How to distinguish borrowed words in Russian: examples of foreign language expressions. Abstract: Borrowing foreign words in Russian 2 borrowed words

The vocabulary of our language includes not only native Russian words. There are also borrowed ones among them. What are the origins of this phenomenon?

Reasons for borrowing

The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually occurs through economic, cultural and trade relations. The vocabularies of peoples also experience mutual influence during contact. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of a particular people.

Borrowing history

Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to enter the Russian language. This phenomenon became one of the ways to develop his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising about this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times has been sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process of developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the corresponding concepts were absent in the vocabulary of our people.

The nature and volume of borrowing can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic ties, as well as geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and the vocabulary of other languages.

Main stages

In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in their preferential borrowing. So, in the most ancient period, many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Rus' by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in the Russian language appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. At the next historical stage, Christianity began to emerge.

This was a period when borrowings appeared in the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected the vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from the Polish language. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our dictionary thanks to connections with the French and German peoples. The next period concerned English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20-21st centuries.

Linguistic signs of borrowings

What can we say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:

1. The sound "a" at the beginning of a word. This construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Those starting with the letter "a" are borrowed words in the Russian language. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are “abbot” and “aria”, “lampshade” and “anathema”, “arba” and “paragraph”, “angel” and “questionnaire”.
2. The sound "e" at the beginning of a word. This is how Latinisms and Greekisms usually begin. For example, “era” and “epoch”, “exam” and “ethics”, “effect” and “floor”.
3. The "f" sound in a word. The fact is that the Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are “fact” and “forum”, “sofa” and “scam”, “broadcast” and “form”, “profile” and “film”.
4. Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. According to the laws of our phonetics, such a construction was simply unacceptable. This is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
5. A harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is characteristic of the Turkic language. These are words such as “pencil” and “shoe”, “sarafan” and “caravan”, “drum” and “ataman”.

A morphological feature of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case and do not have a specific singular or plural form. Examples of such words are the following: “taxi” and “coat”, “coffee” and “maxi”, “beige” and “mini”.

History of borrowing French words

A significant part of the foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are Gallicisms. The term comes from the Latin "Gallic". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and constructed according to the phonetic laws of their language.

Gallicism became especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visiter” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsey” and “cavalier”, “guverner” and “cocotte”.

Gallicisms have penetrated into all spheres of human activity and life. This especially affected wardrobe items. This is evidenced by such words borrowed from the French language as “costume jewelry” and “accessory”, “jabot” and “veil”, “peignoir” and “manteau”. A lot of Gallicisms have appeared in the culinary field. The Russian dictionary has been replenished with such words as “mayonnaise” and “meringue”, “mashed potatoes” and “delicacy”.

Many Gallicisms are associated with the sphere of art. These are “accordion” and “overture”, “debut” and “poster”, “applause” and “palette”, “vaudeville” and “ensemble”.

The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were usually associated with economics, social life and politics. The following examples can be given: “diplomat” and “bureaucracy”, “democrat” and “capitalism”, “shareholder” and “press”, “budget” and “bourgeoisie”. Words such as “run” and “authoritarian” are also borrowed from French. Gallicisms include “exaggerate” and “importer”.

French loanwords in the Russian language are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. A particularly strong influence of Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary was observed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the next two centuries, borrowed words began to be considered more prestigious and beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France this is a small shop. In Russia, this word took on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering customers fashionable clothes.

Phraseologisms borrowed from French

Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and catchphrases have passed from French into Russian. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures - kings and politicians, generals, etc.

One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Precision is the courtesy of kings." The era of religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as “a state within a state.” It concerned rich youth from the bourgeois-noble classes, wasting their lives. And the “old guard” was the name given to selected units of Napoleonic troops. They included the best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows the expression “Balzac age.” It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.

It is interesting that such a common expression among us as “out of place” is also a Gallicism. Literally it means “to be in an unenviable position.”

The history of the appearance of German words in Russian

The process of penetration of Germanic vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German began to appear most often in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their penetration occurred not only through written means, but also through oral means. The list of German loanwords in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns the following sections of vocabulary:

Military - “assault” and “parade ground”, “carriage”, “corporal” and “bayonet”, “grenade” and “soldier”;

Production - “chisel” and “workbench”, “washer” and “shaft”, “matrix” and “slate”, “template” and “format”;

Merchant - “accountant” and “freight”, “bill” and “cashier”;

Medical - “paramedic” and “bandage”, “plaster” and “cotton wool”, “syringe” and “resort”;

Socio-political - “dictation” and “falsification”, “aggressor” and “priority”, “slogan” and “discrimination”;

Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";

Household - “sandwich” and “pretzel”, “dumplings” and “pate”, “apron” and “rutabaga”, “hairdresser” and “corkscrew”;

Arts - “landscape” and “easel”, “tour” and “dance”, “flute” and “choreographer”.

The main grammatical and phonetic features of borrowed German words are combinations of sounds “ey”, “ay”, as well as the initial “shp”, “sht” (“spy”, “stamp”). In addition, they are given out by an addition that does not have connecting vowels (“mouthpiece”, “sideburns”).

The history of the appearance of Anglicisms

Borrowings from Foggy Albion entered our language much later than French and German words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as scientific works.

The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us from the British Isles concerned trade, everyday relations, as well as scientific activities.

In imperial Russia, the prestige of the English language was kept at a high level thanks to the significant role of Great Britain on the world stage. The following stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. This was the period of formation of the independent Russian state.

Examples of Anglicisms

Borrowed words in the Russian language, which came to us from Britain, began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “combine”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.

Strengthening interaction with Western European countries at the end of the 20th century. led to the appearance of numerous borrowed words in Russian from English during this period. Examples are found in all areas of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.

Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the following areas:

Socio-political - “businessman”, “management”, “dealer”;

Computer technology - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".

Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from English are “grinders” and “body”, “cardigan” and “top”. You can also find “foreigners” in the cultural sphere - “promotion”, “remix”, “show business”, etc.

Words name objects, phenomena, signs and actions of the surrounding world. The more a person learns about the world (including himself), the more he discovers new things in it, and accordingly calls everything new in words. The entire known world is thus reflected in the vocabulary of the language. The Russian language is one of the richest in the world in terms of vocabulary. “For everything,” wrote K. Paustovsky, “the Russian language has a great many good words.”

However, any language develops in interaction with other languages. Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to language borrowing. Gradually, the borrowed words were assimilated (from the Latin assimilare - to assimilate, to liken) by the borrowing language and were no longer perceived as foreign.

Borrowed words – These are foreign words that have completely entered the lexical system of the Russian language. They acquired lexical meaning, phonetic design, grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language, are used in various styles, and are written in letters of the Russian alphabet.

Reasons for borrowing

In different historical periods, borrowings from other languages ​​intensified both under the influence of external (non-linguistic) and internal (linguistic) reasons.

External reasons – these are various connections between peoples. So, in the 10th century. Kievan Rus adopted Christianity from the Greeks. In this regard, many Greek words entered the Old Russian language, along with borrowed religious ideas and objects of church worship, for example: altar, patriarch, demon, icon, cell, monk, lamp, metropolitan etc. Scientific terms, names of objects of Greek culture, names of plants, months, etc. were also borrowed, for example: mathematics, history, philosophy, grammar, syntax, idea, theater, stage, museum, comedy, tragedy, alphabet, planet, climate, doll, poppy, cucumber, beets, January, February, December and etc.

From the XIII to the XV centuries. Ancient Rus' was under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Words from Turkic languages ​​appeared: barn, cart, quiver, lasso, shoe, felt, armyak, sash, sheepskin coat, heel, trousers, noodles, khan, sundress, pencil, barn, chest, trestle bed, label.

