When Sulla seized power he could not. Sulla's dictatorship

“New people” and “new citizens”. During the time of the Gracchi, a rebellion within the Roman state occurred due to the unrest of the common people, the peasants. After the deaths of the brothers, relations between the government and the horsemen became strained. The Senate tried to take away from the horsemen the courts given to them by Gaius Gracchus, and the horse judges, in retaliation, handed down harsh sentences to the senators. In addition, in Rome and other cities of Italy, wealthy, energetic people grumbled more and more loudly that both in the Senate and in the state, all affairs were run by a handful of noble families, to whom the people, according to custom, entrusted the highest positions. Consular power was transferred among the nobility, as the Romans themselves said, “from hand to hand.” A rich but not noble horseman who asked the people for a consular post was subjected to ridicule and persecution from well-born candidates who wore masks of famous ancestors. Due to opposition from the nobility, a simple candidate won consular elections very rarely: once every 20 - 30 years. The aristocrats contemptuously called such a winner a “new man,” i.e. upstart.

In addition to the “new people” in the Roman state of that time there were also “new citizens”. For a long time now, the Italian allies had been demanding to be recognized as citizens of the Roman state. In 90 BC. the allies rebelled and, after a two-year war, achieved that the Senate and the people granted them the right of Roman citizenship. The Roman nobility disparagingly called these former allies “new citizens.” Fearing that non-native Romans would not vote for members of the ancient Roman families in elections, the aristocrats established such an order in the popular assembly that the votes of the old Romans outweighed the votes of the more numerous “new citizens”. Because of this, the Roman oligarchs incurred the hatred of many tribes in Italy. The enmity of the “new people” and the “new citizens” with the nobility resulted in the first civil war. The beginning of this war was marked by a quarrel between two commanders - an aristocrat Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the “new man” Gaya Maria.

Guy Mari. Gaius Marius was born in the vicinity of the Latin town of Arpina into a family of Roman horsemen. He received the simplest upbringing - he learned to read, count and wield weapons. From an early age, Mari showed an ardent love for military affairs. During his first military service in Spain, he distinguished himself as the most disciplined and brave officer in the Roman army. Later, he discovered the talent of a great commander.

Mari had the virtues of an ancient Roman: he was stern, honest and fair. But next to his valor, there was immeasurable ambition hidden in him. Once fortunetellers predicted that he, a man without noble ancestors, would be consul in Rome seven times. Marius firmly believed in this prophecy and stubbornly moved up the “ladder” of positions to the very top - to consular power. Wanting to get closer to the ruling nobility, he even married the patrician Julia, but the arrogant aristocrats laughed at both the ambition of the “new man” and his soldierly manners: his gloomy appearance, his loud voice, the fact that he did not know Greek and was bored in theater Under the influence of attacks and ridicule, Mary's character became gloomy and vindictive over time.

Mari was already about 50 years old when the Romans became stuck in a long and shameful war with the African king Jugurtha. Year after year, noble Roman commanders covered themselves with dishonor: they either lost battles or stopped military operations for bribes. Finally, the indignant Roman people gave consular power to their own man - the simple and honest warrior Gaius Marius. Elected consul for the first time, he victoriously ended the war in Africa and immediately received a new appointment to the north: just at this time, huge hordes of German tribes - the Cimbri and Teutones - moved from the trans-Alpine countries to Italy. For four years in a row (104 - 101 BC), Marius, as the best commander, was re-elected consul to repel the northern barbarians.

Guy Mari

In 102 BC. he defeated the Teutons in trans-Alpine Gaul (modern France) who were advancing towards the Alpine passes, and in 101 BC. destroyed the army of the Cimbri in the Padan Valley, which broke through into northern Italy. In 100 B.C. Marius received the sixth consulate for these exploits. The fulfillment of the prophecy seemed very close, but after the disappearance of the external danger, the Roman nobility again ceased to take into account the retired six-time consul, leaving him to slumber in oblivion on the honorary benches of the Senate.

Military reform Maria. During his first consulate, in preparation to fight Jugurtha, Marius carried out important military reforms. Previously, all wealthy Roman citizens in the prime of life (17 - 45 years old) purchased weapons at their own expense and were drafted into the army from time to time - on the occasion of a particular war. Mari allowed the poor to enroll in his army. Now the soldiers began to arm themselves at the expense of the state and receive payment from the state treasury. Their service life was determined to be 16 years. Thus, the Roman people's army (people's militia) turned into a mercenary professional army. From then on, legionnaires felt more like soldiers than citizens. Their well-being now depended on the generosity and luck of the commander. Gradually, the order of the military commander became more important to them than the authority of state authorities.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Lucius Sulla, a rival of Marius, came from the patrician Cornelian family. He was not rich, but he was well educated: he loved books and was fond of Greek poetry. His youth was spent in Rome among fun and entertainment. Until his old age he retained his passion for friendly parties and theatrical performances; his favorite friends were always actors. Ancient historians describe Sulla's remarkable appearance: he had fiery red hair, a pale face and heavy, light blue eyes. This look betrayed hidden firmness and even cruelty of character.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

In his youth, Sulla seemed a frivolous slacker, but, finding himself in the army during the war with Jugurtha, he unexpectedly discovered energy and courage, earning the approval of the strict military commander Marius. At the end of the war, it was Sulla who captured the defeated Jugurtha, exposing his life to considerable danger. He constantly boasted of this feat in Rome, thereby downplaying the merits of Marius. Because of this, a deadly feud between Maria and Sulla began.

The beginning of the civil war. The army's first campaign against Rome. In 88 BC, 17 years after the end of the Jugurthine War, Sulla was elected consul. The Senate instructed him to lead an army to Asia, where the Roman possessions were attacked by the Pontic king Mithridates (Pontus is a state in the north of Asia Minor). A campaign to the East was the cherished dream of all Roman commanders and soldiers: ordinary soldiers hoped to capture rich booty here, and the leaders hoped to measure their glory with Alexander the Great. The old, forgotten Marius could not bear the success of his rival: with the help of the tribunes hostile to the nobility, he ensured that the people's assembly replaced the commander - the aristocrat Sulla, entrusting the war with Mithridates to him, the people's hero Marius. At the same time, there was a rumor that the new commander would recruit a new army. And then an unprecedented event happened: Sulla’s army, stationed in the south of Italy, refused to submit to the will of the people and moved towards its hometown. This is how his own military reform turned against Maria. The first war between citizens in the history of Rome began - the civil war.

Sulla's army entered numb Rome without a fight. It seemed that the commander himself was afraid of what he had done. Having sentenced Marius and several of his assistants to death, he hastily led the soldiers out of the city and soon went with them to the East.

Second capture of Rome. Mariana terror. Mari fled from Rome, having experienced many adventures along the way: he wandered hungry through the forests, hid from his pursuers in a swamp, and wandered on a ship from island to island. When news of Sulla's departure arrived, the old commander landed in Italy, calling to arms all the enemies of the aristocracy. Many horsemen and lowly senators ran over from Rome to him, and one of the newly elected consuls, Cinna, took his side. But most of all the “new citizens” gathered under the banner of Maria - Italians who dreamed of receiving full equality with the old Roman citizens. With an army that appeared as if from underground, Marius and Cinna surrounded Rome and again, for the second time after Sulla, occupied it as an enemy city. This time the capture of Rome was accompanied by terrible bloodshed: on the orders of Marius, soldiers searched the entire city, destroying the personal enemies of their leader and simply noble and influential people. Some killers overtook them at home, others were stabbed to death in churches, at altars, and others committed suicide. The surviving aristocrats fled from Italy to the East, to the army of Sulla. For the first time, Roman citizens experienced terror(literally - “horror”), i.e. mass lawless killings. Many famous commanders, orators, and statesmen died during the Marian terror. Marius himself, in accordance with the prophecy, was elected consul for the seventh time, but did not have time to enjoy the glory: tormented by a strange anxiety, similar to remorse, he drank a lot, did not sleep at night, and finally died on the 17th day of his last consulate, in the 70th year of his life, giving military commands in his dying delirium.

Third entry of the army into Rome. Victory of Sulla. For five years after the death of Mary, Rome was ruled by his supporters, the Marians - humble senators and horsemen, who were called “new people”. At the same time, in the East, the army of the commander, the aristocrat Sulla, successfully fought with the Pontic king. Having defeated Mithridates, Sulla led his army to his homeland, intending to overthrow the Marian government. The soldiers, pleased with the success and generosity of their leader, obeyed him without reasoning.

In Italy, Sulla had to fight with 15 Marian commanders, with numerous detachments from Italian cities. After almost two years of fighting, 1 November 82 BC, at the very gates of Rome, he entered into a decisive battle with a large army of Samnites, who fought on the side of the Marians. The battle began at noon, lasted all day and all night and ended only in the morning with the complete victory of Sulla. For the third time during the civil war, the Roman army entered the city it had conquered. The victorious commander was proclaimed dictator for an unlimited period to restore order in the state.

Dictatorship of Sulla. Proscription. Sulla returned to his homeland, surrounded by noble fugitives, as an avenger for the murdered friends and relatives, for all the dead aristocrats. His reign turned out to be even bloodier than the Marian terror. He ordered special lists with the names of former Marians to be displayed in public places; this entry was called proscription. People included in the proscription list were considered sentenced to death; They were hunted like wild animals, and their killers received generous rewards. In Rome alone, Sulla's soldiers killed 90 senators and 2,600 horsemen. Punitive detachments also raged in other cities of Italy. Maria's corpse was dug out of the ground and thrown into the river.

The dictator Sulla seized power by force, but he did not intend to become a ruler like a tyrant. His goal was to restore the dominance of the old patrician-plebeian nobility, to which he himself belonged. Under him, aristocrats again began to “reign” in the Senate. Having killed many horsemen, he returned the courts to the subdued senators, and made the power of the people's tribunes, dangerous for the nobility, powerless: now the tribunes could propose to the people only those laws that were approved in the Senate. The main support of the Sullan order were Sulla’s veterans (soldiers who had served time), whom he settled in the cities of Italy on the lands of the executed “new citizens.” In fear of these murderers, ready to take up arms again at the call of the dictator, the Romans behaved like cowardly slaves. Free speeches at the Forum fell silent, the dais from which the people's tribunes spoke was empty. The senatorial judges passed sentences that were pleasing to the nobles. No one dared to offend the dictator or any of the nobility with a single word.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born in 138 BC into an impoverished Roman patrician family, belonging to the noble aristocratic family of the Cornelii, which appeared in the consular fasts in the 5th century and gave Rome more consuls than any other aristocratic family. However, Sulla's branch appeared a little later. His first ancestor mentioned in fasti was the dictator of 333 Publius Cornelius Rufinus, his son, also Publius, was consul of 290 and 277. However, Publius Cornelius Rufinus the Younger was condemned under the law against luxury and the next two generations of the family (already bearing the nickname Sulla) did not hold positions above the praetorship, and nothing at all is known about the career of Sulla the father. Sallust speaks quite frankly about the extinction of this family, which has also become impoverished.
Plutarch claims that in his youth Sulla rented cheap premises in Rome. Nevertheless, he was apparently well educated and familiar with Hellenistic culture. All his life he had an interest and passion for the world of art. He willingly spent his hours of rest and leisure among bohemians, at merry parties with the participation of frivolous women, and even composed humorous skits himself, which were performed there. One of Sulla's closest friends was the famous Roman actor Quintus Roscius, which was considered reprehensible for a Roman aristocrat. The names of Sulla's three wives - Ilia (possibly Julia), Edim and Clelin, although they indicate a noble origin, do not reveal a connection with the ruling group of nobility. When in 88, Sulla, who had already become consul, married Metella, the daughter of the consul of 119 Metal Dalmaticus and the niece of Metella of Numidia, many considered this a misalliance.
As a military leader, Sulla became famous during the Jugurthine War of 111-105 BC. e. Then Rome fought against Jugurtha, the nephew of the deceased Numidian king Mitsips, who, in the struggle for the throne, killed his two heir sons. Jugurtha became the ruler of Numidia against the decision of the Roman Senate. In addition, when his soldiers captured the city of Cirta in 113, they killed the entire population there, among whom were many Roman citizens.
The Jugurthine War began unsuccessfully for Rome - King Jugurtha inflicted a shameful defeat on the Roman army under the command of Aulus Postumius.

