallest tower in the world. The giant sphere, which houses a revolving restaurant, dance floor and bar, has a diameter of 45 meters and is 263 meters above the ground. Especially popular with tourists is the observation deck with a glass floor, where you can feel like you are hovering over this huge metropolis.

The building of the ultra-modern shopping and entertainment complex Hanjie Wanda Square cannot leave anyone indifferent. 4 of the 6 floors are hidden under an amazing textured shell of patterned glass and stainless steel. The complex follows all the canons of traditional Chinese architecture, transferring them in a modern way. The building becomes especially spectacular at night thanks to LED lighting that emphasizes its shape.

The main attraction of modern Shanghai, the tower of Mao Jin is one of the highest in Asia. The main element of this building is the number 8, which the Chinese associate with well-being. The building's 88 floors are divided into 16 segments, each 1/8 shorter than the sixteen-story base, which is an octagonal concrete frame surrounded by eight composite and eight external steel columns. The building houses offices, a five-star hotel, restaurants and an observation deck on the 88th floor.

Beijing's Linked Hybrid residential complex, designed by American architect Steven Hall and built in 2009, is a system of eight towers connected by air bridges. The ensemble includes 750 apartments, a cinema, various shops, a hotel, restaurants and even a kindergarten with a school for children living in the residential complex. In the air bridges there is a swimming pool, a fitness center, tea rooms and cafes. linked Hybrid is an example of what a residential complex of the 11th century should be like.

The Hong Kong office complex Lippo Plaza was built in 1988 by American architect Paul Rudolph. The complex consists of two towers located at a distance of only a few tens of meters from each other with a height of 48 and 44 floors. The author of this ambiguous object came up with the initial idea of ​​creating a large complex of two towers resembling koalas hugging tree trunks. It is not surprising that the people call this building by the name of the main animal of China.

The building of the national water sports center, also known as the "Water Cube", became part of a large Olympic construction site and was officially opened in 2008. Of course, first of all, it is worth noting the unusual facade, reminiscent of a crystal lattice of water bubbles. This sports complex is an example of high energy efficiency - the surface of the building is able to receive solar energy and use it to heat water and premises.

Recently, in China, according to the project of the famous Chinese bureau MAD Architects, the construction of a new unique building - a museum in Ordos - was completed. The main feature of the museum, located on a hill, can be called its wavy structure of metal plates, which, in addition to the aesthetic component, protects the building from changes in the weather. The original object daily attracts hundreds of tourists who want to get acquainted with this masterpiece of modern architecture.

After numerous failures and freezing of construction at the design stage, China's main theater was finally built in the early 2000s. Resembling either a huge drop of water, or a flying saucer that landed in the Chinese capital, this incredible structure immediately fell in love with most local residents and guests of the Celestial Empire. The theater is a domed structure 212 meters long and about 47 meters high, made entirely of metal and glass. The building is located on the surface of an artificial lake, and underwater tunnels with a transparent ceiling serve as an entrance to it.

The modern architecture of China is constantly updated with new masterpieces, as evidenced by and. Obviously, such a luxurious architecture requires a lot of money. You will learn about how financially secure Chinese cities are from our review. The architecture of neighboring Japan also evokes special delight and respect among specialists, the main achievements of which will be described in our article.