During the period of transformations of Peter I, especially many words came into the Russian language from Dutch, German, English, and French. This:

military vocabulary: recruit, camp, watch, parade ground, uniform, corporal, order, soldier, officer, company, assault, harbor, fairway, bay, flag, cabin, sailor, boat, dugout, sapper, landing, squadron, artillery;

art terms: easel, landscape, stroke, leitmotif, highlight, full house, flute, dance, choreographer(from German); stalls, play, actor, prompter, intermission, plot, ballet, genre(from French); bass, tenor, aria, bravo, box, opera(from Italian); names of new household items, clothing: kitchen, sandwich, waffle, minced meat, tie, cap (and from the German language); muffler, suit, vest, coat, bracelet, veil, necklace, fashion designer, furniture, chest of drawers, buffet, chandelier, lampshade, cream, marmalade(from French).

Internal reasons – These are the needs for the development of the lexical system of a language, which are as follows:

1. The need to eliminate the ambiguity of the original Russian word, to simplify its semantic structure. This is how the words appeared import Export instead of polysemantic native Russians import, export. Words import Export began to mean “import”, “export” associated with international trade.

Instead of a descriptive name ( sniper - accurate shooter; motel – hotel for autotourists; sprint – sprinting; hit - fashionable song; killer - hitman).

Similarly, the words arose tour, cruise. This process is also supported by the tendency to create international terms. For example, football commentators call foreign players on domestic teams legionnaires.

2. The desire to clarify or detail the relevant concepts of language, to distinguish between its semantic shades. So, briefing – not just any meeting, casting – not just any competition, but primarily in the field of show business. For example, in Russian the word jam It is called both liquid and thick jam. To distinguish thick jam from fruits or berries, which is a homogeneous mass, from liquid jam, in which whole berries could be preserved, thick jam began to be called by the English word jam. The words also arose reportage(with native Russian story), total(with native Russian general), hobby ( with native Russian hobby), comfort - convenience: service - service; local– local; creative– creative ; charm – charm, charm; relaxation – rest ; extreme- dangerous ; positive– optimism. Thus, a word already existing in a language and a newly borrowed one share spheres of semantic influence. These areas may overlap, but will never completely coincide.

Linguistic features of borrowed words

Among the phonetic characteristics of borrowed words the following can be distinguished:

1. Unlike native Russians, they never begin with a sound A(which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.

2. The initial e distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this sound): era, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.

3. The letter f also indicates a non-Russian source of the sound f and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, film, sofa, scam, aphorism, broadcast, profile and so on.

4. A special phonetic feature of Turkic origin is the harmony of identical vowels: ataman, caravan, pencil, sundress, drum, chest, mosque.

5. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature: poet, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability. Thus, some foreign language nouns do not change by case and do not have correlative singular and plural forms: coat, radio, cinema, metro, cocoa, beige, mini, maxi, blinds and etc.

Borrowing end XX – beginning XXI century.

Scope of use

We can distinguish two main types of borrowed words of our time. The first type is relatively old borrowings, updated in recent years in connection with changes in the political and economic system of Russia (for example, the word the president, borrowed during the Soviet era, became relevant in the 80s).

The second type is new borrowing. They are especially numerous.

In the 90s the influx of borrowings into the Russian language increased greatly, which was associated with changes in the sphere of political life, economics, culture and moral orientation of society.

Borrowings take leading positions in the political life of the country: president, parliament, inauguration, summit, speaker, impeachment, electorate, consensus etc.

in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, monitoring, player, pager, fax, modem, portal, processor, and also in financial and commercial activities:auditor, barter, broker, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, supermarket, manager, default etc.

Into the cultural sphere invade bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, casting and so on.

Noteworthy is the fact that the rapidly growing number of new names of persons in the Russian language is caused not only by the emergence of new professions - to a greater extent this is due to the fact that new subcultures are being identified, classified by way of life, by profession, by cultural affiliation. The bulk of these words are borrowed from English. In modern Russian, this group of new names for persons can be considered still developing and constantly growing:

blogger – a person who, on a professional or amateur basis, is engaged in maintaining and maintaining a blog; game designer - a person who develops the rules of computer games; downshifter – a person who voluntarily gave up a high position and income for the sake of a simple and leisurely life with his family, for the sake of spiritual self-improvement, and travel; skater – man riding a skateboard; trapper - fur-bearing animal hunter; thrasher – a young man with a non-standard appearance (plenty of piercings and tattoos, outrageous clothes), etc.

Attitude towards borrowing

Foreign words in the Russian language have always been the subject of close attention and discussion by scientists, public figures, writers, and lovers of the Russian language. Scientists were interested in what place borrowed words occupy in the vocabulary of the Russian language, from which languages ​​the most words are borrowed, what is the reason for borrowing, and whether foreign words will clog up the native language. Repeated attempts were made to replace words that came from other languages ​​with Russian ones (Peter I).

Borrowing is a completely natural way to enrich any language. Foreign words replenish the vocabulary of the language. This is their positive role. However, excessive and unnecessary use of foreign words complicates communication and leads to the formation of absurd phrases:

The students of grade 3 “B” made an identical decision.

Masha confidentially told her friend about this incident.

Until what time is the buffet open?

We wish consensus in the family!

Errors in the use of borrowed words lead to the formation of tautological combinations: leading leader, young prodigy, free vacancy, your own autograph, old veteran, forecast for the future, etc. On the other hand, reasonable borrowings enrich speech and give it greater accuracy.

Nowadays, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech (for example, in scientific speech, preference is given to a foreign language synonym - integration, not a union; flexion, not the ending). Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for specialists.

In our time, the creation of international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science and production is also taken into account, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character (medical, space terminology). For example: car, spaceport, democracy, republic, telegraph, dictatorship, philosophy.

Processes of vocabulary enrichment through borrowings occur today in all modern languages. However, how this will change the face of the Russian language, whether it will enrich it or “spoil” it, time will tell. It will also determine the fate of borrowings, which will ultimately be approved or rejected by the linguistic taste of the era.

Literature

2. Modern Russian language, edited by M., 1976

3. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language M., 1971

4. Dictionary of foreign words M: “Russian language”, 1988

5. Romanov and Americanisms in the Russian language and attitude towards them. St. Petersburg, 2000

The languages ​​of contacting peoples experience mutual influence, because they are the main means of communication, the means by which interethnic connections are carried out. The main form of linguistic influence of one people on another is the borrowing of foreign words. Borrowing enriches the language, makes it more flexible and usually does not infringe on its originality, since it preserves the basic vocabulary of the language inherent in a given language, the grammatical structure, and the internal laws of language development are not violated.

During its history, the Russian language has had various connections with the peoples of the whole world. The result of this was numerous foreign words borrowed by the Russian language from other languages.

For my scientific and practical work, I chose the topic “Borrown words in the Russian language.” Words borrowed from other languages ​​affect our speech, and therefore our entire life, our quality of life.

This topic is relevant, since the borrowing of foreign words occurs constantly. We increasingly feel the emergence of new concepts and foreign synonymous words that replace our Russian words. We feel the ebb of truly Russian concepts and automatically replace them with foreign ones. This happens because a person’s need for something new, in particular new words, is constantly growing.

This topic contains a problem. This problem is that by giving preference to foreign words, we move away from using our own Russian words. We easily introduce new concepts and definitions into our vocabulary, which sometimes we cannot even explain. On the one hand, by using borrowed words, we enrich our speech, we can communicate with other countries and peoples. But on the other hand, we are deprived of that richness, that lightness that determines the uniqueness of our language.

For research, I took two areas - lexicology and etymology. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, considering in various aspects the basic unit of language - the word. I worked with descriptive lexicology, which studies the current state of vocabulary, and with historical lexicology, which studies vocabulary in the process of its historical development. Lexicology considers the vocabulary of the modern Russian language as a complex system in which words are correlated according to their various characteristics. I considered lexicology from the point of view of the origin of words, thereby highlighting native Russian and borrowed vocabulary. Working with etymology, I found out when and under what conditions this or that word appeared. These areas within which the research was carried out are the objects of study.

The subject of the study, that is, the part of the object that is revealed in this study, are borrowed words.