A new commander, Quintus Caecilius Metellus, was sent to Numidia, but the war dragged on as the Numidians switched to guerrilla warfare. The Roman Senate appointed a new commander of the army - Gaius Marius. He, a native of a humble family in the province of Latium, was elected consul in 107.
However, Gaius Marius also failed to win a quick victory. Only two years later, in 105, he was able to oust Jugurtha and his warriors into the domain of his father-in-law, King Bocchus of Mauritania. This is where the Roman military leader, quaestor Lucius Cornelius Sulla, distinguished himself, who ended up in the army by chance - by lot. As a newcomer to military affairs, and even from the aristocracy, Sulla was not greeted very friendly by democratically minded military officers. However, he managed to overcome their prejudice very quickly. He managed to induce the Moorish king to hand over his son-in-law, the Numidian commander Jugurtha, to him. Having brilliantly completed a difficult and dangerous mission, Sulla became a war hero, which had twofold consequences for him. The propaganda of the optimates began to oppose him to Marius, which caused the latter’s dissatisfaction, and later, when Bocchus wanted to put a golden image of the scene of the transfer of Jugurtha on the Capitol, an open conflict occurred. Most likely, these events can be dated back to the time of the Allied War.
This greatly damaged Gaius Marius’s pride, since the victory in the Jugurthine War began to be attributed to Sulla. He had to make a rapprochement with the enemies of Marius, led by the Metellus family. And yet, the act of Lucius Cornelius Sulla could not seriously shake the authority of Gaius Marius - upon his return to Rome in January 104, he was given a triumphal reception. The captive King Jugurtha was led through the streets of the Eternal City, after which he was strangled in prison. Part of Numidia became a Roman province. And yet Sulla turned out to be one of the main heroes of that victorious war.
Sallust gives him the following description: “Sulla belonged to a noble patrician family, to its branch, which had already almost died out due to the inactivity of his ancestors. In his knowledge of Greek and Latin literature, he was not inferior to the most learned people, was distinguished by enormous restraint, was greedy for pleasures, but even more for glory. In his spare time, he loved to indulge in luxury, but carnal joys still never distracted him from business; however, in family life he could have behaved more dignified. He was eloquent, cunning, easily entered into friendly relations, and was unusually skilled in business. to pretend subtly. He was generous with many things, and most of all with money. And although before the victory in the civil war he was the happiest of all, yet his luck was never greater than his perseverance, and many asked themselves whether he was more brave or happier."
In 104-102, Lucius Cornelius Sulla took part in the war with the Germanic tribes - the Teutons and Cimbri, who appeared back in 113 in northeastern Italy. After the defeat of the Roman army in the battle with the Germans at Arauosina, the Senate appointed Gaius Marius as its new commander-in-chief. In 102, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae, he first defeated the army of the Teutons, and the next year, at Vercellae, the Cimbri. The remnants of these Germanic tribes were sold into slavery. The war against the Teutons and Cimbri added to Sulla's military glory. He became a popular military leader among the Roman legionaries.
The fact that Sulla remained legate and then military tribune of Marius in the German War shows that their relationship was still maintained at that time, but in 102 he became closer to the optimates, who paid attention to the talented officer. Sulla became Catulus's legate and took part in the battle of Vercelli. Probably, the successful actions of Catulus’s army were to a large extent his merit.
At the beginning of his political career, Sulla did not plan to become an aedile and was defeated in the praetorial elections of 95. Only in 93 he was elected, and in 92 he became propraetor of Cilicia and managed to carry out a successful diplomatic action against Mithridates, placing the Roman protege Armobarzan on the throne. In 90-89, Sulla became a legate in the southern army of the Romans operating against Samnium. After the wounding of the commander, consul L. Julius Caesar, he became the de facto commander of this army and remained so for 89 years. It was Sulla who defeated the Samnites, who represented one of the main forces of the rebels. The centers of the uprising Ezernia and Bovian fell, the remnants of the defeated Samnites and Lucanians went into the mountains. By the beginning of 88, the army besieged the last stronghold of the insurgents, the city of Nola.
In the 90s BC. e. On the eastern border of Ancient Rome in Asia Minor, the Kingdom of Pontus strengthens. Its ruler, Mithridates VI Eupator, openly challenges the mighty Rome. In 90, Rome came into conflict with Mithridates, and in 88, the armies of the Pontic king launched a surprise attack and captured Asia Minor and Greece. With the help of Mithridates, a coup d'etat took place in Athens, and power was seized by the tyrant Aristion (88), who, relying on the help of Mithridates, sought to achieve former independence for Athens. Rome began to lose its eastern possessions. The Roman Senate decides to send troops to Greece under the command of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was the elected consul of 88.
At this time, Gaius Mari reappeared on the political scene, wanting to lead the eastern campaign. He begins to fight for the position of chief commander of Rome with the help of a close friend of the deceased reformer Drusus - the people's tribune Sulpicius Rufus, who introduces a number of relevant bills to the Senate for consideration. Relying on the veterans of Maria's legions and part of the Roman aristocracy, Sulpicius achieves the adoption of the laws he proposed.
As before, Marius mainly pursued personal goals - obtaining an army and command in the war. Sulpicius counted on the help of the Marians in completing the reforms of Drusus. Sulpicius's first proposal was a law on the distribution of the Italians among all 35 tribes, which he submitted to the national assembly. Sulpicius found himself in opposition not only to the Senate, but also to the mass of old citizens in the popular assembly. The consuls declared justice, and in response to this, Sulpicius organized an attack on them. During the battle, the son of the second consul Kv died. Pompey Rufus, and Sulla, under threat of physical harm, reversed his decision. After this, Sulpicius passed the Italic law and the decision to appoint Marius as commander in the Mithridatic War.
Traditional methods of struggle were exhausted, but Sulla moved the conflict to a new stage. He went to Nola, where the army he wanted to lead against Mithridates was stationed, and turned it against Rome. The city was taken by troops. Sulla convened a national assembly, repealed the laws of Sulpicius, and declared Sulpicia, Maria and 10 leaders of their party outlaws. Sulpicius was killed and Marius fled to Africa. Probably at this time Sulla's law was being implemented, according to which any bill put forward by a tribune needed to be approved by the Senate.
The purpose of Sulla's coup was to eliminate the laws of Sulpicius, which was done. Nevertheless, the significance of this revolution turned out to be enormous. For the first time, the army was used in the struggle for power not as a political instrument, but in its direct military capacity. The conflict has moved to a new level. Sulla's position after the coup was quite difficult. Despite the fact that his army controlled the situation, the opposition remained quite strong. The party of Maria and Sulpicia was not defeated; many dissatisfied with Sulla’s methods joined it. The first symptoms manifested themselves in mass protest and demands for the return of the exiles. Consul Pompey Rufus was sent to receive the army of Gn. Pompey Strabo, however, when he arrived in the army, the mutinous soldiers killed him. Finally, in 87, the optimate Gnaeus Octavius ​​and Sulla’s opponent L. Cornelius Cinna were elected consuls.
Almost immediately after Sulla's departure, Cinna put forward a demand for an even distribution of the Italics across all 35 tribes and the return of the exiles. Octavius ​​opposed this, and the clash in the comitia turned into a massacre, which surpassed all previous ones in scale. About 10,000 people died. Cinna was deprived of power and exiled. Cornelius Merula became the new consul. Repeating the actions of Sulla, Cinna fled to Capua to the army that replaced Sulla's army that had gone to the east, and led it to Rome. The Senate supported Octavius, but some senators fled to Cinna. The rebellious consul was supported by new citizens, he managed to come to an agreement with the Samnites and conclude an alliance with Marius, who arrived from Africa.
The optimates concentrated about 50 cohorts in Rome, in addition, the army of Pompey Strabo came to their aid, although it was rather unreliable. Cinna clearly had the numerical superiority. The Marians blockaded the capital, famine began in Rome, and mass desertion began in the optimate army, especially in the troops of Pompey Strabo. After the latter's death from a lightning strike, his army practically disintegrated. Finally, Octavius ​​capitulated and the Marians entered Rome. One part of the remaining army surrendered, the other left the city with the praetor Metellus Pius, son of Metellus of Numidia.
Cinna was reinstated and Marius' exile was reversed. Both, without any national assembly, declared themselves consuls for the year 86. The victory of the Marians was accompanied by the massacre of political opponents. The victims were Octavius, Merula, Kv. Catulus, who supported the optimates, Crassus and Antony, etc. Marius was especially furious, recruiting a special detachment of slaves, which he called “bardians”. The repression reached such a scale that Cinna and Sertorius eventually surrounded the slaves with troops and killed everyone.
In January 86, at the very beginning of his consulate, Mari died. Cinna took his place. Like Marius, he ruled by usurpation of consular power, successively occupying the consulship in 86, 85, 84.
The commander Lucius Cornelius Sulla fought successfully during the First Mithridatic War. In mid-87, he landed in Greece and besieged Athens, which sided with the Pontic king. By the spring of 86, the city was taken and given over to the legionnaires for plunder. However, Sulla ordered the sack of Athens to stop, saying that he “has mercy on the living for the sake of the dead.” Having emptied the treasuries of the Greek temples, the commander of Rome declared that the temples should not need anything, since the gods filled their treasury.
When the army of the Pontic king Mithridates Eupator entered the territory of Greece, the Roman army under the command of Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeated it in two major battles - at Chaeronea and Orchomenus. The Romans again completely captured Greece, which tried to free itself from their rule. In August 85, Sulla concluded the Dardanian Peace Treaty with Mithridite VI Eupator.
After winning the war in the East, Lucius Cornelius Sulla began to prepare for the struggle for power in the Eternal City itself. First of all, he attracted to his side the army of the Marian democrats, who ended up in Greece, in Pergamon. This was done without a fight, and the quaestor, Gaius Flavius ​​Fimbria, who commanded the troops of Maria in Greece, committed suicide. After this, Sulla decided to start a civil war in Rome. Sulla wrote a letter to the Senate, announcing his intention to fight his enemies, after which the senators tried to reconcile Sulla and Cinna and even forced the latter to make a corresponding promise. Many of them fled to Sulla. In turn, Cinna accelerated preparations for war. In 84, he finally fulfilled his promise and passed a law on the equal distribution of Italians among the tribes, and then began to prepare troops to cross into Dalmatia. However, in Ancona, disgruntled soldiers rebelled, during which Cinna was killed.
At the beginning of 83, the Marians gathered more than 100,000 people, in addition, they had the Samnites on their side. The total force was 150,000-180,000 people, but a considerable part were recruits. Sulla's main army numbered 30,000-40,000 people; together with the forces of Metellus, Pompey, Crassus and his other legates, he could field about 100,000 soldiers. Nevertheless, the numerical superiority of the Marians was negated both by the worse preparation of their army and by the fact that among the Marians there were many supporters of a compromise, which included the consuls of 83 Scipio and Norbanus.
However, Lucius Cornelius Sulla also had many supporters in Italy from among the opponents of Gaius Marius, especially among the aristocrats and military men. The Roman troops, commanded by Metellus Pius and Gnaeus Pompey, took his side. A detachment of thousands led by Marcus Licinius Crassus arrived from North Africa. Unlike the new Marian legions, these were well-trained and disciplined troops with extensive military experience.
In 83, a major battle took place between the troops of Sulla and the Marians at Mount Tifata near the city of Capua. The Sullan legions defeated the army of consul Caius Norban. The Marians were forced to take refuge from the victors behind the fortress walls of Capua. The pursuers did not dare to storm the city in order to avoid heavy losses.
In the next year, 82, experienced commanders stood at the head of the Marian troops - the son of Gaius Maria Mari the Younger and again Kai Norban. In the battles between the Sullans and the Marians, the former won victories, since the combat training and discipline of Sulla's legions was head and shoulders above their opponents.
One of the battles took place at Faventia. Here the consular army under the command of Norbanus and the army of Sulla, commanded on the day of the battle by Metellus Pius, fought. The Roman consul Caius Norbanus arrogantly attacked the enemy first, but the Marian army, exhausted by the long march and not having time to rest before the battle, was completely defeated by the Sullan legions. After fleeing from Faventia, only 1 thousand people remained under the command of consul Norban.
The wise Sulla acted completely differently with another Roman consul, Scipio and his troops. He found the key to Scipio and with great promises won him over to his side.
Another battle took place near Sacripontus. Here the legions under the command of Lucius Cornelius Sulla himself were opposed by the 40,000-strong army of Marius the Younger. The battle was short-lived. Sulla's veteran legionnaires broke the resistance of Gaius Marius's poorly trained recruits and put them to flight. More than half of them were killed or captured by the Sullans.
Another result of Sulla’s victorious battle at Sacripontus was the flight of the Marian commander Caius Norbanus to North Africa. Mari the Younger with the remnants of his legions took refuge behind the walls of the city of Praeneste. Soon this fortress was taken by the Sullans by storm, and Mari the Younger, in order to avoid shameful and disastrous captivity, committed suicide. Significant forces of the Marians and Samnites, who escaped death in the battles of Sacripontus and Faventium, retreated to Rome, where they again prepared for battle with the Sullans.
On November 1, 82, the last major battle of the Civil War on Italian soil took place at the Roman Collin Gate. The Marians and Samnites were commanded by Pontius Celesinus, who dared to prevent Sulla’s army from entering Rome. The battle continued all night. Nevertheless, the experience, combat training and discipline of the legions prevailed. Eventually the Marians fled; 4 thousand of them were captured.
Entering Rome, Lucius Cornelius Sulla did exactly the same thing as his opponent Gaius Marius had done on a similar occasion. The beating and robbery of Marians began throughout the city. Both consuls died in this war. The Senate declared an interregnum. After these bloody events, which cost the lives of many thousands of people - soldiers and civilians, Lucius Cornelius Sulla received dictatorial powers from the Roman Senate, intimidated by him. Unlike an ordinary dictatorship, they were not limited in duration and depended on the personal will of Sulla. This gave him virtually uncontrolled power in a state with a republican system of government. Along with the dictator, the senate, city magistrates and other governing bodies continued to exist, but now they were under the control of Sulla and his followers.
The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla was the first step towards the establishment of imperial power in Ancient Rome. It began with the mass destruction of his political opponents. During the civil war in a number of Italian cities, such as Praeneste, Ezernia, Norba and several others, the Sullans destroyed the entire male population. Punitive detachments of legionnaires operated throughout Italy, searching for and destroying the obvious and secret enemies of the dictator. Some Italian cities lost their land holdings for supporting Gaius Maria. Others had their fortress walls torn down, and now they became defenseless in the event of a renewal of the civil war. The city of Somnius was especially cruelly punished, whose warriors fought until the last with the legions of the Sullans.
The resistance of the Marians in Sicily, North Africa and Spain was broken. The commander Gnaeus Pompey, whom Sulla awarded with the nickname the Great, especially distinguished himself in this.
In Rome, at the request of his supporters, the dictator began issuing the infamous proscription lists. The first of them included 80 names, later 220 were added, and then the same number. Finally, Sulla announced that he wrote down only those whom he remembered, making it clear that the lists could be replenished. Concealment of a proscript led to execution, and the children and grandchildren of those included in the lists were deprived of their civil rights. On the contrary, a monetary reward was given for murder or denunciation, and the slave received freedom. The heads of those executed were displayed on the market. Among those executed were many innocent people who became victims of arbitrariness or personal hostility of the Sullans; many died because of their own wealth. Valery Maxim determined the total number of those proscribed at 4,700 people, including 40 senators and 1,600 horsemen. These were probably only people belonging to the social elite; the total number of victims of terror turned out to be much higher. Children and grandchildren of those who were proscribed could not hold master's degrees. Many cities were punished by the tearing down of walls and citadels, fines, and the expulsion of veteran colonies. The result of proscriptions and terror was the destruction of the Marian party and Sulla's opponents. Mass confiscations were the dictator's means of paying back his supporters. Sulla himself and his entourage became rich.
Experienced in matters of state internal policy, Sulla from the first years of his dictatorship began to take care of having as many of his followers as possible. More than 120 thousand veterans of the Sullan army, who fought under his command against the Pontic king and in the civil war, received large plots of land in Italy and became owners of estates in which slave labor was used. To this end, the dictator carried out massive confiscations of land. Three goals were achieved at once: Sulla paid off his soldiers, punished his enemies and created strongholds of his power throughout Italy. If the agrarian question was once used as an instrument of democracy, then in the hands of Sulla it became an instrument of oligarchy and the personal power of a powerful dictator.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla distributed sums of money, magistracy and positions in the Senate to the commanders of his legions. Many of them became rich in a short time. The Roman dictator also made a huge fortune. Ten thousand slaves who belonged to the victims of Sullan repressions were freed and began to be called “Cornelians” in honor of their liberator. These freedmen also became supporters of Sulla.
Apparently, after some decline in the terror, Sulla began a series of constructive reforms. Sulla's reform activities affected almost all aspects of the existence of the Roman state. Sulla could not help but see that granting the rights of Roman citizenship to almost all residents of Italy destroyed the foundations of the polis system. If earlier Rome remained a community, the borders of which were guarded by an army - a militia of citizens, landowners, and the supreme power belonged to the people's assembly of the same citizens, now the situation has changed. Instead of the polis of Rome, the state of Italy appeared, instead of a militia army of citizens, collected from time to time, a professional army arose; it was no longer possible to convene a meeting of citizens due to the large number of citizens (the representative parliamentary system was unknown in ancient times). Sulla's reforms were aimed at strengthening the power of the Senate and limiting the power of the popular assembly.
The dictator carried out a number of reforms in order to restore the republican system. The power of the Senate increased significantly, which was replenished with 300 new members from among the Sullans. The powers of the consuls and the rights of the tribunes of the people were limited, who could no longer pass laws without the sanction of the Senate. Judicial commissions were given to the Senate. Italy was divided into municipal territories. A number of cities received municipal rights. The courts were returned to the Senate and it could control the magistrates. Censorship was eliminated, and all new quaestors, the number of which increased from 8 to 20, were automatically included in the Senate. The remaining magistracies were retained, but the powers of the magistrates were reduced. Sulla supplemented Villius's law, clearly establishing the order of positions: quaesture, praetor, consulate. Clearly referring to the practice of Marius and Cinna, he confirmed the prohibition of holding a second consulate earlier than 10 years after the first. The age limit was raised; you could become a consul only at 43 years old. The dictator made an attempt to tear the consuls away from the provincial armies, limiting their ability to leave Rome in the year of the consulate. The issue of distribution of provinces was decided by the Senate. The number of quaestors and praetors was increased, which contributed to the decline in the importance of these positions. Sulla struck a blow at the most democratic magistracy of Rome - the popular tribunate. All proposals of the tribunes had to be previously discussed in the Senate, i.e. the tribunate was placed under the control of the Senate.
The practice of civil wars was outlawed. This was recorded in Sulla's law on lese majeste. The law prohibited leaving the province and withdrawing the army, waging war and placing kings on the throne, unless this was sanctioned by the Senate and the people.
Having strengthened the power of the Roman Senate and his supporters in it, Lucius Cornelius Sulla decided to hold free elections and in 79 voluntarily resigned his dictatorial powers. Some researchers believe that Sulla lifted the dictatorship not in 79, as was usually believed, but in 80, having remained in office for the required 6 months. After this, he became consul, and in 79 he removed this consular power from himself. Most likely, Sulla took dictatorship for an indefinite period, which was a fundamental innovation, and abandoned it in 79. Thus, he was the first of the Roman rulers to place himself above the rest, creating a special power. At the same time, until his last days he retained enormous influence on the political life of Rome. Sulla's refusal of dictatorial power was unexpected for his contemporaries and incomprehensible to ancient and more recent historians.
Sulla's special position was emphasized by several other ideological aspects. He received the nickname Felix (Happy), Sulla's children from his marriage to Cecilia Metella were called Favst and Favsta. Arian mentions that after his victory Sulla erected an equestrian statue of himself with the inscription; In addition, the dictator achieved the title of Aphrodite's favorite. This constant emphasis on special happiness, characteristic of Sulla’s political activity, created, especially after the victory, the illusion of the special protection of the gods under which he allegedly was. This idea formed the basis of the cult of the emperor.
Sulla's departure has been explained in various ways by modern researchers. Mommsen considers him the executor of the will of the nobility, who left immediately after the old order was restored. The opposite opinion was expressed by J. Carcopino, who believes that the dictator strove for sole power, but was forced to leave due to opposition in his circle. However, in general, his hypothesis contradicts the facts. The departure was clearly voluntary, and its cause, apparently, should be considered a whole complex of factors. The main thing, perhaps, was that neither society nor its leaders, including Sulla himself, were ripe for permanent personal power and from the very beginning considered the dictatorship only temporary. Sulla was expected to restore the old republic, and this is how he himself viewed his activities. To top it all off, the dictator was terminally ill.
Sulla died in 78 BC. at the age of 60. After his death, the Senate oligarchy came to power, the power of which was strengthened by the formidable dictator.
The activities of Lucius Cornelius Sulla were contradictory: on the one hand, he sought to restore republican rule, on the other, he cleared the way for imperial rule. The civil war between Sulla and Gaius Marius was only a prologue for future civil wars in Ancient Rome, which seriously undermined its strength.
Characterizing Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Roman historians note a number of contradictions in his personality. Sulla enjoyed extraordinary authority among the legionnaires, but he himself was a selfish and cold man. His desire to restore the republic was combined with disdain for Roman customs. In Greek cities, for example, he appeared in Greek dress, which Roman magistrates did not usually do. Greedy for money, considering all the confiscated property of the convicted as his property, the dictator was at the same time a wasteful person.
Among the Roman rulers, Lucius Cornelius Sulla was distinguished by his education and knew Greek literature and philosophy well. He was an Epicurean and a skeptic and had an ironic attitude towards religion. But at the same time, he was a convinced fatalist, believed in all sorts of dreams and signs, in his destiny, and added the nickname Happy to his name. He considered the goddess Venus to be his patroness. In addition, under the name of the old Roman goddess Bellona, ​​he worshiped the Cappadacian goddess Ma, whose cult was particularly cruel.

