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Contemporary Belgian Artists. Flemish artists of the 17th century Paintings by Belgian artists

Contemporary Belgian artist Deborah Missoorten was born and still lives in Antwerp, Belgium, where she works as a freelance professional artist. She graduated from the Academy of Fine Arts with a degree in theater costume design.

Belgian Contemporary Artists. Jean-Claude Dresse

Jean-Claude is one of the few contemporary artists who, drawing on the great examples of the past, was able to revise and edit them according to his personal vision. He fills his works with emotions in such a way that they return the viewer to the source of this emotionality, enriched by the efforts of the author, carefully developed concept of the picture, color and harmony. The artist does this in order to make us enjoy unraveling the mysteries surrounding this source.

I try to show the invisible. Juan Maria Bolle

Juan Maria Bolle is a famous Flemish (Belgian) artist, born in Vilvoorde, near Brussels, Belgium, in December 1958. In 1976 he graduated from the Royal Athenaeum High School in his hometown. In 1985 he completed his studies at the St. Lucas Institute of Arts in Brussels.

Passion doesn't need a label. Peter Seminck

Peter Seminck is a famous Belgian artist, born in Antwerp in 1958. Educated at the Schoten Art Academy, he received first a bachelor's degree, and then a master's degree in fine arts. He does not limit himself in topics, he paints various paintings, mostly in oil on canvas. Currently lives and works in Malle, a suburb of Antwerp, Belgium.

Contemporary Belgian artist. Debora Missoorten

Belgian Contemporary Artists. Frederic Dufoor

contemporary artist Frédéric Dufort was born in 1943 in Tournai, Belgium, and was educated at the Institut Saint-Luc in Tournai and later at the Academy of Mons. After a short break, he was enrolled in the studio of Louis Van Lint at the Saint-Luc Institute in Brussels. Since 1967, after graduating, he taught for 10 years at the Graphic Communications Institute, and then took up a teaching position at the Saint-Luc Institute in Brussels, where he worked until December 1998.

Moussin Irjan. contemporary painting

Musin Irzhan, modern artist, was born in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, in 1977. From 1992 to 1995 he studied at the art school in Alma-Ata. Then he entered and successfully graduated in 1999 from the Academy of Arts of I. E. Repin in St. Petersburg. After that, for several years he studied modern painting at the Art School "RHoK" in Brussels and at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp.
Since 2002, he has repeatedly exhibited and participated in various competitions, in which he has won prizes and received awards more than once. His paintings are in private collections in England, France, Holland, USA, Columbia, Belgium and Russia. Currently lives and works in Antwerp, Belgium.

Paul Ledent. Contemporary self-taught artist. Landscapes and flowers

The main theme of this artist's paintings is wildlife, landscapes and the seasons, but Paul devoted a lot of work to the strength, energy and beauty of the human body.

Paul Ledent. Contemporary self-taught artist. People

Paul Legend was born in 1952 in Belgium. But he did not come to painting immediately, only in 1989. He started with watercolors, but quickly realized that this was not what he needed, oil painting would be more in line with his way of thinking.
The main theme of Paul's paintings is wildlife, landscapes and the seasons, but he devoted many works to the strength, energy and beauty of the human body.

Owls belt Belgian artist. Christiane Vleugels

Stephane Heurion. Watercolor drawings

Paul Ledent was born in 1952 in Belgium. He did not immediately decide to take up painting, but only after several years of work as an engineer, in 1989. Paul started with watercolors, but quickly felt that oil painting would be more in line with his way of thinking.

Cedric Leonard young designer from Belgium. Born in 1985. He graduated from St. Luc School of the Arts with a bachelor's degree in fine arts. Shortly after that, he started working for a small company as a webmaster. He currently works as a freelance designer. Cedric seeks originality in everything he does and believes in the appeal of modern visuals.

There are several museums along the way. In this article I will tell you about the Royal Museums of Fine Arts in Brussels. Rather, it is a whole complex consisting of six museums.

Four in the center of Brussels:

*Museum of Ancient Art.
A wonderful collection of old masters from the 15th to 18th centuries.
The bulk of this collection consists of paintings by South Netherlandish (Flemish) artists. The masterpieces of such masters as Rogier van der Weyden, Petrus Christus, Dirk Bouts, Hans Memling, Hieronymus Bosch, Lucas Cranach, Gerard David, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, Rubens and others…
The collection originated during the French Revolution, when many works of art were seized by the invaders. A significant part was transported to Paris, and from what was stored, the museum was founded by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1801. All confiscated valuables returned from Paris to Brussels only after the deposition of Napoleon. Since 1811 the museum became the property of the city of Brussels. With the emergence of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands under King William I, the museum's funds expanded significantly.