The purpose of my work is to find out the reasons for borrowing foreign words into the Russian language and the conditions for their existence.

To achieve the goal, I set myself tasks, namely: I must find out how words are borrowed and mastered in our language; explain the reasons why people use foreign words; find out the sources of borrowed words; find out the signs of borrowed words; find out the reasons for the disappearance of native Russian words from our speech.

I have an idea as to why foreign words penetrate our speech so quickly. It is obvious that the lexical and grammatical structure of the Russian language is capable of easily absorbing foreign words and endowing them with their own grammatical features. Borrowing makes a language more flexible and does not infringe on its originality, the basic vocabulary of the language is preserved, and the internal laws of language development are not violated. Often, when foreign words pass into the Russian language, the gender of nouns, and sometimes even the part of speech, changes.

1. Original Russian vocabulary:

1. The concept of original Russian vocabulary.

The main fund of our language is native Russian words. According to scientists in the 90s, they “make up more than 90% of the words currently used in our language.”

Original Russian vocabulary is words dating back to the Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Old Russian eras and inherited by the Russian language, as well as created in the Russian language according to the models existing in it.

Until the 5th–6th centuries AD, all Slavic peoples had one common Slavic language. Then it broke up and three language families were formed: South Slavic, East Slavic and West Slavic.

The most ancient, native European layer of native Russian vocabulary has correspondences in other Indo-European languages. These are some terms of kinship: mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, grandson, stepfather, stepmother; names of animals: wolf, goose, deer, natural phenomena: water, moon, snow, stone, body parts: nose, forehead, face, leg, hand, tooth, ear, eye, some actions: lie down, sit, sleep, wash, take, give, go, call, breathe, be, see, numbers: two, three, etc.

The P r i c a l vocabulary is represented by a larger number of words and a greater and greater variety of them than Proto-Indo-European. These are words that have correspondences in Slavic languages ​​and are absent in other Indo-European languages: heart, child, spring, rain, grass, snake, saddle, labor, kind, ring, yesterday, etc. The words of these two layers are only about 2000, but they are not related to to the most commonly used ones.

The ancient Russian layer of vocabulary consists of words common to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​and absent in other Slavic languages: uncle, spinner, samovar, lark, cheap, pockmarked, vouch, forty, ninety etc. Old Russian language is the language of the ancient Eastern Slavs, which separated from the common Slavic language approximately 1.5 thousand years ago. This language is called Old Russian because the Eastern Slavs, having created an independent state - Kievan Rus, formed a single Old Russian nation. Later (about 600 years ago) the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities emerged from it. Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are very similar both grammatically and lexically. These are brother languages ​​from the same East Slavic family.

Proper Russian words arose from the end of the 14th century. These are almost all nouns with the suffixes -schik, -chik, -yatin(a), -lk(a), -ovk(a), -telstv(o), -sh(a), -nost, -ability, -shchin (a), -tel (with the meaning of a tool or device): mason, hauler, sour, lighter, leaflet, certificate, doctrine, reality, controllability, piecework, switch; compound nouns: university, savings bank, salary; the vast majority of complex adjectives: burning, dark green; verbs formed in a suffix-prefix way, for example, squander, get through; denominative verbs, for example, to carpenter, to hack; adverbs with the prefix po-: in a friendly way, as before; the overwhelming majority of derived prepositions and conjunctions: in view of, as a result of, thanks to, so that, since, like, while, etc. When forming words, borrowed morphemes that function in the Russian language could also be used: newspaper, signalman, counterattack, television, kiosk. Actually Russian are also words that arose in earlier eras, but then changed their meaning. Thus, the word red in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages ​​meant “good, beautiful,” and in Russian it began to mean color.

1. The concept of foreign language vocabulary.

Borrowed words exist in all languages, because when people communicate, they “exchange words.”

Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words, assimilated (from Latin assimilare - to assimilate, liken) by the borrowing language, became among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign.

Foreign language vocabulary is words of other languages ​​used in the Russian language as regular lexical units. Depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) related borrowings (from the Slavic family of languages) and 2) foreign borrowings (from languages ​​of a different language system). The first type includes borrowings from the related Old Church Slavonic language (sometimes called Old Bulgarian in linguistic literature). The second includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, Germanic, etc.).

According to statistics from the 90s, about 10% of words in the Russian language are borrowed from other languages. Borrowing is based on trade, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and, as a consequence, language contacts. The overwhelming majority of foreign words were borrowed by the Russian language along with a thing, a concept: school is a Greek word, class is a Latin word, briefcase is French, satchel is German, pencil is Turkic, pioneer is English, tea is Chinese, candy is Italian, tundra is Finnish, umbrella – Dutch. A borrowed word can denote a special type of object, a concept that existed in the Russian language: from English jam “a special kind of jam”, from French porter “a type of servant in a hotel.” The reason for borrowing may also be the desire to replace a descriptive expression, a phrase with one word: sniper (English) instead of marksman, motel (English) instead of a hotel for autotourists, tour (French) instead of traveling along a circular route.

Foreign words penetrated the Russian language at different periods of its history. Some of these words came from the Old Russian language, which, in turn, could have received them from Proto-Slavic. Such ancient borrowings from Germanic languages ​​are, for example, prince, king, beech, carp, onion “plant”, barn. The words whip, hook, pud, herring came into the Old Russian language from the Scandinavian languages; from Finnish - navaga, herring, salmon, fir, riga, blizzard, tundra; from the Turkic - armyak, bashlyk, shoe, sheepskin coat, horse, herd, barn, barn, chest, hero, guard; from Greek – bed, notebook, ship, sail, beetroot, whale, lantern, etc.

2. Types of foreign words according to the degree of their mastery in the language.

Foreign words differ in the degree of their mastery in the language. Depending on this, the following main types of foreign language vocabulary are distinguished:

1. Words mastered; these words are not only always conveyed by graphic and phonetic means of the Russian language, but also have a completely “Russified”, by no means exotic meaning; from them derivative commonly used words are formed, for example: coat - coat, coat; hero - heroic, heroism, heroism; district - district.

2. Exotic words - foreign language names of things and concepts that are characteristic of the life and culture of a people. These are the names of customs, household utensils, clothing, monetary units, etc.: lunch is the second breakfast among the British, beshmet is a quilted caftan of the Caucasian peoples, cruzeiro is a monetary unit in Brazil, etc.

3. Foreign language inclusions - words and phrases that retain a foreign language appearance, i.e. foreign spelling and pronunciation. For example: rgo and sop1ra (lat.) - “for” and “against”, с’est 1а viе! (French) - “such is life!”, parru end (English) - “happy ending”, etc.

There is also a type of foreign influence on the dictionary in which the word is not borrowed, but it serves, as it were, as a model for a new Russian word. Each meaningful part of a foreign word is replaced by a corresponding Russian morpheme. So, for example, the word representation was created. The German word Vorstellung was divided into morphemes - Vor-stel-lung - and each morpheme was translated into Russian: vor- - “pre-”,

Stell- - “-stav (l)-” (the same root as in the verb to put, I put), -ung - “-enie”; it turned out to be a performance. This method is called tracing, and the words themselves are called tracings. Examples of other cripples: natural tester (German Natur-forsch-er), sky-scraper (English sku-scraper). These are all word-forming tracing papers.

There are also semantic, semantic tracings. They arise under the influence of some meaning of a word belonging to another language. For example, the French s1oi, in addition to the main meaning - “nail”, is used in the meaning of “the main bait of a theatrical performance, program.” This meaning also influenced the use of the Russian word nail: from the end of the 19th century. In the Russian language, expressions appear: the highlight of the season, the highlight of the exhibition, etc. In the phrase newspaper duck in the meaning of “fiction, false report” is also a semantic tracing paper from the French sapard, has both a direct meaning - “duck”, and a figurative meaning - “fiction” "

The process of lexical borrowing is normal for language development. True, not all languages ​​are equally susceptible to foreign language influence. It depends on various factors. For example, from geographical. Thus, Iceland, due to its island position and isolation from other European countries, for many centuries was weakly connected with the “mainland” peoples. Therefore, the Icelandic language has few borrowings from other languages.