Used sources.

1. Shishov A.V. 100 great military leaders. - Moscow: Veche, 2000.
2. World history of wars. Book one. R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuis. - Moscow: Polygon, 1997.
3. Mussky I.A. 100 great dictators. - Moscow: Veche, 2000.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Born: 138 BC e.
Died: 78 BC e.

Biography

Lucius Cornelius Sulla the Happy - ancient Roman statesman and military leader, perpetual dictator “to write laws and strengthen the republic”[! 3] (82-79 BC), consul of 88 and 80 BC. e., Emperor[! 4], organizer of bloody proscriptions and reformer of government. He became the first Roman to capture the Eternal City by force, and twice. He remained in the memory of posterity as a cruel tyrant who voluntarily renounced unlimited power. The ideological predecessor of the Roman emperors.

Origin and early life

Sulla came from a gradually fading noble family, whose representatives had not held senior government positions for a long time. The first known representative of this branch of the patrician Cornelian family was a dictator around 334 BC. e. Publius Cornelius Rufinus, but nothing is known about him for certain. Sulla's great-great-great-grandfather, Publius Cornelius Rufinus, was consul in 290 and 277. BC e., as well as a dictator (presumably rei gerundae causa[! 5]) in an unspecified year between 291 and 285. BC e. Soon, however, he was expelled from the Senate for violating the sumptuary laws - the censor discovered that he had more silverware in his home than was allowed for a man of his status. Lucius's great-great-grandfather Publius Cornelius Sulla, who held the honorary position of priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis), is the first to be mentioned under the cognomen Sulla. Sulla's great-grandfather and grandfather (both named Publius) were praetors in 212 and 186 respectively. The latter was governor of Sicily.

About his father, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, all that is known for certain is that he was married twice. Most likely, he was also not the first son in the family, since he received the name Publius, which was not passed on through his eldest sons, but another, Lucius. There is an unconfirmed assumption that Sulla’s father was a praetor, and then received control of the province of Asia, where he could meet the Pontic king Mithridates VI. Sulla had a brother, Servius, and a sister, Cornelia. Sulla's mother died when he was a child, and he was raised by his stepmother. When the future dictator was preparing to receive an adult male toga (that is, at the age of 14-16), Sulla the Elder died without leaving a will for his son[! 6].

Sulla grew up in poor surroundings. Subsequently, when Sulla became consul, he was often reproached for betraying his modest lifestyle[! 7]. Perhaps the poverty of his family mentioned in the sources was only relative - in comparison with other families who acquired enormous wealth during numerous wars, Sulla who did not occupy high magistracy did not have the opportunity to enrich himself through military trophies and extortions in the provinces. However, not having a home of his own at the end of the 2nd century was evidence of extreme poverty for a man of his origins. Lack of money did not allow Sulla to begin a military career, as many other young nobles did[! 8]. Sulla's wealth in his youth is estimated to be around 150,000 sesterces, although he probably had to pay off his father's debts. However, Sulla still received a good education. In particular, he had a good command of the Greek language and a good knowledge of Greek literature, but he did not try to start a career with judicial or political speeches - very popular occupations at that time.

In his youth, Sulla led a dissolute life (for this he is especially strongly condemned by his main biographer, the moralist Plutarch). According to Plutarch, Sulla regularly drank in the company of people unworthy of his position, and, in contrast to most Romans, at dinner “you could not talk about anything serious with Sulla,” although the rest of the day Sulla was extremely active.

Carier start

Jugurthine War

Sulla began his service a little later than others (following the cursus honorum beginners politicians) - quaestor in 107, subordinate to the consul Gaius Marius. Gaius Marius had to go to Africa, where Rome was mired in the Jugurthine War in Numidia against King Jugurtha (which began in 112 and resumed in 110). Sulla was to be accompanied by Maria in this war. There is an assumption that Sulla received the position of quaestor and command in the war thanks to his marriage to a relative of Gaius Maria. It is also noted that Sulla could have chosen Marius from two generals to join (the second was Lucius Cassius Longinus, who was soon defeated by the Germans). Sulla's first task was to gather a significant auxiliary cavalry army in Italy and transfer it to North Africa. It took Sulla only a few months to cope with this and establish herself at her best. Lucius soon managed to gain the respect of the warriors due to his skillful leadership of the troops at such a young age, although this may have been due to his charm.

Further events up to the return of the generals to Rome are known mainly from sources based on the memoirs of Sulla, which have not survived to this day, but were actively used by later ancient authors. Sulla's likely bias in his memoirs has led some historians to treat the details of the operation with distrust. According to the version preserved by Sallust, soon after Sulla's arrival, Marius sent a delegation to Jugurtha's opponent, King Bocchus, at the latter's request - Bocchus hinted that he wanted to say something important. Together with Sulla, who received the post of legate, another legate of Gaius Marius, the former praetor Aulus Manlius (or Manilius), went to Bocchus. Manlius occupied a higher position, but transferred the right to speak to the more skilled in eloquence Sulla; it is possible, however, that both of them spoke. Sulla negotiated, seeing as his main goal to ensure Bocca's loyalty to Rome in exchange for the position of "ally and friend of the Roman people" and possible territorial concessions. Sallust conveys the final part of Sulla’s speech as follows: “Be thoroughly imbued with the idea that no one has ever surpassed the Roman people in generosity; as for his military strength, you have every reason to know it.” Taking advantage of the opportunity, Sulla became close to the king. Meanwhile, Jugurtha bribed Bocchus' friends, and they persuaded him to stop contacts with the Romans. Thus, Sulla's life was in danger, although in the end Bocchus agreed to cooperate with Rome and sent an embassy there from among the most reliable people to make peace on any terms. However, the ambassadors were robbed by robbers, but Sulla, who by this time had received the powers of propraetor (pro praetore) from Marius, received them kindly and helped them in the future.

The ambassadors went to Rome and received a response containing an unambiguous hint that Bocchus was expected to hand over Jugurtha[! 9]. After this, Bocchus asked Sulla to come to him to discuss the details. Sulla rode out accompanied by a detachment of mostly lightly armed soldiers, and was soon joined by Volux, son of Bocchus. But on the fifth day of the journey, scouts reported the presence nearby of a large Numidian army under the command of Jugurtha himself. Then Volux invited Sulla to flee at night together, but Sulla resolutely refused, citing his reluctance to cowardly flee from the unfortunate Jugurtha. However, Sulla still agreed to march at night, but only with the entire detachment. To carry out his plan, Sulla ordered his soldiers to quickly refresh themselves and light large fires to create the illusion that they had to spend the whole night here. However, while searching for a new camp, the Moorish horsemen reported that Jugurtha was again in front of them, about three kilometers away. Many in the camp believed that it was an ambush organized by Volux and even wanted to kill him, but Sulla only demanded that he leave the camp. However, Volux denied his guilt and proposed a daring plan to Sulla: to go through Jugurtha’s camp with a small detachment, and as a guarantee, Volux, knowing that Jugurtha would not attack the king’s son, went with Sulla. They managed to get through Jugurtha's camp and soon arrived at Bocchus.

At the court of Bocchus there were people bribed by Jugurtha, with the help of whom it was planned to negotiate. But Bocchus secretly sent his trusted man, Damar, to Sulla with a proposal to conduct secret negotiations, while simultaneously misleading Jugurtha's people. During daytime negotiations, Bocchus asked Sulla to give him 10 days of respite to think, but at night direct secret negotiations took place between Bocchus and Sulla through the mediation of Dabar. Sulla managed to agree on peace terms with Bocchus, and the next day Bocchus sent Jugurtha's man to his court with a proposal to hand over Sulla to him in order to, by holding him as a hostage, achieve the desired peace terms. Soon Jugurtha arrived at Bocchus. True, according to the testimony of Sallust, all this time Bocchus was considering whether to hand Sulla over to Jugurtha or Jugurtha to Sulla, but in the end he decided to hand over Jugurtha to the Romans. Jugurtha's companions were killed, and he himself was captured by Bocchus's men. At the same time, the captured Jugurtha was handed over to Sulla, and not to his immediate commander Marius. However, Sulla immediately handed over Mari to Jugurtha. Thus, Marius was able to end the Jugurthine War precisely thanks to Sulla.

Soon Marius received the right to hold a triumph (it took place on January 1, 104 BC), but, according to Plutarch, even then in Rome they were talking about the fact that the war was still won thanks to Sulla. Although Marius had strengthened his authority in Rome through Sulla's actions, his ambition was so damaged that the episode marked the beginning of a long feud between Marius and Sulla. A little later, Bocchus erected statues in Rome depicting the goddess Victoria with trophies in her hands, and next to them - the scene of the transfer of Jugurtha to Sulla. According to Plutarch, this almost led to a clash between the supporters of Sulla and Marius. Later, around 62, Sulla's son Faustus minted coins depicting this scene.

War with the Germans

The end of the Jugurthine War roughly coincided with the defeat of the Romans at the Battle of Arausion on October 6, 105 BC. e., when the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio refused to carry out the orders of the consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus because of his low birth. Gaius Marius was elected consul in absentia in 104 BC. e. and prepared an army to organize resistance to the Germans.

In this war, Sulla was successively a legate (104 BC) and a military tribune (103 BC) for Gaius Marius, but soon relations between them became strained. Plutarch reports that at the beginning of the war, Marius “still used the services of Sulla, believing that he was too insignificant and therefore did not deserve envy.” In 104 BC e. Sulla captured the leader of the Tectosags, Copilla, which led to the end of their resistance, and soon managed to keep the Marsi tribe from entering the war on the side of the Germans and even persuaded them to enter into an alliance with Rome[! 10]. Sulla achieved noticeable success, so that soon Marius stopped giving him instructions, fearing the rise of his capable officer. However, at the beginning of 102 BC. e. Sulla moved from Marius to Quintus Lutatius Catulus. However, there is an opinion, based on reports of Catulus’ lack of military talent, that Sulla went over to Catulus, hoping to easily rise above the mediocre commander. There is also a version that Sulla, as a capable officer, could have been sent to the second consul by Marius himself.

In any case, with Catulus, Sulla, holding the position of legate, quickly gained confidence in him (it is possible that this was due to the fact that both of them belonged to ancient and noble families, but which faded over time) and soon achieved significant success. Thus, Sulla defeated the Alpine barbarians, and then skillfully organized the supply of the army. Sulla also took part in the decisive Battle of Vercella on July 30, 101 BC. e. and later described it in his memoirs. Sulla was with Catulus during the battle and, according to Sulla’s biographer Plutarch, was in the hottest part of the battle, while Marius was carried away by the pursuit of the Germans. It is assumed that the Roman troops of Catulus and Sulla, which Mari placed in the center, were not given a serious role before the battle, although in reality everything turned out differently. The Romans won a complete victory in the battle and permanently removed the threat from the Germans. Soon, despite disagreements between Catulus and Marius, who claimed a decisive role in the victory, a joint triumph was held in Rome.

Many of Sulla's achievements in this war are sometimes considered exaggerated due to the fact that the tradition describing the war mainly goes back to the autobiographies of Sulla and Catulus[! 11], which, apparently, were directed against Marius. For example, reports from later sources are interpreted as gross exaggerations: “as Plutarch writes, [Sulla] conquered “most of the Alpine barbarians.” Which ones exactly, however, are not specified. It seems that such negligence is not accidental - the legate’s victories were not so significant, and excessive specificity could only spoil the impression.” It is also suggested that Catulus' soldiers were positioned in a tactically insignificant center during the Battle of Vercellae due to their poor training.

Obtaining a praetorship

Soon after the end of the Cimbri War, Sulla tried to start a political career, wanting to return his family to its former high status. At first he took part in the elections of praetors, but was defeated. Sulla himself attributed his failure to the plebs, who sought to force Sulla to first go through the aedileth[! 12] and organize luxurious games with the participation of lions, using his friendship with Bocchus. Apparently, during the election campaign, Sulla relied mainly on his military successes, which was quite common.

However, Sulla was later elected city praetor (lat. praetor urbanus)[! 13], but achieved the position by bribery, for which he was later reproached. According to another opinion, he achieved the position in an honest way, taking into account all the mistakes of his first nomination and trying to please everyone. Perhaps the establishment of an “advertising” sculptural composition depicting the scene of the transfer of Jugurtha to Sulla dates back to this time. At the same time, Sulla, who never passed through the post of aedile, nevertheless organized the first major persecution of animals with the participation of 100 lions during his praetorship. In the year of praetorship, Sulla held games in honor of Apollo (lat. ludi Apollinares), which were first held by his great-grandfather. During his praetorship he also had a conflict with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, the details of which are unknown.

The exact date of his praetorship in the mid-90s is unknown[! 14]: Plutarch indicates that Sulla first participated in the election of praetor immediately after the end of the Cimbri War, and participated again and was elected a year later, that is, in 97 or 98; Velleius Paterculus[! 15] indicates that Sulla was praetor a year before the start of the Allied War. As a result, the Cambridge Ancient History dates Sulla's governorship in Cilicia to between 97 and 92. In Russian-language historiography, following Thomas Broughton, the version about the late praetorship of Sulla in 93 and the propraetorship in 92 was accepted as the main one for a long time. Since Ernst Badian, the more common view is that Sulla became the late praetor in 99. In Der Kleine Pauly the first attempt to obtain a praetorship is dated to the year 99, and the next year - to obtain a praetorship for the year 97. A similar opinion was shared by the author of the biography of Sulla, Francois Inard, and the historian Howard Scullard.

Viceroyalty in Cilicia

After praetorship in Rome, Sulla went to Cilicia, where he was governor (possibly with the rank of proconsul). On behalf of the Senate, Sulla tried to place the pro-Roman Ariobarzanes I, who received the nickname Philoromeus (loving the Romans), on the throne in neighboring Cappadocia. Around 97, Ariobarzanes was elected to the throne by a pro-Roman group, after which the Pontic king Mithridates VI tried to overthrow Ariobarzanes by proxy. Therefore, Sulla, who had a small detachment, had to face the Cappadocian usurper Gordius and the Armenian king Tigran II, whose army was defeated by Sulla. During his governorship, Sulla was also the first Roman official to receive an embassy from Parthia. Sulla held “tripartite negotiations” on the issue of friendship and alliance between Parthia and Rome, while establishing three seats - one for the Parthian ambassador Orobazus, the second for himself, the third for Ariobarzanes; he himself sat in the central chair. This was contrary to the Roman tradition, according to which international negotiations were the responsibility of the Senate, and all treaties were approved by the popular assembly. In addition, this was a sign that Rome did not intend to communicate with Parthia on equal terms. After returning to Rome, Sulla was put on trial on charges of bribery, but the charges against him were soon dropped. He also did not put forward his candidacy for consul, although traditionally people who passed through the praetorship participated in the elections of consuls three years later.

Allied War

After the unexpected uprising of the Italians, Sulla was appointed legate to the consul of 90 BC. e. Lucius Julius Caesar[! 16]. During the war, he had to collaborate with Gaius Marius, although there is a decline in the authority of Marius while the popularity of Sulla increased.

At the beginning of the war, Sulla and Marius encountered the Marsi, who had always been Rome's most dangerous enemies in Italy. Sulla attacked the Marsi while they were disorganized, making their way through the vineyards. He spent most of the year in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula.

In 89 BC. e. Sulla led the Roman offensive in Campania and Samnium, which lasted from July to September. First, Sulla's army attacked the Italic detachment of Lucius Cluentius, but due to the haste in preparations, it was put to flight by the Italics. During the retreat, his reserve hurried to meet the fleeing Sullan troops, thanks to which Cluentius was forced to retreat. However, Cluentius was nearby, and soon, having strengthened his army with the Gauls who came to the rescue, he went out to fight Sulla. According to Appian, before the battle, one massive Gaul from the army of Cluentius began to challenge one of the Romans to fight; A short Moorish man emerged from the ranks of the Sullan army and killed the Gaul. The rest of the Gauls fled, and Sulla took advantage of the flight of all Cluentius' troops and began to pursue them. According to ancient historians, during this pursuit Sulla destroyed about 30 thousand enemy soldiers, and another 20 thousand near the walls of the nearby city of Nola, where Cluentius’ soldiers fled. Also during the campaign, Sulla took Pompeii.

Then Sulla entered Samnium, the region of the Hirpinians, where he first besieged the city of Eklan. The inhabitants of Eklan were waiting for the arrival of reinforcements from Lucania and asked Sulla to give them a reprieve, supposedly for reflection. Sulla, having unraveled the plan of the Eclans, covered the wooden wall of the city with brushwood in the hour allotted to them, and then set it on fire. Eclan capitulated, but Sulla, unlike other cities that had surrendered to him, gave it to his soldiers to plunder, explaining that Eclan surrendered not out of loyalty to the Romans, but out of necessity. Soon after this, Sulla unexpectedly attacked the Samnite commander Motilus from the rear and defeated him, and then captured the new capital of the rebel Italics, Bovian.

The allied war was very successful for Sulla; successful actions distinguished him from other commanders and made him the hero of the entire campaign. He received one of the highest signs of military valor - the obsidian crown, becoming its third owner in two centuries. In October 89, Sulla returned to Rome and put forward his candidacy for consul the following year.

First Consulate

The struggle for command of the army in the campaign against Mithridates

At the end of the Allied War, Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, captured Asia and destroyed 150,000 Roman citizens in it. Having sent letters to all cities, he gave the order to kill them in one day and hour, accompanied by the promise of a huge reward. The only exception was Rhodes - both in its resistance against Mithridates and in its loyalty to the Romans. But most of the policies collaborated with Mithridates - for example, the Mytilenians handed over some Romans to Mithridates in chains. In parallel, Mithridates expelled Ariobarzanes and Nicomedes, kings of Cappadocia and Bithynia, respectively. Mithridates' speech was associated with the weakening of Rome by the Allied War. Huge exactions from Roman governors and tax farmers turned the local population against Rome, which led to their full support for the actions of Mithridates. In Rome, they believed that the war against Mithridates would be quite easy, and the war on the territory of the rich provinces promised to greatly enrich the commander. It was also well known that Mithridates was very rich, and the Greek cities that joined Mithridates had a huge amount of works of art, which at the beginning of the 1st century were already highly valued in Rome. It is not surprising that a stubborn struggle unfolded against him for the post of army commander already at the stage of the elections of consuls for the year 88. At least four prominent candidates for the consulate are known.

After the end of the main hostilities of the Allied War, Sulla returned to Rome in October 89 and put forward his candidacy for consul. Thanks to his increased popularity, he was elected consul for 88; his colleague was Quintus Pompey Rufus, who was not a prominent politician, but a friend of Sulla. After Sulla’s victory in the elections of consuls, the Senate, following the established tradition, transferred command of the army in the upcoming war to the consuls, and Sulla by lot received the province of Asia as governorship and an army to wage the war against Mithridates. At the same time, in order to arm the army, for lack of other means, sacrificial gifts were sold, which, according to legend, were left by Numa Pompilius. However, Gaius Mari also applied for the post of army commander, hoping to restore his former status as a great commander with successful military actions. The horsemen and representatives of the Senate opposition (populars) opposed Sulla's candidacy. Gaius Marius, who did not have in 88 BC. e. magistracy and did not have the opportunity to obtain command legally, he won over the tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus, a man with a very tarnished reputation. To achieve his goal, Mari decided to rely on the Italians who had just been defeated with his participation. According to another version, the initiative could have come from Sulpicius, who was a supporter of the man killed in 91 BC. e Marcus Livius Drusus. Some researchers call Sulpicius the head of the anti-Senate opposition during this period.

Sulpicius's bill. First clashes

The tribune of the people, Publius Sulpicius, in agreement with Gaius Marius, introduced a bill on the distribution of citizens among all tribes, which could have serious consequences. Because of this bill, Roman society was divided into two groups - the Romans, who sought to maintain their dominance in political life, and the Italics, new citizens who sought to win full and equal rights, guaranteeing them participation in political life on equal terms with the Romans.

As a result of the Allied War, the Italics, under the lex Iulia and lex Plautia Papiria, formally received full civil rights, including the right to vote on an equal basis with Roman citizens. At the same time, they were enrolled in the latest tribes, and not distributed among the old tribes, where they would have outnumbered the Romans themselves. Because of this, they were the last to vote, which did not allow them to really influence political life in the country. Initially, the new citizens did not yet understand that they had received incomplete civil rights, and since the main goal pursued by them during the Allied War - obtaining equal civil rights with the Romans - had been achieved, the tension among the Italians subsided immediately with the receipt of these rights. Two regions - Lucania and Samnium - did not receive the right to vote at all at that time due to their stubborn resistance during the Allied War. The distribution of the Italics among all tribes significantly changed the balance of power in the national assembly. If the proposed bill had been approved, Gaius Marius and Sulpicius would have been able to pass any law, relying on the Italians, since the new citizens, due to their numbers, could ensure the implementation of any law.

In addition, Sulpicius proposed returning from exile the participants in the Saturninus movement of 12 years ago and expelling from the Senate everyone whose debt was more than 2,000 denarii. These measures were directed against the dominant nobility in Rome.

Many Romans, aware of the possible infringement of their privileges, resisted the implementation of Sulpicius' bills. The consuls, Sulla and Quintus Pompey Rufus, also took the side of the Romans (old citizens). Sulla was especially active against the bill. Having received command of the army to wage the war against Mithridates, he understood that Gaius Marius could easily gain command of the army with the help of the bill adopted by the Italians. Finally, the consuls, using their power, declared the period appointed for discussing the bill and voting on it to be closed days, which excluded the possibility of meetings.

Sulpicius did not wait for the end of the non-present days, but ordered his supporters to appear at the forum with hidden daggers. Sulpicius demanded the speedy abolition of non-attendance days, realizing that Sulla could at any moment go to Greece and take the army with him. Sulpicius pointed out the illegality of introducing the provision on closed days, since trade could not be carried out. The consuls refused, and then Sulpicius' supporters took out their daggers and began to threaten the consuls. Quintus Pompey managed to escape, and Sulla was forced to seek refuge in the house of Gaius Marius (he later denied this). Sulla convinced Sulpicius to let him go, promising to think about the situation, but only after the murder of Quintus Pompey’s son, who was also a relative of Sulla, by supporters of Sulpicius, the non-present days were canceled. However, Sulla immediately after this went to the army that was waiting for him, trying to cross over to Greece as quickly as possible so that the decision to change the commander to Gaius Marius could not be carried out. However, in Rome, Sulpicius managed to pass both bills - on the redistribution of the Italians among all tribes and on the reassignment of the commander of the army for the war against Mithridates - before Sulla crossed the Adriatic Sea. According to Plutarch, Sulla was in Rome at the time of the passing of the law, and he had to rush to the army in order to get ahead of Marius's men, who were tasked with taking control of the troops. According to another version, at the time the laws were adopted, Sulla was already on his way to Nola, where the tribunes were sent with instructions to transfer command to Marius. Finally, there is a version that Sulla could go to the troops at Nola by agreement with Marius, since Nola itself was still under siege from the middle of the Allied War and the siege needed a commander.