Sometimes political factors are important. Thus, in Czechoslovakia, the long-term struggle against German influence led, in particular, to the fact that in the Czech and Slovak languages ​​there were very few words of German origin: they were deliberately not allowed into speech. However, these examples are the exception rather than the rule. Usually, countries and peoples actively cooperate and contact each other. One of the forms of such contacts is mutual linguistic influence, which is expressed, in particular, in lexical borrowing.

3. Mastering foreign words.

Mastering foreign words is the adaptation of foreign words to Russian graphic and linguistic norms.

When words pass from a foreign language into Russian, processes of acquisition occur. Words are mastered: 1) graphically; 2) phonetically; 3) grammatically; 4) lexically.

Graphic development of a borrowed word is its transmission in writing using the Russian alphabet, Russian letters: English meeting - Russian meeting, French paletot - Russian coat, Italian macaroni - Russian pasta, etc. Becoming the property of the Russian language, the borrowed word also acquires Russian graphic appearance

Phonetic acquisition is the adaptation of a foreign word to the norms of Russian pronunciation. A borrowed word was rarely adopted by the Russian language in the form in which it existed in the source language. Differences in the sound structure between the Russian and foreign languages ​​led to the fact that the foreign word changed, adapted to Russian phonetic norms, and sounds unusual for the Russian language disappeared in it. So, for example, in German, Italian, French, Polish and other languages, o in an unstressed position never sounds like a (briefcase, portrait - French), in our country it is pronounced as “partfel”, “partret”, etc. Consonants , which sound at the end of words in the source language as voiced, in the Russian language, according to the laws of Russian phonetics, are deafened. French etage (floor), paysage (landscape), devise (motto), English jazz (jazz) are pronounced with a voiced consonant at the end, Russian words have a voiceless consonant at the end (ш, с).

However, sometimes borrowed words live in the Russian language with some properties alien to the Russian language. This group of words can always be found in our language. A foreign appearance is created by the juxtaposition of two or more vowels in the roots of words: poet, duel, diet, etc. Russian words are not characterized by such combinations as pu, byu, vu, kyu, etc. Therefore, by their external appearance one can already recognize the borrowed character of the words: puree, bill, bureaucrat, bulletin, engraving, ditch, blooming, budget, etc. The presence of the letter f in a word is also a foreign language feature: cafe, graphics, shape, kefir, rhyme, etc.

Some words have undergone such an external sound change and have become so widespread that Russian speakers do not even suspect “foreigners” in them. So, for example, the words neat, jacket are of Polish origin; ribbon, sail, lantern - Greek; tie - German; application form – French; newspaper - Italian; cupcake - English.

Borrowed words, coming into the possession of Russian grammar, are subject to its rules. Often, when words move from one language to another, the gender of nouns changes. That is why the words coat, cafe, foyer, dressing table, muffler, depot, loto, etc., which belong to the masculine gender in French, have become neuter nouns like window, sea, and the words sort, visit, which were in French feminine, in Russian they became masculine. The nouns topic, scheme, theorem in Greek were neuter, but in Russian they became feminine.

Lexical acquisition of a borrowed word is the acquisition of its meaning. A word can be considered lexically mastered when it names a thing, a phenomenon characteristic of our Russian reality, when there is nothing left in its meaning that would indicate its foreign-language origin. So, for example, the word coat is borrowed from the French language, but the object itself, the name of which this word serves, has become so firmly established in our everyday life that, of course, it is not recognized as French clothing.

Not all foreign words that penetrate the language retain their meaning. Here's a little history of the word sofa. This Turkic word meant “wisdom, book, source of wisdom, collection of poems, writing, wise advice.” Goethe, admiring the poetic culture of the East, created a number of works united in a cycle called “West-Eastern Divan”. In this case, the word divan is used to mean “collection of poems.”

In the 60s, a parcel from Central Asia arrived in Leningrad to the manuscript department of the Saltykov-Shchedrin Public Library. There was a small brick in it. A very rare handwritten book was walled up in brick. It is called “Divan Hikmanov”, which means “Collection of Wisdom”. The author of the manuscript, Akhmat Assawi, lived about 800 years ago. The book contains songs of this ancient singer rewritten in the 13th century.

But the word divan also had another meaning in Turkic languages ​​- “a council of dignitaries under the Sultan”, later - “a room for meetings, meetings in which the state council with wide eastern “seats”, the “seats” themselves, met.

The closest neighbors of the Turks, Bulgarians and Croats, began to use the word divan to mean “room for receiving guests.”

When the word continued its journey further to the West, to the Italians and French, it again changed its meaning: it is no longer “a room for receiving guests,” but “furniture in a room where guests are received.” With this meaning the word sofa came to us from the French.

In Polish, sofa means “carpet”, i.e. what lies on the sofa, what covers the furniture that we call a sofa.

In our Russian language there are two different meanings of the word sofa. One - borrowed directly from the Turkic languages ​​- “collections of poems, advice of the wise”, the other - has gone a long way through Western languages ​​- “upholstered furniture for sitting and lying.”

And here is the history of the word station. It appeared in the 18th century. A certain lady named Jane Vaux turned her estate on the banks of the Thames in the vicinity of London into a place of public entertainment and built a pavilion there, calling it “Vauxhall” - “Mistress Vaux’s Hall”. Subsequently, other entertainment establishments with gardens began to be called this way. Following the example of London's Vauxhall, similar gardens appeared in other European cities - in Paris and Munich. At the end of the 19th century, "Vauxhall" already meant "concert hall at a railway station." Such a hall in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg began to be called a train station. When the railway line from St. Petersburg to Pavlovsk was built, the final stop was called Vokzal. Later, other railway stations in Russia began to be called this way.

The word clown came to us from the English language. This was the name of the jester in English comedy. Clown comes from the Latin word colonus - "villager". The townspeople constantly laughed at the awkwardness and naivety of the “hillbillies.”

The word costume appeared in our country in the 18th century. Translated from Italian, suit means “habit, custom.”

The word tuzhurka, which goes back to the French toujours - “always,” has also undergone amazing changes in meaning. Initially, the jacket was understood as “everyday clothing.”

Changes in the meanings of words when borrowed also occur on the basis of coincidences in the sound of the word and the ideas associated with it. Here is one such example.

In serf Russia, some landowners created their own theaters and choirs, and artists were selected from the serfs. As a rule, children were selected to join the choir. This was usually done by invited Frenchmen. About those who did not approach, they said: “Shantra pa” (“will not sing”). People who heard this perceived the two words as one and, not knowing French, understood the expression as “bad, worthless.” This is how the Russian colloquial word shantrapa appeared.

However, not all words that penetrate the language take root. So, for example, the foreign word piroskaf is replaced by the Russian word steamer, victoria - victory, fortecia - the word fortress, etc.

In the process of mastering a foreign word, its semantic structure often changes. Thus, a process of decreasing the number of meanings may occur: in English. sport has many different meanings - “sports, hunting, fishing”, “fan”, “dandy”, “entertainment, joke, fun”, etc., in the Russian language sport only the first meaning has been established; in French nocturne, in addition to the meaning “type of musical work”, which also passed into Russian. nocturne, there are other meanings - “night”, “all-night vigil”. The meanings of words can be narrowed: French. orangerie “greenhouse for growing oranges” - Russian. greenhouse "greenhouse". In the meanings of words, some semantic features can be replaced: lat. caminata “room with a fireplace” - Russian. room "living premises".

Often in the Russian language the original meaning of words is subject to change: German. der Maler - painter received a new meaning - “painter”, i.e. a worker in painting buildings, interior spaces, etc.; fr. hasard (excitement) - the case received the meaning of “passion, passion, ardor”; French aventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to Lat. adventura - chance, used in the meaning of “dubious event, business”, etc.