Armed attack by Sulla

In an effort to regain command and expel Marius, Sulla turned his troops towards Rome, having first secured the support of the soldiers themselves. Most of them had served under his command since the beginning of the Allied War, and they had done little to plunder Italy, which made the prospect of going to rich Asia seem extremely attractive. Sulla convinced the soldiers that Marius would hire new soldiers, and the troops threw stones at the tribunes who had arrived to take command from Sulla. In his speech to the soldiers, Sulla managed to present the situation as dangerous for all of Rome and present himself as a deliverer. After this, the soldiers themselves may have offered to lead Sulla in the campaign against Rome. This was the first time that a magistrate used his troops to capture Rome. Along with Sulla was the second consul, Quintus Pompey Rufus (by that time he may have already been removed from the consulate), which created the illusion of legality. The number of troops that marched was about six legions (approximately 35 thousand soldiers), but many officers left the army, not wanting to participate in the military coup. In response to a question from the Senate ambassadors who arrived to Sulla about why he was going with an army against his homeland, Sulla replied that he wanted to “liberate it from tyrants.” Although Sulla and Pompey subsequently promised the ambassadors that they would begin negotiations, instead they immediately began preparing for the assault on Rome and the battle against those troops that Marius and Sulpicius had managed to assemble.

Quintus Pompey with the first legion was entrusted with guarding the Collin Gate, the second legion was entrusted with holding the Celimontan Gate, the third was holding the Sublicium Bridge between the Forum Boarium and the Janiculum, the fourth remained in reserve, the fifth and sixth legions under the command of Sulla entered the city through the Esquiline Gate, auxiliary detachments had to hunt down the armed supporters of Sulpicius. Sulla's soldiers entered the city and were subjected to scattered attacks by local residents, but the unrest was stopped by the threat of their houses being burned. At the Esquiline Forum, two Roman armies clashed for the first time. Street battles broke out, during which supporters of Gaius Marius promised to give freedom to the slaves if they joined them, and also called on the Romans to speak out. However, the slaves and townspeople did not join the battle, so the Marians, along with their supporters, were forced to flee the city under the pressure of the regular army of Sulla and Quintus Pompey. Attempts by the victorious soldiers to begin plundering the city were stopped.

Sulla's events

Despite the opportunities available for sole control, Sulla sent the army from Rome to Capua, where it was supposed to wait for him to cross to Greece, and he himself began to rule as before as consul.

To date, it has not been established which of the reforms described by sources belonged to 88. What is known for certain is that Sulla abolished all the laws of Sulpicius. Most often, the following four are mentioned as reforms of 1988. Firstly, the consuls formalized into law the repeatedly violated procedure, according to which only the bill that had been discussed in the Senate could be sent to the people's assembly. Secondly, in the national assembly, according to Appian, a return was made to voting by centuries, and not by tribes. At the same time, this information is not found in other sources, which gives some researchers reason to deny the fact of reform of the voting system. Thirdly, the tribunes of the people were deprived of many rights, and the orders of Sulpicius were canceled. Fourthly, the Senate was replenished with 300 senators from among the most noble people (according to another version, Sulla only planned to replenish the Senate, but did not implement it). However, the significance of the events was small - they were soon cancelled; however, they are sometimes seen as a rehearsal for a future dictatorship.

At the same time, 12 people were sentenced to exile. Among them were Gaius Marius, Sulpicius and Gaius Marius the Younger. Marius and Sulpicius were also sentenced to death in absentia, and soon Sulpicius was already killed by his slave, whom Sulla ordered first to be released for assistance and then executed for treason. Marius hid in the Minturn swamps and then fled to Africa. His son, Gaius Marius the Younger, also fled to Africa.

However, the supporters of Marius and Sulpicius who remained in Rome, as well as numerous Romans associated with Marius by one or another obligation, began to demand the reversal of the sentence of Marius and his return to Rome. In addition, the Romans elected as consuls for 87 people who were not the most acceptable to Sulla - Gnaeus Octavius ​​was considered his supporter, but Lucius Cornelius Cinna was from the camp of his enemies. Sulla made a commitment to Cinna to pursue policies in his interests, and he solemnly swore an oath to support Sulla's policies. In addition, under unclear circumstances (presumably on the orders of Gnaeus Pompey Strabo), the second consul Quintus Pompey Rufus was killed. It is assumed that Sulla and Strabo could have been at enmity.

However, after taking office at the beginning of 87, Cinna spoke of the need to re-enact the law on the redistribution of Italians. At the same time, the tribune of the people Marcus Virgil (possibly on the instructions of Cinna) began legal proceedings against Sulla. There is information that the reason for Cinna’s change in political orientation could have been the bribe of 300 talents he received from the Italians. But Sulla did not pay attention to the trial that had begun and, “wishing both the accuser and the judges a long life, he went to war with Mithridates.”

War with Mithridates

In 87, Sulla arrived from Italy in Greece to wage war against Mithridates. Due to events in Rome, Sulla was delayed for 18 months.

It is assumed that Sulla and his army landed in Epirus and from there proceeded to Attica. First, Sulla defeated the generals of Mithridates in the Athens region. Soon after this, he besieged Athens itself, and soon (March 1, 86) took it by storm, discovering a poorly fortified place in the city wall. After that, he gave the city to his soldiers for plunder, which resulted in the murder of many citizens. As a result, many Athenians committed suicide, expecting the city to be destroyed soon. However, then Sulla, having taken the Acropolis, where the Athenian tyrant had strengthened himself, pardoned the city, justifying this by its glorious past. However, the city was heavily damaged, the groves of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were cut down to build siege engines, the Athenian port of Piraeus was depopulated, and Philo's naval arsenal was destroyed. Needing funds, Sulla ordered the plunder of several temples, including the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, where the Pythia prophesied.

In two battles - at Chaeronea (April or May 86) and at Orchomen (autumn 86 or 85) - he completely defeated the army of the Pontic kingdom, commanded by the commander of Mithridates Archelaus. Then, having crossed to Asia, Mithridates declared his readiness to accept peace on any terms, but then began to bargain. Having imposed a tribute of 20,000 talents and confiscated part of the ships, Sulla forced Mithridates to leave Asia and all other provinces that he had occupied by force of arms. Sulla freed the captives, punished defectors and criminals, and ordered that the king be content with the “borders of his ancestors,” that is, Pontus itself.

At this time, Italy was ruled by the Marians, who managed to capture Rome and began a campaign of terror against their opponents, including the supporters of Sulla. Gnaeus Octavius, the legal consul, was killed in the forum and his head was displayed for all to see. Supporters of Marius and Cinna sent consul Lucius Valerius Flaccus to the East (soon replaced by Gaius Flavius ​​Fimbria) to take command of Sulla's troops, but troops under Fimbria rebelled and forced him to commit suicide.

In Greece, the soldiers proclaimed Sulla their emperor (this title was first mentioned during Plutarch's description of the Battle of Orchomenus)[! 4]. This may have been the second time after Cappadocia that he was proclaimed emperor by soldiers. For the victory over Mithridates, Sulla received the right to triumph, but this happened only on January 27-28, 81 BC. e.

Civil War 83-82 BC uh

Having landed in Brundisium, Sulla, not having a numerical advantage, quickly subjugated southern Italy, after which his legions headed towards Rome along the Appian Way. Along the way, he was joined by conservative nobles who survived the years of the Marian terror (Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey). The protest sentiments of the Romans, dissatisfied with the rule of the Marians, and the lack of strong leaders and organizers played into Sulla’s hands. The Marians began recruiting troops, but the upcoming campaign was not popular, and at one of the soldiers’ gatherings, Cinna, who by that time had become the leader of the Marians, was killed. In several battles, Sulla's troops defeated the Marian armies and besieged Praeneste, an important Marian stronghold. At the same time, Sulla did not enter Rome for a long time, since from a sacred-legal point of view, his power as proconsul was valid only before entering the city. The largest battle of the civil war took place near the walls of Rome - the Battle of the Collin Gate. The first stage of the battle ended with the defeat of Sulla, but thanks to the successes of Crassus, who commanded the right flank, the opponents were defeated. In the end, the Marians were completely defeated and were either killed during the war itself (like Gaius Marius the Younger) or expelled from Italy and subsequently killed outside of it (like Gnaeus Papirius Carbo and Gaius Norbanus).

Dictatorship of Sulla

Assuming the position of perpetual dictator

Sulla came to power in 82 BC. e. To legitimize the seizure of power, Sulla called on the senators to elect the so-called interregnum - interrex, since there were no consuls at that time: Gnaeus Papirius Carbono died in Sicily, Gaius Marius the Younger - in Praeneste. The Senate elected Lucius Valerius Flaccus, expecting him to propose choosing new consuls. However, Sulla instructed Flaccus to submit a proposal to the people's assembly to call the election of a dictator. At the same time, dictatorial power should not have been limited by the traditional period of 6 months, but the dictatorship should continue “until Rome, Italy, the entire Roman state, shaken by internecine strife and wars, is strengthened.” However, the custom of electing a dictator on special occasions ceased 120 years ago (the last dictator was Gaius Servilius Geminus). At the same time, the proposal voiced by Flaccus did not indicate that Sulla should have been chosen as dictator, although Sulla himself did not hide this. Finally, Sulla directly stated in one of his speeches that it was he who would be useful for Rome at the present time. A decree was passed giving him the right to execute by death, confiscate property, found colonies, build and destroy cities, give and take away thrones. In addition, the senators announced that all of Sulla's activities, both past and future, were recognized as legal. Sulla's full title during the dictatorship was dictator legibus scribundis et rei publicae constituendae.

To maintain the appearance of preserving the previously existing political system, Sulla allowed the “election” of consuls for 81 BC. e. Marcus Tullius Decula and Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella became consuls. Sulla himself, being a dictator, had supreme power and stood above the consuls. In front of him walked 24 lictors with fasces - the same number of lictors accompanied the ancient Roman kings. In addition, he was surrounded by numerous bodyguards. Your commander of the cavalry[! 17] Sulla made Lucius Valerius Flaccus - a compromise figure from among the prominent politicians who remained neutral.

Reforms

Among Sulla's most famous measures was the law on magistrates - lex Cornelia de magistratibus, which established new age limits for those wishing to occupy senior government positions and created some restrictions to ensure that the careers of aspiring politicians did not develop too quickly. Thus, the age limit began to be 29 years for a quaestor (according to the law of Villia 180 BC - this age was 27 years), 39 years for a praetor (33 years according to the law of Villius) and 42 years for a consul (36 years according to Will's law). That is, at least 10 years had to pass between the performance of the positions of quaestor and praetor. By the same law, Sulla also forbade holding the position of praetor before the appointment of the office of quaestor, and the office of consul before the appointment of the office of praetor (previously, these norms were often violated, since they had not yet been enshrined). In addition, this law made it prohibited to hold the same position less than 10 years after it was first occupied. Thus, adjustments were made to the cursus honorum. The number of quaestors was increased from 8 to 20, and praetors - from 6 to 8. In addition, quaestors were now enrolled in the Senate immediately after the end of their service, and not at the next qualification, as was previously customary.

His important event was the fight against the institution of the people's tribunes. At the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The tribunes played a large role in the system of political relations and, according to a number of contemporaries, seriously undermined the stability of the state. The magistracy, once created to defend the class interests of the plebeians, has turned into a source of constant tension. The rights of the tribunes included legislative initiative, the right of veto, the right to convene popular assemblies, the Senate and contiones[! 19], complete immunity. Perhaps the reason for limiting the power and prestige of the people's tribunes for Sulla was the example of the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, as well as Livy Drusus and Publius Sulpicius, who, from the point of view of the “optimates”[! 20] and Sulla personally, caused a lot of harm to the state. Sulla sharply reduced the influence of this position, depriving the tribunes of the right of legislative initiative and the right to convene the Senate, limiting or even abolishing the right of veto, and subsequently the tribune was prohibited from holding any other position[! 21]. As a result, everyone who valued their reputation or origin began to shy away from the tribune position in subsequent times. After the reduction of the powers of the tribunes, their position in the political system returned to their original position at the beginning of the 5th century BC. e. and came down to protecting the rights of individual plebeians. However, in 70 BC. e. the former Sullans Crassus and Pompey, during a joint consulate, restored all the powers of the tribunes of the people to the same extent, removing from them all the restrictions imposed by Sulla. However, the restoration of the powers of the people's tribunes to the pre-Sullan scale did not lead to the restoration of the former prestige of this position.

The reform of voting for the adoption of laws from the tribute system to the centuriate system, mentioned under the year 88, is sometimes attributed to the period of dictatorship, although the fact of its existence is sometimes questioned (it is assumed that Appian, who preserved evidence of this, borrowed information from a clearly anti-Sullan source).

Sulla replenished the Senate, which was depopulated during the wars - 300 people from among the most noble horsemen were enrolled in its composition. Perhaps the increase in the number of the Senate consisted of two parts - first, the number of the empty Senate was increased to three hundred, and later doubled. In the course of restoring the size of the Senate to three hundred, everyone who was expelled by Marius could be returned to the Senate, and veterans who distinguished themselves in recent wars and who were eligible according to the property qualification could be added[! 22]. The doubling of the Senate most likely occurred through a vote of each of the 35 tribes with the participation of new citizens - each tribe electing nine candidates to fill the Senate.

Judicial cases on most issues were transferred to specialized judicial panels (usually there are eight of them - according to the number of praetors), the composition of which was returned to the control of the Senate, and now only senators, and not equestrians, as the Gracchi established, could become judges in these panels. It is also known that Sulla increased the number of priests in the priestly colleges. Sulla was the first to introduce a law against electoral irregularities (de ambitu). This law provided for a ten-year ban on master's degrees for violators. Sulla also passed laws on the greatness of the Roman people - leges de maiestate, according to which, in particular, propraetors and proconsuls were prohibited from starting a war without permission from Rome and going beyond the provinces given to them under their control. It is believed that Sulla also legalized the circulation of clad coins or even resumed their production. At the same time, Sulla intensified the fight against counterfeiters, which was supposed to symbolize the intensification of the struggle to stabilize the financial situation of the Roman state.

To support his course, Sulla included over 10,000 of the youngest and strongest slaves who belonged to previously killed Romans among the participants in the national assembly. Sulla declared all of them Roman citizens, calling them Cornelia after his family name, in order to thereby be able to use the votes of 10,000 members of the national assembly who were ready to carry out all his orders. Granting freedom to so many slaves was an unprecedented step for Ancient Rome. Reliance on the Cornelii after the end of the civil war, during which the Marians tried to rely on slaves, is considered evidence of a purposeful, but at the same time radical policy.

The soldiers who served in his army were given a large amount of free or confiscated land in urban communities. In addition, the estates of the proscribed were also used to provide land to veterans. Veterans of the legions were granted land almost exclusively in Italy, and only one veteran colony was founded outside of Italy. There is, however, no consensus on the number of veterans who received land. Appian, in various places in his Civil Wars, writes about 23 legions and 120 thousand soldiers, Titus Livius uses the figure of 47 legions (according to another opinion, the figure in the source should be read as 27) [! 23]. Researchers usually talk about about 100 thousand veterans, 120 thousand, or about 23 legions (the smallest number found in the sources) without estimates of the number. There is no consensus on the average area of ​​land - usually it is very vaguely limited to 10-100 jugers (2.5-25 hectares).

The required amount of land was confiscated from Italic landowners, mainly from Campania, Samnium and Etruria. Apparently, this was due to the most brutal resistance of the inhabitants of the three regions of Sulla: for example, the cities of Apulia, which warmly welcomed Sulla, were practically not subject to confiscations. It is believed that many free peasants were deprived of their means of subsistence as a result of confiscations. Some of the land may have been taken from the ager publicus fund. With Italy rocked by conflict for nearly a decade, large amounts of previously cultivated land were abandoned, reducing the number of dissatisfied people. In Lucania and Samnium, most of the lands were unsuitable for agriculture, which is why Sulla limited himself mainly to the distribution of estates of the proscribed.

Despite the fact that Sulla took away land from the Italians, and in 88 BC. e. canceled the enrollment of Italics in all tribes; before the start of the civil war, he promised complete forgiveness to all his opponents from among old and new citizens, which is interpreted as an attempt at rapprochement with all Italics. The distribution of selected land to veterans and the granting of freedom to the Cornelias are considered as measures aimed at creating a social support for the new government, and sometimes as the implementation of the agrarian program of Sulla’s opponents.

Researchers call the ultimate goal of Sulla's political activities the establishment of the supremacy of the Senate in state affairs or the restoration of the political advantages of the nobility. There is also an opinion that Sulla pursued policies that primarily benefited wealthy landowners. Sulla himself presented all his actions to the people as the “establishment of the republic,” that is, as an improvement of the unwritten Roman republican constitution.

In addition, Sulla rebuilt the Curia of Hostilius, moved the pomerium and placed his equestrian statue in the forum near the Lapis niger - the supposed burial place of Romulus. The transfer of the pomerium (expansion of the legal and sacred boundaries of the city), together with other events, symbolized the creation of a renewed Rome.

Refusal from dictatorship

In 79, Sulla unexpectedly left his post as permanent dictator. At the same time, he openly declared that he was ready to give an account of all his actions, after which he appeared in the city publicly without lictors and bodyguards. Also, Sulla did not control the elections of consuls for 78 and appeared on the forum during the elections as a private citizen. Sulla did not take any measures even though Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who was extremely hostile to Sulla and his reforms, became one of the consuls.

Having become a private person, Sulla began to organize feasts for the people with great extravagance. Their scope was very wide: “The surplus of stored supplies was so great that every day a lot of food was dumped into the river, and they drank forty-year-old and even older wine.” At the same time, Sulla himself violated the laws on limiting luxury, previously carried out by himself.

Illness and death

At this time, Sulla developed symptoms of an unknown illness. Plutarch says:

For a long time he did not know that he had ulcers in his insides, but meanwhile his whole body began to rot and began to become covered with a countless number of lice. Many were busy day and night removing them from him, but what they managed to remove was only a drop in the bucket compared to what was being born again. His entire dress, bath, water for washing, food were swarming with this decomposing stream - this is how his illness developed. Many times a day he immersed himself in water to wash his body and cleanse himself. But everything was useless.

Sulla died in 78 BC. e.[! 2]. His death sparked infighting between his supporters and opponents. The consuls also belonged to these two groups - Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus supported the Sullans, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, despite the fact that he became consul with the support of the Sullans Gnaeus Pompey, belonged to the anti-Sullans who survived the proscription and led the opponents of the solemn burial of Sulla. Meanwhile, a decision was made to bury him at state expense on the Champ de Mars. Mourning was declared in Italy, during which all political activity and all trials were suspended. The deceased dictator was given two exclusive privileges - cremation and burial within the city.

Plutarch and Appian preserved the details of Sulla's burial. At first, his body in royal vestments on a golden bed was carried throughout Italy, and banners and fasces were carried in front of him. Then his soldiers began to flock to Rome in full armor. In Rome, the best speakers gave speeches in memory of him. On his final journey, Sulla's body was accompanied by a huge procession. His body was carried to the Campus Martius, where only kings were buried, on the shoulders of several of the most powerful senators. “The day turned out to be cloudy in the morning, rain was expected, and the funeral procession only started at nine o’clock. But a strong wind fanned the fire, a hot flame broke out, which engulfed the entire corpse. When the fire was already dying out and there was almost no fire left, a downpour poured in and did not stop until the night.” Sulla became the first representative of the Cornelian family whose body was cremated. This is seen as the desire of Sulla or his supporters to save the remains from desecration after death, just as the remains of Gaius Marius were desecrated. Information has been preserved that the inscription on Sulla’s tombstone was composed by him: “Here lies a man who, more than any other mortal, did good to his friends and evil to his enemies.” Sulla's grave was located not far from the villa publica, where the commander spent the night before his triumph.

Sulla's personality

Ancient authors had different assessments of the events carried out by Sulla, but characterized him as a bright, ambiguous personality. In particular, he was repeatedly credited with good luck accompanying him in all matters (including his own funeral). Perhaps this is an echo of the views of the dictator himself, who towards the end of his life adopted the agnomen Felix (Happy) under the influence of his supporters.

Plutarch characterized Sulla as a man “changeable and at odds with himself.” Plutarch also notes that Lucius was “tough-tempered and vengeful by nature,” but “for the sake of good, he knew how to restrain his anger, yielding to calculation.”

Sulla had blue eyes and reddish spots on his face, which, according to ancient authors, gave him a menacing appearance. Seneca reports that “Sulla was especially cruel when the blood rushed to his face.” There is also information that he had a beautiful voice that allowed him to sing well. It is assumed that he had blond hair.

Personal life

In his youth, Sulla was the lover of a wealthy freedwoman Nicopolis, from whom, after her death, he inherited property in her will. The dictator's main biographer, Plutarch, calls his first wife Elijah (ancient Greek ᾿Ιλία)[! 25], the second - Elia, the third - Clelia. However, it has been repeatedly suggested that Julia (Ilia) is a distorted spelling of the name Elia in the Greek tradition, or vice versa. If Sulla's first wife was named Julia, she could well have been a relative of Gaius Julius Caesar, which could have been used by the Julias to divert the threat from him during proscriptions. Thus, in the source, there was probably a “doubling” of the first wife. It is noted that the first wives of the future dictator were representatives of noble families, but did not belong to the ruling elite.

After divorcing his second wife Clelia (the divorce was granted on the pretext of her infertility), Sulla married Caecilia Metella Dalmatica, daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metella Dalmatica, an enemy of Gaius Marius, and the widow of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. Thanks to this marriage, Lucius Cornelius became close to the Metellas, one of the most influential ancient Roman families at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st century BC. e. Although the marriage took place in the year when Sulla reached the consulate (88 BC), in Roman society it was perceived as a misalliance. Soon after Sulla resigned as dictator, Cecilia fell ill and died some time later. Lucius himself was for some reason restricted from communicating with the dying by religious prohibitions (perhaps due to membership in the college of pontiffs), so he was unable to visit his dying wife. After her death, Sulla violated the law he had issued on restrictions on expenses during funerals. Sulla married for the last time at the age of approximately 59, shortly before his death. His chosen one was Valeria Messala, whom he met at the gladiatorial games:

Passing Sulla behind him, she reached out her hand, pulled out a hair from his toga and proceeded to her place. To Sulla’s surprised look, Valeria replied: “Nothing special, emperor[! 4], it’s simple and I want a small share of your happiness for myself.” Sulla was pleased to hear this, and he clearly did not remain indifferent, because through the people sent, he found out about the name of this woman, found out who she was from and how she lived.

Children

From his first wife Ilia/Julia/Elia, Sulla had a daughter, Cornelia. She became the wife of Quintus Pompey, son of the consul Quintus Pompey Rufus. Her son later minted a coin depicting both of his grandfathers, and her daughter became Caesar's second wife. Clelia was given a divorce, the reason for which was her infertility, so, obviously, the couple had no children. The dictator's son Lucius (apparently from Metella), not having lived for six years, died in 82-81, shortly before the death of Caecilia Metella. After the birth of twins from Cecilia, Sulla broke the onomastic religious rites of his time to give the children the names Faust (Favst) and Cornelia Fausta (Cornelia Fausta)[! 26], which were never used in Rome. At the same time, according to legend, the shepherd who discovered Romulus and Remus bore a similar name - Faustulus (Favstul). The last child born from Sulla was the girl Cornelia Posthuma[! 27].

Religious views

Sulla was a religious man and was strongly influenced by Eastern cults, although he became closely acquainted with them in adulthood. During his tenure as propraetor in Cilicia, he witnessed or participated in orgiastic rites in honor of the local goddess Maa (or Ma; Roman equivalent - Bellona), after which he became greatly interested in her cult. It is also known that the future dictator was accompanied on his campaigns by oriental magicians, fortune-tellers and sorcerers. He convened his first meeting of the Senate in 82 in the temple of Bellona. In addition, a number of facts in the sources (12 lightning bolts; warnings on behalf of the goddess, etc.) indicate that Sulla was familiar with the Etruscan religion and that the dictator was surrounded by its adherents.

Sulla himself often attributed all his successful undertakings to the patronage of the gods and towards the end of his life (January 27-28, 81) he accepted the agnomen Felix (happy). Earlier, even during the Mithridatic War, he began to call himself Epaphroditus (Aphrodite's favorite). He named his newborn children Faust (Favst) and Cornelia Faust (Favsta) precisely in connection with his ideas about the patronage of the gods. S. L. Utchenko sees in the consistently pursued concept of happiness a challenge to the traditional Roman system of values ​​and an attempt to justify one’s actions through a statement about the absence of obligations to society for the person who is protected by the gods. Particular veneration of Apollo may have been a feature of the entire Sulla family. It has been suggested that the dictator's views on the relationship between gods and people were in good agreement with the traditional Roman concept of religion (formula do ut des). When his wife Caecilia Metella was dying, Sulla carefully followed the religious instructions that were imposed on him as a member of the college of pontiffs: he did not communicate with her and, in the end, divorced.

At the same time, during the First Mithridatic War, Sulla treated sanctuaries pragmatically, without proper reverence, and ordered the plunder of the most revered sanctuary of the Delphic Oracle (Temple of Apollo) in the Greek world when he needed money. After winning the war, Sulla again began to position himself as a worshiper of the Greek gods[! 28]. There is also an assumption that his religiosity was feigned and was used by him for political purposes (in particular, to attract people), but recently this point of view has been questioned.

Criminal Law Reform Act (Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis) ca. 81 BC e. sometimes interpreted as a law against magical practice. Finally, it was from the time of Sulla’s reign in Rome that messianic and eschatological ideas, both brought from the East and borrowed from the Etruscans, became especially widespread. In 83, the end of the world was expected in Rome, which was especially facilitated by the outbreak of civil war.

Sulla in culture

The idea of ​​Sulla as a tyrant spread in Europe through translations of the works of Plutarch and Appian and was reflected, in particular, in the plays of Pierre Corneille "Cinna" and "Sertorius". The attention of the French enlighteners Voltaire (“The Age of Louis XV”) and Montesquieu (“Reflections on the Causes of the Greatness and Fall of the Romans,” “Sulla and Eucrates”) was focused on the proscriptions and voluntary departure of Sulla. In works of art of the second half of the 18th century, Sulla becomes a hero of tragedies. During the era of the Second Empire in France, his image began to be used in political polemics due to the acute problem of proscriptions. Later, the content of the dictator's image did not change significantly. In the second half of the 20th century, the French antiquarian François Inard made an attempt to revise the idea of ​​him, arguing that subsequent events “deeply distorted the memories that were preserved about the dictator. First of all, let us note that chance or decisive censorship has removed all evidence that could have been favorable to him, starting with his own Memoirs.

The most famous works of art in which Sulla appears as the main or one of the main characters:

George Frideric Handel's opera Sulla (1713);
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera Lucius Sulla (1772);
Christian Dietrich Grabbe's play “Marius and Sulla” (1823-1827);
Book by Raffaello Giovagnoli “Spartacus” (1874);
Book by George Gulia “Sulla” (1971);
Books by Colleen McCullough “Crown of Herbs (Battle of Rome)” and “Fortune’s Favorites” from the “Lords of Rome” series (1991 and 1993).
In the 2002 miniseries Julius Caesar, the role of Sulla was played by Richard Harris.

Sulla came from a gradually fading patrician family, whose representatives had not held senior government positions for a long time. Sulla's great-great-grandfather, Publius Cornelius Rufinus, was consul and 277 BC. e. , great-grandfather and grandfather (both were called Publius) were praetors, and his father, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, failed to achieve praetorship. It is also known that Sulla had a brother, Servius.

Sulla grew up in poor surroundings. Subsequently, when Sulla became one of the most influential people in Rome, he was often reproached for betraying his modest lifestyle. However, Sulla still received a good education (in particular, he was fluent in Greek and knew Greek literature well). At the same time, Sulla led a dissolute lifestyle in his youth (for this he is especially strongly condemned by his main biographer, the moralist Plutarch).