However, not all borrowed words are redesigned. There are frequent cases of penetration of foreign words in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek genesis - genus, origin), duel (French duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (Latin palma), etc.

In addition to borrowings themselves, so-called tracing is possible (French caique - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

Calques are: a) word-formative, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise by literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, calques from Latin and Greek are: interjection (Latin Inter + jectio), adverb (Latin ad + verbium), spelling (Gr. Orthos + graph), etc.; b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (French toucher) in the meaning of “to evoke sympathy”, nail (French le clou) in combination with the highlight of the program, etc.

Derivational tracings are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic tracings - from French words.

In addition to full lexical (word-formative and semantic) calques, the Russian language also distinguishes semi-calques, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also original Russian ones. According to their word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Half-calculation includes, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign language borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They supplemented terminological systems and were also used as exoticisms (gr. exōtikos - foreign) when describing national characteristics, to create local flavor. However, it is not uncommon to use them for specific stylistic purposes. The appropriateness of their inclusion in Russian texts of different styles must be carefully thought out each time, since the abuse of foreign language vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts intended for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve their intended purpose.

3. Borrowing as a historical process:

3. 1. Periods of preferential borrowing.

In the history of the language there were periods of preferential borrowing:

1) from Germanic languages ​​and Latin (pre-Slavic period);

2) from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​(the period of colonization by the Slavs of Northern and North-Eastern Rus');

3) from Greek, and then Old/Church Slavonic (the era of Christianization, further book influence);

4) from the Polish language (XVI-XVIII centuries);

5) from the Dutch (XVIII), German and French (XVIII-XIX centuries) languages;

6) from the English language (XX - early XXI centuries).

Borrowings in the Old Russian language:

Many foreign words borrowed by the Russian language in the distant past have been so internalized by the Russian language that their origin is discovered only through etymological analysis. These are, for example, some borrowings from Turkic languages, the so-called Turkisms. Words from Turkic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language since Kievan Rus neighbored such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Polovtsy, Berendeys, Pechenegs and others. Approximately the 8th-12th centuries include such Old Russian borrowings from Turkic languages ​​as boyar, tent, hero, pearl, kumis, band, cart, horde. It is worth noting that historians of the Russian language often disagree about the origin of certain borrowings. Thus, in some linguistic dictionaries the word horse is recognized as a Turkic word, while other experts attribute this word to native Russian.

For about ten centuries, the Church Slavonic language represented the basis of religious and cultural communication among the Orthodox Slavs, but was very far from everyday life. The Church Slavonic language itself was close, but did not coincide either lexically or grammatically with the national Slavic languages. However, its influence on the Russian language was great, and as Christianity became an everyday phenomenon, an integral part of Russian reality, a huge layer of Church Slavonicisms lost their conceptual foreignness (names of the months - January, February, etc., heresy, idol, priest and others).

A noticeable mark was left by Greekisms, which came into the Old Russian language mainly through Old Church Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium took an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins. Greek words from the period X-XVII centuries include words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, bishop, demon, icon, monk, monastery, lamp, sexton; scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar; everyday terms: lime, sugar, bench, notebook, lantern; names of plants and animals: buffalo, beans, beets, etc. Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: trochee, comedy, mantle, verse, logic, analogy and others. Many Greek words that received international status entered the Russian language through Western European languages.

By the 17th century, translations from Latin into Church Slavonic appeared, including the Gennadian Bible. Since then, Latin words have begun to penetrate into the Russian language. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day (bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose, etc.).

Borrowings under Peter I:

The flow of borrowed foreign language vocabulary characterizes the reign of Peter I. Peter's transformative activities became a prerequisite for the reform of the literary Russian language. The Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the realities of the new secular society. The penetration of a number of foreign words, mainly military and craft terms, the names of some household items, new concepts in science and technology, in maritime affairs, in administration, in art, etc., had a huge impact on the language of that time. In Russian, such borrowed foreign words as algebra, optics, globe, apoplexy, varnish, compass, cruiser, port, corps, army, deserter, cavalry, office, act, rent, tariff and many others.

Dutch words appeared in the Russian language mainly in Peter's times in connection with the development of navigation. These include: ballast, buer, spirit level, shipyard, harbour, drift, tack, pilot, sailor, yard, rudder, flag, fleet, navigator and so on.

At the same time, terms from the field of maritime affairs were also borrowed from the English language: barge, boat, brig, whaleboat, midshipman, schooner, cutter and others.

It is known, however, that Peter himself had a negative attitude towards the dominance of foreign words and demanded that his contemporaries write “as intelligibly as possible,” without abusing non-Russian words. So, for example, in his message to Ambassador Rudakovsky, Peter wrote: “In your communications you use a lot of Polish and other foreign words and terms, behind which it is impossible to understand the matter itself: for this reason, from now on you should write all your communications to us in Russian, without using foreign words and terms."

Borrowings in the 18th-19th centuries:

A great contribution to the study and organization of foreign borrowings was made by M. V. Lomonosov, who in his work “Anthology on the History of Russian Linguistics” outlined his observations about Greek words in the Russian language in general, and in the field of the formation of scientific terms in particular.

". Avoiding foreign language borrowings, Lomonosov at the same time sought to promote the rapprochement of Russian science with Western European science, using, on the one hand, international scientific terminology, composed primarily of Greco-Latin roots, and on the other hand, forming new Russian terms or rethinking existing words.” .

Lomonosov believed that the Russian language had lost its stability and linguistic norm due to the “clogging” of the living spoken language with borrowings from a variety of languages. This prompted Lomonosov to create a “Preface on the benefits of church books,” in which he manages to lay the foundations of the Russian language corresponding to the time.

Active political and social ties with France in the 18th-19th centuries contributed to the penetration of a large number of borrowings from the French language into the Russian language. French becomes the official language of courtly aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. Borrowings from this time - names of household items, clothing, food products - bureau, boudoir, stained glass window, couch, boot, veil, wardrobe, vest, coat, broth, vinaigrette, jelly, marmalade; words from the field of art: actor, entrepreneur, poster, ballet, juggler, director; terms from the military field: battalion, garrison, pistol, squadron; socio-political terms: bourgeois, declassed, demoralization, department and others.

Italian and Spanish borrowings are associated mainly with the field of art: aria, allegro, bravo, cello, novella, piano, recitative, tenor (Italian) or guitar, mantilla, castanets, serenade (Spanish), as well as with everyday concepts: currency , villa; vermicelli, pasta (Italian).

By the end of the 18th century. The process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached a high degree of development. The old-language language culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, consciously uses Church Slavonicisms and Western European borrowings.

Borrowings in the XX-XXI centuries:

Leonid Petrovich Krysin in his work “On the Russian Language of Our Days” analyzes the flow of foreign language vocabulary at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. In his opinion, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the intensification of business, scientific, trade, cultural ties, the flourishing of foreign tourism, all this caused an intensification of communication with native speakers of foreign languages. Thus, first in professional, and then in other fields, terms related to computer technology appeared (for example, computer, display, file, interface, printer and others); economic and financial terms (for example, barter, broker, voucher, dealer and others); names of sports (windsurfing, skateboarding, arm wrestling, kickboxing); in less specialized areas of human activity (image, presentation, nomination, sponsor, video, show).

Many of these words have already been completely assimilated into the Russian language.

3. 2. Borrowings from dead languages.

The southwestern influence brought with it a stream of borrowings into Russian literary speech. True, professional vocabulary was widely replenished even earlier with Western European terms that came along with Western artists, craftsmen, and knowledgeable people.

In the 16th century The rapidly developing translated literature in Moscow (mainly from Latin, German and Polish) also led to the borrowing of foreign words, especially since the translators were often “foreigners”. But until the 17th century. Western Europeanisms (if you do not include Greekisms among them) did not play a noticeable role in the lexical system of the Russian literary language (cf. lists of incomprehensible foreign words in Old Russian dictionaries and alphabet books). In the 17th century the state of things is changing. “South Russian” education entails the entire arsenal of Latinisms, rooted in the book tradition and in the colloquial speech of the educated strata of South-Western Rus'. The spread of Latin words, phrases, and constructions is facilitated by increased translation activity.