Early career

Sulla began his service about 3 years later than others - as the personal quaestor of Gaius Marius in 108. Gaius Marius, elected consul for 107, had to go to Africa, where Rome was mired in the war with King Jugurtha's Numidia (which began in 110). Sulla was to be accompanied by Marius. Sulla's first task was to gather a significant auxiliary cavalry army in Italy and transfer it to North Africa. It took Sulla only a few months to cope with this and establish herself at her best. The legate of Gaius Marius, the former praetor Aulus Manlius, soon allowed him to negotiate with the Mauretanian king Bocchus, to whom Sulla even provided the opportunity to increase his territory and hinted to him to avoid abuses: “Be thoroughly imbued with the idea that no one has ever surpassed the Roman people in generosity; as for his military strength, you have every reason to know it.”.

Armed attack by Sulla

When Sulla found out about this, he considered it necessary to resolve the matter by armed force. He convened a meeting of his army, which also sought to go on a campaign against Mithridates, looking at the campaign as a profitable enterprise and thinking that now Gaius Marius would recruit another army in their place. At the meeting, Sulla spoke about the impudent act of Sulpicius and Maria in relation to him, without clearly talking about everything else: he did not yet dare to talk about the upcoming war against them, but only convinced the army to be ready to carry out his orders. The soldiers understood what Sulla had in mind, and, fearing for themselves, lest they should lose the campaign, they themselves discovered Sulla’s intentions and demanded that he lead them boldly to Rome. The delighted Sulla immediately sent six legions on the campaign. The commanders of the army, with the exception of only one quaestor, not agreeing to lead the army against their homeland, fled to Rome. On the way, Sulla was met by ambassadors from there and asked him why he was going home with armed force. Sulla answered them: free her from the tyrants. He repeated the same thing twice and three times to the other ambassadors who came to him, adding nevertheless that if they want, then let them gather the Senate with Marius and Sulpicius on the Field of Mars, and he will then act in accordance with the decision made. When Sulla was already approaching Rome, his consular comrade, Pompey, appeared and approved of his action, expressing his pleasure at everything that was happening and placing himself entirely at his disposal. Gaius Marius and Publius Sulpicius, who needed some more time to prepare for the fight, sent new ambassadors to Sulla, as if on instructions from the Senate. The ambassadors asked Sulla not to camp near Rome until the Senate discussed the situation. Sulla and Quintus Pompey, well understanding the intentions of Maria and Sulpicius, promised to do so, but as soon as the ambassadors left, they followed them.

Sulla's events

Meanwhile, in Rome, Sulla, despite the fact that he, as the first to capture the city with the help of armed force, could, perhaps, become the sole ruler, voluntarily abandoned the use of violence after taking revenge on his enemies. Having sent the army to Capua, Sulla again began to rule as consul. For their part, supporters of the expelled, especially those belonging to the wealthy, as well as many rich women, having recovered from the fear of armed action, persistently sought the return of the exiles. They achieved this by all means, not stopping at any expense or malicious intent on the lives of the consuls, knowing that while they were alive, the return of the exiles was impossible. Sulla had at his disposal, even after his consulate expired, an army entrusted to him by decree for the war with Mithridates, and it guarded him. Another consul, Quintus Pompey, the people, out of pity for the dangerous situation in which he was in, appointed the ruler of Italy and the commander of another army that was supposed to defend it and which was then under the command of Gnaeus Pompey Strabo. The latter, having learned about the appointment of Quintus Pompey in his place, was dissatisfied with this; however, when Quintus arrived at his headquarters, he received him and the next day, during a business conversation, he showed that he, as a private person, was ready to give him his place. But at this time, a large number of people surrounding them, pretending that they were listening to the conversation between Quintus Pompey and Gnaeus Pompey, killed the consul. When the others fled, Gnaeus Pompey came out to them and expressed his indignation at the death of the illegally killed consul, but, having poured out his anger, he immediately took command.

Sulla, having convened the Senate to elect new consuls, condemned Marius himself and several other people to death, including the people's tribune Sulpicius. Sulpicius, betrayed by his slave, was killed (Sulla first freed this slave and then ordered him to be thrown from a cliff), and Sulla placed a reward on Maria’s head, thereby revealing neither prudence nor decency - after all, it was not long before he arrived at Maria’s house and, surrendering to his mercy, was released unharmed. The Senate was secretly annoyed at this, but the people actually made Sulla feel their hostility and indignation. Thus, having failed in the consular elections with disgrace, Nonius, Sulla’s nephew, and Servilius, who sought positions, the people gave these positions to those whose election, as they expected, would cause Sulla the greatest grief.

Sulla pretended that this pleased him - after all, thanks to him, the people, they say, enjoy the freedom to do as they want - and in order to ward off the hatred of the crowd, he promoted Lucius Cinna, who belonged to the camp of his opponents, to the consulship, taking from him a sealed with terrible oaths a promise to support the cause of Sulla. Cinna went up to the Capitol and, holding a stone in his hand, took the oath of allegiance, sealing it with the following spell: if he does not maintain a good attitude towards Sulla, let him be thrown out of the city, like this stone thrown by his own hand. After this, in the presence of many witnesses, he threw the stone to the ground. But having taken office, Cinna immediately began to undermine the foundations of the existing order. He prepared a court case against Sulla, entrusting the prosecution to one of the people's tribunes - Virginia. But Sulla, wishing both the accuser and the judges long health, went to war with Mithridates.

War with Mithridates

Greece and Asia Minor before the performance of Mithridates

In 87, Sulla arrived from Italy to Greece to take revenge on Mithridates for shed Roman blood.

Military operations of the First Mithridatic War

Sulla won victories over the prefects of Mithridates in the Athens region, and in two battles - at Chaeronea and at Orkhomenes, he occupied Athens and completely defeated the army of Pontus. Then Sulla, having crossed over to Asia, found Mithridates in Dardanus begging for mercy and ready to accept everything. Having imposed tribute on him and confiscated some of his ships, he forced him to leave Asia and all other provinces that he occupied by force of arms. He freed the captives, punished defectors and criminals, and ordered that the king be content with the borders of his ancestors, that is, Pontus.

At this time, the Marians ruled Italy. Gnaeus Octavius, the legal consul, was killed in the Forum and his head was displayed for all to see.

Italian Civil War 83-82 BC

Military actions of the civil war 83-82 BC.

Having landed in Brindisia, Sulla, not having a numerical advantage, quickly subjugated southern Italy and, together with the nobles who joined him, defeated all the Marian troops. The latter suffered a crushing defeat and were either killed or expelled from Italy.

Dictatorship of Sulla

Adopting the title of perpetual dictator

Sulla came to power in 82. The question arose: how will Sulla rule - like Gaius Marius, Cinna and Carbone, that is, through indirect means, such as crowd control through terror, intimidation, or as a legally issued ruler, even as a king? Sulla called on the Senate to elect the so-called interregnum - interrex, since there were no consuls at that time: Gnaeus Papirius Carbo died in Sicily, Gaius Marius the Younger - in Praeneste. The Senate elected Valerius Flaccus in the hope that he would propose holding elections for consuls. Then Sulla instructed Flaccus to submit the following proposal to the national assembly: in his opinion, Sulla, it would be useful for Rome at the present time to have a dictatorial government, although this custom ceased 120 years ago. The one who is elected must rule for an indefinite period, but until Rome, Italy, the entire Roman state, shaken by internecine strife and wars, strengthens. This proposal had Sulla himself in mind - there was no doubt about it. Sulla himself could not hide this and at the end of his message openly stated that, in his opinion, it was he who would be useful to Rome at the present time.

Coin depicting Sulla

A decree was passed through the national assembly, which not only relieved Sulla of responsibility for everything he had done before, but also for the future gave him the right to execute by death, confiscate property, found colonies, build and destroy cities, give and take away thrones.

Proscriptions

Sulla drew up a proscription list of eighty people without communicating with any of the magistrates. An explosion of general indignation followed, and a day later Sulla announced a new list of two hundred and twenty people, then a third - no less. After that, he addressed the people and said that he included in the lists only those whom he remembered, and if anyone escaped his attention, he would make other such lists.

Signs were hung at the Forum with the names of those who should have been eliminated. The murderer of the proscribed man, who brought Sulla's head as evidence, received two talents (40 kg) of silver; if it was a slave, then he received freedom. The informers also received gifts. But those who dared to shelter Sulla’s enemies faced death. The sons and grandsons of the convicted were deprived of their civil honor, and their property was subject to confiscation in favor of the state. Many of Sulla's associates (for example, Pompey, Crassus, Lucullus) made enormous wealth through property sales and the inclusion of rich people in proscriptions.

Proscriptions were rampant not only in Rome, but throughout all cities of Italy. Neither the temples of the gods, nor the hearth of hospitality, nor the father's house protected from murder; husbands died in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. At the same time, those who fell victims of anger and enmity were only a drop in the ocean among those who were executed for the sake of their wealth. The executioners had reason to say that so-and-so was ruined by his huge house, this one by his garden, another by his warm baths.

But it seems that the most incredible thing is the case of Lucius Catilina. At a time when the outcome of the war was still in doubt, he killed his brother, and now began to ask Sulla to include the deceased in the proscription lists as alive. Sulla did just that. In gratitude for this, Catiline killed a certain Mark Marius, a member of the hostile party, and brought his head to Sulla, who was sitting in the Forum, and then went to the crypt of Apollo located nearby and washed his hands.

Consequently, when compiling proscriptions, great attention was paid to the property of those included in the lists. The deprivation of children and grandchildren of the rights to inherit the property of those killed convincingly proves that proscriptions were arranged not only for the purpose of reprisals against political opponents, but also for the purpose of appropriating the property of those proscribed.

Government reforms

To preserve the appearance of the original state system, Sulla allowed the appointment of consuls in 81 BC. e. Marcus Tullius and Cornelius Dolabella became consuls. Sulla himself, as having the highest power and being a dictator, stood above the consuls. Before him, as before a dictator, walked 24 lictors with fasces, the same number accompanying the previous kings. Numerous bodyguards surrounded Sulla. He began to repeal existing laws and issued others in their place.

Among the most famous measures of Sulla is the law on magistrates - lex Cornelia de magistratibus, which established new age limits for those wishing to occupy senior government positions and created some restrictions to curb rapid careers. Thus, the age limit began to be 29 years for a quaestor (according to the law of Villius 180 BC - lex Willia annalis- this age was 27 years), 39 years for a praetor (33 years according to the Villian law) and 42 years for a consul (36 years according to the Villian law). That is, at least 10 years had to pass between the performance of the positions of quaestor and praetor. By the same law, Sulla also forbade holding the position of praetor before holding the position of quaestor, and the position of consul before holding the position of praetor (previously, these norms were often violated, since they were not yet enshrined in law). In addition, this law made it prohibited to hold the same position after less than 10 years.

Sulla also sharply reduced the influence of the office of the people's tribunes, depriving it of all significance and by law prohibiting the people's tribune from holding any other position. The consequence of this was that all those who valued their reputation or origin began to shy away from the post of tribune in subsequent times. Perhaps the reason for limiting the power and prestige of the people's tribunes for Sulla was the example of the brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi, as well as Livy Drusus and Publius Sulpicius, who, from the point of view of the patricians and Sulla, caused a lot of evil to the state.

To the number of members of the Senate, completely depopulated due to internecine strife and wars, Sulla added up to 300 new members from the most noble horsemen, and the voting of each of them was entrusted to the tribes. Sulla included into the national assembly, granting them freedom, over 10,000 of the youngest and strongest slaves who belonged to previously killed Romans. Sulla declared all of them Roman citizens, calling them Cornelia after his own name, in order to thereby be able to use the votes of 10,000 such members of the national assembly who were ready to carry out all his orders. He intended to do the same in relation to the Italians: he allocated the soldiers of 23 legions (up to 120,000 people) who served in his army with a large amount of land in the cities, part of which had not yet been redistributed, part of which was taken away as a fine from the cities.

Sulla himself presented all his actions to the people as the “establishment of the republic,” that is, as an improvement of the unwritten Roman republican constitution.

Sulla's life after the dictatorship

When Sulla resigned, he added in the forum that if anyone demanded, he was ready to give an answer to everything that had happened, that he abolished the lictors for himself, dismissed his bodyguards and for a long time alone, only with his friends, appeared among the crowd, which even now still looked at him with fear. When he was returning home, only one boy began to reproach Sulla, and since no one was holding the boy back, he boldly walked with Sulla to his house and continued to scold him along the way. And Sulla, inflamed with anger at high-ranking people, at entire cities, calmly endured the boy’s scolding. Only upon entering the house did he consciously or accidentally utter prophetic words about the future:

Unknown Sulla's disease

At this time, Sulla developed symptoms of an unknown illness.

For a long time he did not know that he had ulcers in his insides, but meanwhile his whole body began to rot and began to become covered with a countless number of lice. Many were busy day and night removing them from him, but what they managed to remove was only a drop in the bucket compared to what was being born again. His entire dress, bath, water for washing, food were swarming with this decomposing stream - this is how his illness developed. Many times a day he took a dip in the water to wash his body and cleanse himself. But everything was useless.

Death and funeral

Sulla not only foresaw his death, but even wrote about it. Two days before his death, he completed the twenty-second book of his Memoirs, where he says that the Chaldeans predicted to him that, having lived a wonderful life, he would die at the height of happiness. There, Sulla says that his son appeared to him in a dream, who died a little earlier than Metella. Badly dressed, he, standing by the bed, asked his father to abandon his worries, go with him to his mother, Metella, and live with her in peace and quiet. However, Sulla did not abandon government affairs. And the day before his death, he learned that Granius, who held one of the highest positions in the city, awaiting the death of Sulla, was not returning the money he owed to the treasury. Sulla called him to his bedchamber, and, surrounding him with his servants, ordered him to be strangled. From the screams and convulsions, Sulla's abscess burst, and he vomited copiously blood. After this, his strength left him, and after spending a difficult night, he died.

In Rome, Sulla's death immediately caused internecine strife. Some demanded that Sulla's body be carried solemnly throughout Italy, exhibited in Rome at the forum and buried at public expense. But Lepidus and his supporters opposed this. However, Catulus and the Sullans prevailed. Sulla's body was transported throughout Italy and delivered to Rome. It rested in royal vestments on a golden bed. The lodge was followed by many trumpeters, horsemen and other armed crowds on foot. Those who served under Sulla flocked from everywhere to the procession in full armor, and as they arrived, they immediately lined up in due order. Other masses of people, free from work, also came running. Before Sulla's body they carried banners and axes with which he had been decorated during his lifetime, when he was a ruler.

The procession took on its most magnificent character when it approached the city gates and when Sulla’s body began to be carried through them. Here they carried more than 2,000 hastily made golden wreaths, gifts from the cities and legions that served under Sulla’s command, from his friends. It is impossible to count the other luxurious gifts sent to the funeral. Sulla's body, out of fear of the assembled army, was accompanied by all the priests and priestesses in separate colleges, the entire Senate, and all officials with the distinctive signs of their power. A crowd of so-called horsemen and, in separate detachments, the entire army serving under the command of Sulla followed in magnificent attire. It all hurriedly came running, as all the soldiers were in a hurry to take part in the sad ceremony, with their gilded banners, in their silver-plated weapons. There were an endless number of trumpeters, who took turns playing sad funeral songs. Loud lamentations were uttered first by senators and horsemen in turn, then by the army, finally by the people, some truly grieving for Sulla, others out of fear of him - and then they were no less afraid of his army and his corpse than during his life. For at the sight of everything that was happening, at the memory of what Sulla had done, they were filled with fear and had to agree with their opponents that he was indeed the happiest of men, but even dead was the most terrible opponent for them. When Sulla's corpse was placed on the pulpit in the forum, from where speeches are made, the funeral speech was given by the best orator of that time, because Sulla's son, Faust, was still very young. After this, the strongest of the senators lifted the corpse onto their shoulders and carried it to the Campus Martius, where only kings were buried. The funeral pyre was surrounded by horsemen and troops.

The inscription for the tombstone is said to have been written and left by Sulla himself. Its meaning is that no one did more good to friends and evil to enemies than Sulla.

Personal life

The first object of Sulla's passion was the rich freedwoman Nicopolis, much older than him. His first wife was Julia, the younger sister of Julia Maria, who bore him a daughter, Cornelia. After divorcing her, Sulla married Caecilia Metella, daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metella of Dalmatia and widow of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. Sulla showed her great respect. Although Sulla thereby established ties with the most powerful plebeian family of the time, not all the aristocracy calmly accepted this unequal alliance, especially after the civil war. When doctors declared that Caecilia's illness was incurable, the pontiffs came to warn him that he must refuse it, otherwise it could desecrate Sulla and the house while he was sacrificing to Hercules. From now on he was forbidden to approach her. After her death, Sulla violated the law he had issued on financial restrictions on the funerals of aristocrats. Sulla's son from Cecilia, Lucius, died less than six years ago in the winter of 82/81 BC. e. After Cecilia gave birth to twins shortly before her death, Sulla violated the onomastic religious rites of his time to give the children the names Faust and Fausta, which were not used in Rome. Sulla married for the last time at the age of 59. His chosen one was Valeria Messala. The last child was a girl, Postumia.

Evaluation of Sulla's activities

Sulla was the first person in Rome to use the legions given to him by the Senate to start a civil war and seize power. But although Sulla seized power with the help of the army (moreover, with the help of active military action), he held it without the direct intervention of troops. Sulla was also the first to be elected dictator not for 6 months, as required by the unwritten Roman constitution, but “until Rome, Italy, the entire Roman state, shaken by internecine strife and wars, strengthens itself”

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LUTIUS CORNELIUS SULLA

"LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA"

(138-78 BC)

Roman commander, praetor (93 BC), consul (88 BC), dictator (82 BC).

One of the most ancient Roman families is the Cornelian family, which gave Roman history a large number of statesmen and generals. The clan had two branches - plebeian and patrician. The plebeian surnames included the surnames Balba, Galla, Merula and others. The most famous in the plebeian branch of the Cornelian family was Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who became one of the closest associates of Gaius Julius Caesar and the first non-indigenous Roman to receive the consulate. Of the women of the Cornelian family, the most famous can be called the daughter of Publius Scipio Africanus the Elder, Cornelia. She gained fame not only as the mother of the tribunes of the people Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi, but also as a very educated woman. After the death of her husband, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, Cornelia devoted herself to caring and raising children, and she had twelve of them. She did not agree to become the wife of King Ptolemy. Once, when asked why she did not wear jewelry, she replied, pointing to her children: “Here is my jewelry.”

The surnames of the patrician branch of the Cornelian family enjoyed the greatest influence in Rome. Of the famous commanders, it is worth noting the Scipios, the most famous military leaders of the period of the wars with Carthage. Representatives of the Cornelians stood out during the republican period, they held the positions of senior senators and high priests. Among them it is worth noting Lucius Cinna, the famous representative of the democratic party of the last period of the Republic.

The patrician surname Sull also belonged to Cornelia. Ancient historians trace this surname not just to patricians, but to eupatrides, which literally means “descended from a glorious father,” that is, to representatives of the highest clan nobility. These included, for example, the consul Rufinus, who became famous for being expelled from the Senate for possessing more than ten pounds of silverware, which the law did not allow.

Rufinus' descendants were no longer so rich, and many lived on the verge of poverty. The most famous representative of this family was Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

He was born in 138 BC. in a family that was distinguished by nobility, but not wealth. Sulla received the education traditional for a noble Roman. Plutarch has a detailed biography of him, and from it you can learn that Sulla spent his youth partly in frivolous amusements, partly in literary studies. Plutarch wrote the following about his appearance: “His whole face was covered with an uneven red rash, under which white skin was visible in some places.” Plutarch also noted his gaze - heavy and penetrating, and his light blue eyes, combined with his complexion and fiery red hair, made Sulla’s gaze scary and difficult to bear.

He began his military service late, but managed to quickly make a career. He himself believed that he owed his success to luck and the special protection of the gods. He was distinguished by his extraordinary intelligence, daring courage and cunning. Sulla often went against established rules and traditions.

In 107 BC. he became the quaestor of the consul Marius during the Jugurthine War and contributed to its end, prompting, through skillful negotiations, King Bocchus of Mauritania to extradite Jugurtha.

"LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA"

Having captured Jugurtha in 105 BC, Sulla gained great fame in Rome and the hatred of Marius. In 103 BC. he served as legate during the war with the Germans, and the next year he was elected military tribune. He took part in the wars with the Cimbri and Teutones, and distinguished himself during the Allied War. Soon in Rome they started talking about Sulla the commander, and his military victories allowed him to come to the fore, pushing aside Gaius Marius.

In 87 BC. Sulla was elected consul and received orders to lead troops in the first war with the Pontic king Mithridates, which caused outrage among Marius' supporters. Sulla had already managed to go to the army in order to sail from there to Pontus, when he unexpectedly learned that in Rome the party led by the people's tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus had removed Sulla from command and transferred consular power to Marius.

Taking advantage of broad support in his army, Sulla refused to resign his consulate and led his troops to Rome. “He did not follow the pre-planned plan, but, having lost control of himself, he allowed his anger to control what was happening,” writes Plutarch about these events. He became the first Roman statesman to use the army in the fight against political opponents. Entering the city with an army, he forced the people's assembly and the senate to declare the most important of their opponents traitors to the fatherland, and a reward was even announced for Maria's head.

Over the next year, while in Rome, Sulla took a number of steps aimed at consolidating his power here. Sulpicius and his supporters were subjected to brutal repression. To strengthen the power of the oligarchy, Sulla implemented a number of legislative measures, after which the political system of Rome underwent significant changes. The legislative power of the people's assembly was limited; all laws proposed by the people's tribunes were subject to preliminary discussion in the Senate. The number of senators was increased by 300 new members from among Sulla's supporters.

Having received the expected consulate, Sulla, at the head of six legions, left for war. In 87 BC. his troops (30 thousand) landed in Epirus and launched an attack on Athens, which was the main base of the Pontic troops and fleet. Having defeated the Pontic troops sent against him in Boeotia, Sulla began the siege of Athens. After long resistance, Athens and the port of Piraeus were taken by storm and subjected to terrible plunder. Sulla widely resorted to "confiscation" of the treasures of Greek temples. He spared neither Olympia nor Delphi, and during the siege of Athens, on his orders, the sacred groves of the Academy and Lyceum were cut down.

In 86 BC. Sulla's army defeated the numerically superior Pontic army (100 thousand infantry and 10 thousand horsemen), led by the commander of Mithridates Archilaus, in the battle of Chaeronea (Boeotia). As a result of this victory, many Greek cities began to go over to the side of Rome. Despite the victories won by Sulla, the group of his opponents, which again seized power in Rome, decided to remove Sulla from command of the army. The consul Flaccus had already arrived in Greece with two legions and an order to replace Sulla. However, numerical superiority was on Sulla’s side, and Flaccus decided not to tempt fate, but, on the contrary, to strengthen Sulla in Asia Minor with his troops.

In 85 BC.

"LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA"

near the city of Orkhomenes (Boeotia), a battle took place between the new Pontic army and the legions of Sulla. This battle was the bloodiest of all the battles of the first war with Mithridates. Under the pressure of superior enemy forces, the legions were crushed and fled. And then Sulla himself, snatching the banner from the legionnaire, led the troops into a new attack. This helped turn the tide of the battle, the fate of which was decided in favor of Rome.

Soon Sulla was able to organize a fleet that pushed back the fleet of Mithridates and took control of the Aegean Sea. At the same time, the army of Flaccus in Asia Minor captured the city and base of Mithridates - Pergamon.

Mithridates could no longer wage war due to his lack of new reserves and asked Sulla for peace. Sulla himself wanted to end the war as quickly as possible in order to go to Rome to fight his political opponents. Therefore, he demanded that Mithridates clear the occupied territories in Asia Minor, hand over prisoners and defectors, and provide him with 80 ships and 3 thousand talents of indemnity. Having concluded the Dardanian Peace and defeating the troops of Fimbria in Asia Minor, sent against him, Sulla departed with the army for Italy. In the spring of 83 BC. he landed at Brundisium. His soldiers swore an oath not to go home and to support their commander to the end. In Italy he was opposed by two armies. Part of the Italian population went over to Sulla's side.

The consuls expected his offensive in Campania, where they pulled most of their troops. However, Sulla landed in Apulia, which he turned into a springboard for a further attack on Rome. Here his 40,000-strong army received significant reinforcement - Gnaeus Pompey with two legions went over to his side, and soon Sulla transferred his troops to Campania.

Here, near the city of Tifata, the army of the consul Norbanus, one of the associates of Marius, was defeated, and the army of another consul, Scipio, went over to the side of Sulla, tempted by a high salary.

During the winter of 83/82 BC. Sulla and his opponents were preparing for the upcoming hostilities. Sulla divided his troops into two groups. One occupied Picenum and Etruria, and the other, under the command of Sulla himself, moved to Rome. Near the town of Signia (Sacriporta), Sulla's army defeated a numerically superior force of recruits under the command of Marius's son, Gaius Marius the Younger. (He committed suicide after the fall of the city.) Leaving part of his troops in Rome, Sulla moved the army against the enemy concentrated in the city of Praeneste. Leaving a detachment to blockade the city, Sulla went to Etruria, where he defeated the army of consul Carbone. Carbon himself, abandoning the army, fled to Africa.

The bulk of Maria's supporters still remained blocked in the city of Praeneste and were soon to surrender. However, in October 82 BC. A 70,000-strong army of Samnites broke through to help the besieged, which relieved the besieged and moved with them to Rome. Having hastily drawn all the troops at his disposal to Rome, on November 1, 82 BC. Sulla blocked the enemy's path at the Collin Gate of Rome. The battle continued for two days and one night. Only at the end of the second day was Sulla able to deal the final blow to the enemy.

After the victory, Sulla addressed a letter to the Senate, in which he proposed to vest him with dictatorial powers in order to organize the state.

Sulla was appointed dictator for an indefinite period. Now, to strengthen his position, satisfy his revenge and reward his supporters, Sulla introduced the so-called proscriptions - lists of his opponents to be destroyed. These lists also included rich people whose property was to go to the treasury. (According to ancient authors, about 300 names were included in these lists.) Relatives and subsequent descendants of those included in Sulla’s lists were deprived of civil rights and could not hold public office.

Terror also fell on entire cities and regions, primarily Samnium and Etruria, which took an active part in the fight against Sulla. During the period of terror, the heads of those executed were displayed in the forum for public viewing. During the proscriptions, 90 senators and 2,600 horsemen died.

After the confiscation of property and lands from his opponents, Sulla found himself in the hands of huge funds. A significant part of them went to Sulla's supporters. Of the confiscated lands, many warriors who took part in military campaigns under his command were allocated plots of land. Each warrior received up to 30 yugera of fertile land.

In search of new allies among the population not only of Rome, but also of all of Italy, Sulla was forced to recognize the equality of all its citizens. In Rome, his support was also given to the freed slaves who belonged to those who died during the proscriptions. According to custom, they received the rights of Roman citizenship and the name of the one who set them free - this is how 10 thousand Cornelian freedmen appeared in Rome, with the help of whom decisions were made at public assemblies. Some of the freedmen became part of Sulla's bodyguards.

Under Sulla, the role of the Senate was especially strengthened and the power of the people's assembly was limited. Sulla gave the Senate new powers - he gave it control over finances and the right of censorship. He also increased the composition of the Senate from 300 to 600 members from among his supporters.

Sulla dealt a special blow to the tribunes of the people. All their proposals had to be previously discussed in the Senate. It was decided that a person who had taken the position of tribune of the people could no longer apply for higher government positions.

After Sulla was convinced that he had achieved his goal, he unexpectedly resigned as dictator and settled on his estate in Cumae, where he gave preference to literature and indulged in pleasures. Here he died in 78 BC. from apoplexy.

Contemporaries wrote that Sulla consisted of two halves - a fox and a lion, and it is unknown which of them was the most dangerous. Sulla himself spoke of himself as a darling of fate and even ordered the Senate to call himself Sulla the Happy. He was really lucky, because he did not lose a single battle in the war.

But Sulla owed his successes not so much to favorable circumstances as to his personal qualities, extreme strength of mind and body, unyielding consistency and boundless cruelty. His renunciation of dictatorial power was caused not so much by moral considerations as by the desire to live for his own pleasure, without bearing any responsibilities, which at the end of his life Sulla began to tire of.

18+, 2015, website, “Seventh Ocean Team”. Team coordinator:

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