About translated literature of the 17th century. Academician A.I. Sobolevsky wrote: “It seems that most of the translations of this century were made from Latin, that is, from the language that at that time was the language of science in Poland and Western Europe. Behind the Latin language we can put Polish, which most of our translators knew and in which southern and western Russian scientists often wrote. The languages ​​German, Belarusian and Dutch should be placed at the very end. We do not know translations from other languages ​​of Western Europe, although among our commissioned translators there were people who spoke French and English.”

Finally, with the organization of Latin schools in Moscow, knowledge of the Latin language spreads among the privileged layers of the clergy, the common intelligentsia and nobles. The Latin language is “ranked among” the indigenous languages ​​- Greek and Slavic. Thus, the Latin language, as it were, prepares the way for the influence of the national literary languages ​​of Western Europe. The upper strata of the population of the Moscow state “at that time tried to give the Latin language special political significance and called it the language of “unity of command,” i.e., a language reminiscent of the flourishing times of the Roman monarchy.”

At the same time, the Latin language in the sphere of church life becomes a conductor of the ideology of Catholicism, its dogmatics, and its ecclesiastical and political ideals. All this creates the basis for the rapprochement of the Russian literary language with Western European languages. From the Latin language a number of school and scientific terms are included in the Russian literary language, for example in the field of rhetoric: oration, exordium (beginning, introduction), narration (story), conclusion (end, conclusion), affect, conversion, fabula (fable) and etc. under ; in the field of mathematics: vertical, compass, subtraction, adition, numbering, animation (cf. in the textbooks of Peter I), mathematical tools, etc.; in georgia: globe or armillary globe, etc. in astronomy: declination, minute, degree, etc.; in artillery and military affairs in general: distance, fortecia, etc. Many words relate to the sphere of “jurisprudence,” administrative structure and civil “circulation”: appeal, chapters, person, instruction, ambition, ceremony, surname, fortune, form, foundation ( see F. Polikarpov's dictionary), etc. In general, the civil language of the upper strata in its business and social use begins to lean toward Latin words.

Very interesting are those indicated by Academician A.I. Sobolevsky in one translation of the 17th century. lexical and phraseological tracings, pictures from Latin words and expressions: leap (transfuga), that is, traitor; heavenly banner (signum, zodiac sign). Wed. also such neoplasms of the 17th century. as an interjection (interjectio), inclination (inclinatio), to remain silent (silentium servare), etc. It is curious that in this era, Greek words, previously adopted by the Russian language in the “Hellenic” form, are Latinized, changing their phonetic appearance, and sometimes an accent, for example: cycle, center (instead of kentr), academy (instead of academy - see F. Polikarpov’s dictionary), etc. In addition to vocabulary and semantics, the influence of the Latin language led to a change in the syntactic system of the Russian literary language. The new order of words, the construction of sentences and periods with verbs at the end, individual phrases like accusativus cum infinitivo (win with an infinitive), nominativus cum infinitivo (name with an infinitive), etc. were strengthened in Russian literary speech of the late 17th century. influenced by the Latin language.

The most studied is the Indo-European family of languages, originating from a group of closely related dialects whose speakers in the 3rd millennium BC. e. began to spread from their ancestral home, about the geographical location of which there are many conflicting hypotheses. According to written monuments of the 2nd millennium BC. e. known later disappeared Indo-European languages ​​of Asia Minor - cuneiform Hittite and other Anatolian languages ​​(Palaic and Luwian), the continuation of which in the 1st millennium BC. e. There were hieroglyphic Luwian, Lycian and Lydian languages.

Early texts in the ancient Indian language were written by the 1st millennium BC. e. From Old Indian, Central Indian languages ​​(Prakrits) developed, and from these latter, New Indian languages: Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Oriya, etc.

The Celtic languages ​​are close to the Italic languages, including the Gallic subgroup (dead Gaulish language), the Gaelic subgroup (Irish, Scottish, Manx - on the Isle of Man - languages) and the British subgroup (Breton language, Welsh, or Welsh, extinct Cornish). The western group of ancient Indo-European languages, in addition to Italic and Celtic, includes the dead Illyrian language. The same group includes Germanic languages, divided into three subgroups: East Germanic (dead Gothic language); North Germanic, or Scandinavian, - Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic languages; West Germanic - English and closely related Frisian, Dutch, Boer, Yiddish. Between the Western Indo-European languages ​​(Celtic, Italic, Germanic and Illyrian) and the Eastern ones, which include the Aryan, Greek and Armenian languages, an intermediate position was occupied by the Balto-Slavic languages, divided into Baltic - Western Baltic (dead Prussian language) and Eastern Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian) - and Slavic, which include East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), Western Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish and dead Polabian - in the Elbe-Laba River basin). The ancient Indo-European languages ​​included the dead Tocharian languages, Phrygian languages ​​and Thracian languages.

The Proto-Slavic language had a huge influence on the development of the Russian language. It is called Proto-Slavic because it is unknown what the people who spoke this language called themselves in ancient times.

Although the Proto-Slavic language existed for a very long time and no written texts remain from it, nevertheless we have a fairly complete understanding of it. We know how its sound structure developed, we know its morphology and the basic fund of vocabulary, which is inherited from Proto-Slavic by all Slavic languages. Our knowledge is based on the results of a comparative historical study of Slavic languages: it allows us to restore the original appearance (protoform) of each linguistic fact under study. The reality of the restored (original) Proto-Slavic form can be verified and clarified by the testimony of other Indo-European languages. Correspondences to Slavic words and forms are found especially often in Baltic languages, for example in Lithuanian. This can be illustrated by roots, which include combinations of sounds that changed differently in different Slavic languages ​​after the collapse of Proto-Slavic, but remained unchanged in the Lithuanian language.

Many words are common to all Slavic languages, therefore, they were already known to the Proto-Slavic language. The ancestral form common to them has undergone different changes in different Slavic languages; and the design of these words in Lithuanian (and in other Indo-European languages) suggests that originally the vowel was in all roots before I or g. In the Proto-Slavic language, the roots of these words presumably should have sounded: *bolt-o from the earlier *ba°lt- "a°n, *golv-a, *kolt-iti, *vort-a, *gord-b, *korva. The established relationships allow us to formulate a historical-phonetic law, according to which it is possible to reconstruct in all other similar cases ( presumably restore) the original proto-form: Russian norov, Bulgarian moral, etc. provide the basis for the reconstruction of Proto-Slavic *pogu-ъ (compare Lithuanian narv-ytis - “to be stubborn”), peas, grakh, etc. - Proto-Slavic *gorx- b (compare Lithuanian garb "a - a type of grass), etc. It is in this way that the appearance of the disintegrated Proto-Slavic language is restored.

We can talk about Proto-Slavic as a unique Indo-European language insofar as it is characterized by a complex of features that are unique to it and combined with a series of features that are, to one degree or another, known to other languages ​​of Europe and South Asia.

At some stage of their life, a group of European tribes speaking dialects close to the ancient Baltic, Iranian, Balkan, Germanic, united into a fairly strong union, within which for a long time there was a rapprochement (leveling, leveling) of dialects, necessary for the development of mutual understanding between members of a tribal union. It can be assumed that in the 1st millennium BC. e. There was already an Indo-European language, characterized by features that were subsequently known only to Slavic languages, which allows us, modern researchers, to call it Proto-Slavic.

The originality of the Proto-Slavic language is largely explained by the fact that its historical changes were determined by development trends inherent only to it. The most common of these was the tendency towards syllabic division of speech. At the late stage of development of the Proto-Slavic language, a uniform structure of syllables was formed, which led to the restructuring of previous syllables in such a way that they all ended in vowels.

The Proto-Slavic language existed until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. , when the tribes who spoke it, having settled over vast territories of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, begin to lose contact with each other. The language of each of the isolated groups of tribes continued to develop in isolation from the others, acquiring new sound, grammatical and lexical features. This is the usual way of forming “related” languages ​​from a single source language (proto-language).

4. Research work:

4. 1. Sociological survey.

The purpose of the first study was, firstly, to find out whether people use borrowed words and, if they do, why. Secondly, I aimed to determine the degree of knowledge of native Russian words among people of different ages. Based on these goals, I conducted a sociological survey. It is also necessary to pay attention to the categories of society among which my research was conducted. Due to the fact that our society is heterogeneous, I divided it into three groups: 1) youth, 2) middle-aged people, belonging to different types of activities, different professions, and 3) the older generation. Then, analyzing the questionnaires with answers, I took into account the age factor, the age limits that I had defined for myself.

During my research, it turned out that, firstly, society as a whole uses borrowed words in its speech, but here, as I expected, the age factor played a huge role. This means that, for example, young people who live in the era of the scientific and technological revolution easily absorb into their vocabulary borrowed words denoting objects of scientific and technological progress: computer, telephone, laptop, television, etc. In addition, young people are easily exposed to Western influence. This manifests itself, as a rule, in clothing, style, image, and fashion trends. Therefore, the younger generation often uses in their speech concepts such as pullover, cardigan, jeans, manicure, perfume, etc. It turns out that youth are the category of society that is most susceptible to the influence of scientific, technical and fashionable innovations. Young people are always interested in everything new and unusual; they want to be modern. As for native Russian words, young people rarely use them. The majority is of the opinion that these words are outdated and essentially unnecessary. They believe that borrowed words most clearly express the essence of the concept; they are clearer, more understandable and more pleasant to hear.

Secondly, it turned out that belonging to a particular activity greatly influences what words we use. I conducted a survey among people of different professions (engineers, teachers, economists, doctors, etc.). It turned out that people who differ in their occupation also differ in their vocabulary, that is, they use professionalisms. For example, an engineer, by virtue of his profession, often pronounces such concepts as resistor, transistor, design, etc. A literature teacher uses, for example, the following words: credo, poetry, metaphor, etc. For a person involved in economics and finance, they will be more familiar such words: marketing, audit, inflation, lending, extensive, intensive, etc. We can conclude that the type of activity affects our speech. This is another reason why people use loanwords.

And finally, in the course of my work, it was found that people of the older generation are least susceptible to the influence of borrowed words. The older generation grew up in completely different conditions than today's youth, in a completely different time. So they don't want to accept change. They do not need to use any borrowed words or replace Russian words with foreign ones. Will they really call their “sister” “cousin”? The older generation has this characteristic: reluctance to adapt to anything new; it has its own principles, beliefs and will never deviate from them.

Thus, in the course of my research work, I found out that, firstly, the vast majority of people use borrowed words. Secondly, the reasons for using foreign words are different: interest in everything new, the desire to appear modern, the influence of professional terms. Sometimes people don’t even think about it, so they use borrowed words automatically. For each category of people, the reasons for using foreign words are different, and accordingly, the vocabulary is different.

4. 2. Working with borrowed words.

The essence of the second research work was, firstly, to determine which language has a special influence on the Russian language, that is, words from which language come to us more often than others. Secondly, I had to divide borrowings from different languages ​​into groups according to their significance in the Russian language, that is, what the borrowed words are used for in the Russian language.

To achieve my goals, I worked with a dictionary of foreign words in the Russian language. I chose a thousand words for myself and divided them into groups according to the language they came from: French, English, Latin, German, Spanish, etc. .

In the course of my work, it was found out, firstly, that the main foreign language, from which a huge number of words were borrowed into the Russian language, is the Latin language. Despite the fact that Latin is a dead language, it is the international language of medical terms. We use in our speech such words of Latin origin as donor, medications, procedure, appendicitis, operation, etc. Latin is the main language for the names of many diseases and names of medications. Latin is the language of medical terminology.

Secondly, I was able to distribute foreign words into groups.

I found out that the Greek language is the basis of legal, legal, and political concepts. In our speech we use concepts of Greek origin such as anarchism, democracy, ochlocracy, charter, organ.

The results of my work showed that the French language is the cultural and artistic basis of Russian words. We use French words such as menu, carnival, necklace, blinds, dessert, masterpiece, defile, present, etc. It's no secret that France is a trendsetter. Therefore, many words have been borrowed from the French language into the Russian language, meaning wardrobe items: jacket, jacket, over the knee boots, etc.

Now let's look at a group of English words. Borrowings from the English language are the basis of sports terminology. We actively use words such as basketball, match, volleyball, badminton, hockey, bobsleigh, butterfly, boxing, golf. These words came to us from the English language.

Carrying out a study among words of German origin, it turned out that the German language had a slight influence on the Russian language. When Peter I “cut a window to Europe,” some words were borrowed from Germany. These are words such as barbell, potato, backpack, bay, folder, brand, slotted spoon.

As for the words of the Italian language, they are the basis of musical concepts, for example, operetta, trio, quartet, maestro. There are very few words of Italian origin in the Russian language.

There are borrowings from other languages, for example, from Arabic (almanac, sheikh), Persian (shah), Spanish (Eldorado, Armada), Dutch (steering wheel, storm), Czech (jewelry), from Sanskrit (yogi), etc. But , according to my research, borrowings from these languages ​​are very insignificant.

Also, during my research, I noticed that not only whole words are borrowed from other languages, but also parts of words that determine the lexical meaning of Russian words. Many prefixes of complex words come from the Greek language, for example, the prefix hydro, which indicates the relationship of these words to water (seaplane, hydroelectric power station), the prefix bio, which indicates the relationship of these words to life, to life processes, biology (biography, biosphere). In complex words, we often use a prefix of Latin origin such as video, indicating the connection of these words with a visible image (video recorder, video).

Summarize. Firstly, as a result of this work, it turned out that the Latin language had the greatest influence on the Russian language. Secondly, having distributed the words into groups, it turned out that each language has its own purpose and performs certain functions. Borrowings from other languages ​​arise as a result of political, cultural, economic, and social connections. Foreign words penetrate into the Russian language for certain reasons. Language affects all spheres of society, it is constantly changing, and borrowed words help to adapt to new living conditions.

III. Conclusion.

Borrowing foreign words is the basis for communication between countries and peoples. Countries and peoples, in the process of their communication, adopt each other’s words and rearrange them according to the internal rules of their language.

The work I carried out led me to the following conclusions: the reasons for borrowing foreign words are political, cultural, and economic ties between countries. In addition, each age has its own reasons: young people strive for everything new and unusual, middle-aged people, due to their activities, use professionalism, and the older generation practically does not use foreign words.

Most often, we don’t even think about what word we pronounce – borrowed or Russian. Borrowings are so easily introduced into our lives that we perceive them as our own words. If we use borrowed words, then at least we must clearly understand its meaning.

If we talk about whether we need borrowed words, then I think so. They are needed only if they better express the main meaning of a given concept or if they cannot be replaced by a Russian concept. But if there is already a synonymous word in the Russian language, then it is not necessary to replace it with a foreign one. We, as native speakers of Russian, should pay more attention to our Russian words and use the vocabulary that our Russian language is rich in.

The formation of the Russian language is a complex, multi-stage and ongoing process. In the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, from the point of view of its origin, we can distinguish original Russian words And borrowed words.

Borrowed words make up no more than ten percent of the total number of words in the Russian language. Borrowing occurs as a result of economic, political, cultural contacts with other peoples. In the process of use, most borrowed words are influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words become among the words in common use and are no longer perceived as foreign words. In different eras, words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original language (Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper). Borrowing words continues in modern Russian.

Depending on the language from which certain words came, two types of borrowings can be distinguished:

1) related borrowings- borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language.

Pay attention!

The Old Church Slavonic language is not the ancestor of the Russian language, but a separately existing book language. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (therefore it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian).

2) Z foreign language borrowings- borrowings from Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European (Roman, Germanic, etc.).

Related borrowings

Examples of words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic: enemy, shore, milky, boat, overthrow, despise, slander, generosity, obedience, etc.

There are native Russian synonyms for some words borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language: cheeks - cheeks, mouth - lips, eyes - eyes, finger - finger, etc..

Many of the Old Church Slavonic words have a stylistic connotation of “highness” and are used to give special expressiveness to speech. Other Old Church Slavonic words, on the contrary, have lost their bookish connotation and are perceived by us as ordinary words of everyday speech: vegetables, time, sweet, country.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

Along with the words of Slavic languages, the Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development also included non-Slavic borrowings, for example, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.

Examples of words borrowed from non-Slavic languages:

• from Latin: exam, dictation, director, vacation, maximum, minimum, etc.;
• from Turkic languages: pearls, raisins, watermelon, caravan, ace, chest, robe, etc.;
• from Scandinavian languages: anchor, whip, mast, herring, etc.;
• from German: sailor, tie, resort, easel, spinach, harbor, etc.;
• from French: broth, marmalade, director, play, poster, etc..;
• from English: tunnel, football, rally, leader, boycott, etc.;
• from Spanish: serenade, guitar, caramel, etc.;
• from Italian: carnival, libretto, aria, etc.

Federal Agency for Education

St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University

Institute of International Educational Programs

Department of International Relations

ABSTRACT

Borrowings in modern Russian language

by discipline

"Russian language and culture of speech"

Performed

student gr.3143/5 K.A.Ivanova

Supervisor

Associate Professor E.M. Katsman

« 13 » December 2010 G.

Saint Petersburg

INTRODUCTION

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, since it preserves the main, “own” vocabulary, and in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, and the internal laws of language development are not violated.

Borrowing does not mean the language is poor. If borrowed words and their elements are assimilated by the language according to its own norms, transformed according to the needs of the “taking” language, then this testifies precisely to the strength and creative activity of this language. Borrowing words - a living, developing, fruitful process - occurs in our time. It became especially active in the era of scientific and technological revolution, when, in connection with the development of science and technology, a powerful flow of terms, special words and expressions that exist in various spheres of human activity poured into the language.

Our language is not afraid to take a foreign word, adapting it to its needs.

At the same time, necessary borrowings must be distinguished from unnecessary or fashionable words that clog the language and replace its natural resources. But even necessary borrowings should be used correctly, well understanding their meaning and knowing the conditions for their use.

The purpose of the essay is to highlight issues of the culture of using borrowed words in the Russian language. The topic of this essay was chosen due to its relevance at the present stage.

SECTION 1. THE CONCEPT OF A BORROWED WORD

Throughout history, the Russian people have had to enter into political, economic, trade, scientific, cultural and other ties with other peoples. As a result of such diverse contacts, Russian vocabulary was replenished with foreign language borrowings. So, for example, the words notebook , library , cucumber borrowed from Greek; student , exam - from Latin; play , waltz , soup , bouquet - from French; tram , harvester , movie , Goal - from English; kitchen , potato - from German; opera , newspaper , tomato - from Italian; watermelon , sheepskin coat , money - from Turkic languages, etc.

Under borrowed word in linguistics, any word that came into the Russian language from outside is understood, even if, in terms of its constituent morphemes, it is no different from native Russian words (this phenomenon can be observed when a word is taken from some closely related Slavic language, for example: wisdom - from the Old Church Slavonic language, liberty - from Polish).

The process of borrowing words is a normal phenomenon, and in certain historical periods even inevitable. In principle, mastering foreign language vocabulary enriches the vocabulary of the receiving language. Foreign words in the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language, although they represent a fairly large layer of vocabulary, nevertheless do not exceed 10% of its total vocabulary. In the general lexical system of a language, only a small part of them acts as cross-style common vocabulary. The vast majority of them have a stylistically fixed use in book speech and are therefore characterized by a narrow scope of application (acting as terms, professionalisms, barbarisms, specific book words, etc.).

Speaking about borrowed words, one cannot fail to mention the so-called tracing papers. Tracing paper(French calque) - a word or expression created from original linguistic elements, but modeled on foreign words and expressions. So, Russian verb to look like (You look good today) originated as a tracing paper of the German word aussehen : the prefix aus- was translated as you-, sehen - how to look. Words hydrogen , To oxygen - tracings of the Latin words hydrogenium and oxygenium (in Latin the root -gen- is genus, and hydro and oxy- mean water- and acid-, respectively). There is a linguistic term trace, i.e. translate in parts. Word peninsula translated from German Halbinsel, the word diary from French journal, word skyscraper - from English skyscraper.

According to N.M. Shansky, this kind of word, arising as a transfer of someone else’s word with its structure, is nevertheless not borrowed in the literal sense of the word. This is the creation of the Russian language, using Russian vocabulary and word-formation material. While conveying the structure of a foreign word, derivational tracings still represent new words in the Russian language, unknown in this specific form in other languages.

SECTION 2. WAYS AND REASONS FOR BORROWING

Borrowing from language to language can occur in two ways: oral and written (through books). When borrowing in writing, the word changes relatively little. When spoken, the appearance of the word often changes more strongly: German. Kringel - pretzel , Italian (via German) tartufolo - potato .

Borrowings can be direct, from language to language, and indirect, through intermediary languages ​​( painter , fair - from German through Polish; lilac - from Latin through German).

The main reasons for borrowing this problem are the following: historical contacts of peoples, the need to nominate new objects and concepts, innovation of a nation in any particular field of activity, linguistic snobbery, fashion, economy of linguistic means, authority of the source language (this sometimes leads to many languages ​​borrowing from one and the emergence of internationalisms), a historically determined increase in certain social strata that accept the new word. All this extralinguistic reasons .

TO intralinguistic reasons can be attributed:

1) the absence in the native language of an equivalent word for a new subject or concept: player , happening , impeachment etc. In our opinion, this reason is the main one for borrowing;

2) a tendency to use one borrowed word instead of a descriptive phrase, for example: a hotel for autotourists - motel , short press conference for journalists - briefing , figure skiing – freestyle, or sniper instead of a marksman, tour instead of traveling on a circular route, sprint instead of sprinting, etc. But, as often happens in language, the tendency to replace Russian descriptive phrases with foreign words is opposed by another, as if restraining the actions of the first. Thus, with the invention of sound cinema, the word borrowed from German appeared in the Russian language tonefilm . However, it could not gain a foothold in our dictionary: this was hampered by the fact that in the Russian language a group of descriptive two-word names had already been formed: silent film - sound film, silent film - sound film;

3) the need to detail the corresponding meaning, designation using a foreign word of some special type of objects or concepts, which until then were called one Russian (or borrowed) word. For example, to denote a servant in a hotel, the French word has become stronger in Russian receptionist , to denote a special type of jam (in the form of a thick, homogeneous mass) - English jam . The need for specialization of objects and concepts leads to the borrowing of many scientific and technical terms: for example, relevant along with Russian essential, local along with Russian local, transformer along with the Russian converter, compression along with Russian compression, pilot along with Russian to manage, etc.;

4) the tendency to replenish expressive means, leading to the emergence of foreign language stylistic synonyms: service - service , limitation - limit ;

5) if borrowed words are strengthened in the language, forming a series united by a common meaning and morphological structure, then the borrowing of a new foreign language word similar to the words of this series is greatly facilitated. So, in the 19th century. Russian borrowed words from English gentleman , policeman ; at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. added to them athlete , record holder , yachtsman . A number of words were formed that have the meaning of person and a common element - men. To this still small series, new borrowings began to be added, which today constitute a fairly significant group of nouns: businessman , congressman , crossman . Let us draw attention to the fact that linguistic factors play a decisive role in the borrowing process.