Robert Campin. "Annunciation", 1420-1440

Jacob Jordanes. Satyr and peasants, 1620

*Modern Art Museum.
The contemporary art collection covers works from the late 18th century to the present day. The basis of the collection is the work of Belgian artists.
The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David - the death of Marat can be seen in the old part of the museum. The collection illustrates Belgian neoclassicism and is based on works dedicated to the Belgian Revolution and the founding of the country.
It is now presented to the public in the form of temporary exhibitions in the so-called "Patio" room. These allow regular rotation of contemporary art pieces.
The museum houses "Salome" by Alfred Stevens, the most famous representative of Belgian impressionism. And also such famous works as "Russian Music" by James Ensor and "Tenderness of the Sphinx" by Fernand Khnopf are presented. Among the masters of the 19th century represented in the museum, the masterpieces of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Gustave Courbet and Henri Fantin-Latour stand out. French painting of the late 19th century. represented by "Portrait of Suzanne Bambridge" by Paul Gauguin, "Spring" by Georges Seurat, "Bay" by Paul Signac, "Two Disciples" by Edouard Vuillard, landscape by Maurice Vlaminck and sculpture by Auguste Rodin "Caryatid", "Portrait of a Peasant" by Vincent van Gogh (1885. ) and Still Life with Flowers by Lovis Corinth.

Jean Louis David. "Death of Marat", 1793

Gustav Wappers. "Episode of the September days", 1834

* Magritte Museum.
Opened in June 2009. In honor of the Belgian surrealist painter René Magritte (November 21, 1898 – August 15, 1967). The museum's collection contains more than 200 works of oil on canvas, gouache, drawings, sculptures and painted objects, as well as advertising posters (he worked for many years as a poster and advertising artist in a paper factory), old photographs and films shot by Magritte himself.
At the end of the 20s, Magritte signed a contract with the Cento Gallery in Brussels and thus devoted himself entirely to painting. He created the surrealistic painting "The Lost Jockey", which he considered his first successful painting of its kind. In 1927 he arranges his first exhibition. However, critics recognize it as unsuccessful, and Magritte leaves for Paris, where he meets Andre Breton and joins his circle of surrealists. He acquires a signature style that makes his paintings recognizable. Upon returning to Brussels, he continues his work in a new style.
The museum is also a research center for the legacy of the surrealist artist.

*Museum of the end of the century (Fin de siècle).
The museum brings together works of the late 19th and early 20th century, the so-called "end of the century", mainly with an avant-garde character. Painting, sculpture and graphics on the one hand, but also applied arts, literature, photography, film and music on the other.
Mostly Belgian artists are represented, but also works by foreign masters that fit into the context. Works by artists who were members of the great progressive movements of Belgian artists of the time.

And two in the suburbs:

*Wirtz Museum
Wirtz (Antoine-Joseph Wiertz) - Belgian painter (1806-1865). In 1835, he painted his first significant painting, The Struggle of the Greeks with the Trojans for the Possession of the Corpse of Patroclus, which was not accepted for an exhibition in Paris, but aroused strong enthusiasm in Belgium. It was followed by: “The death of St. Dionysius", the triptych "The Entombment" (with the figures of Eve and Satan on the wings), "The Flight into Egypt", "The Revolt of the Angels" and the best work of the artist, "The Triumph of Christ". The originality of the concept and composition, the vigor of colors, the bold play of light effects and the sweeping stroke of the brush gave the majority of Belgians a reason to look at Wirtz as the revivalist of their old national historical painting, as the direct heir of Rubens. The further, the more eccentric his stories became. For his works, mostly of enormous size, as well as for experiments in the application of matte painting invented by him, the Belgian government built him an extensive workshop in Brussels. Here Wirtz, who did not sell any of his paintings and existed only as portrait orders, collected all his, in his opinion, capital works and bequeathed them, together with the workshop itself, as a legacy to the Belgian people. Now this workshop is the Wirtz Museum. It stores up to 42 paintings, including the aforementioned six.

*Meunier Museum
The museum was opened in honor of Constantin Meunier (1831-1905) who was born and raised in a poor family of immigrants from the Belgian coal mining region Borinage. From childhood, he was familiar with the difficult social situation and often miserable existence of miners and their families. Meunier captured his impressions of the life of the mining region in plastic forms, demonstrating a man of labor as a harmoniously developed personality. The sculptor has developed such an image of a worker, which reflects his pride and strength, and who is not ashamed of his profession as a loader or docker. Recognizing some idealization with which Meunier created his heroes, one must also recognize his great historical merit in the fact that he was one of the first masters to make a man engaged in physical labor the central theme of his work, while showing him as a creator full of inner dignity.

N. Stepanlin (fine arts); O. Shvidkovsky, S. Khan-Magomedov (architecture)

Already in the last decade of the 19th century. in the art of Belgium, the first signs of a departure from the democratic, folk foundations that shaped the work of the largest Belgian artist Constantin Meunier appear. The vitality and grandeur of Meunier's images were inaccessible to his younger contemporaries. In the future, the fate of Belgian art develops in many ways contradictory and dramatic.

The realistic trend that arose in Belgian painting in the 19th century was developed by such masters as Leon Frederic (1856-1940), Eugene Larmanet (1864-1940) and others. Ordinary people, their everyday life - this is the theme of the works of these masters, but in its interpretation they depart from the heroic monumentality, activity and integrity, so characteristic of sculpture and paintings by C. Meunier. People on the canvases of L. Frederick appear in a much more ordinary, everyday way. Mystical tendencies are combined in Belgian art with elements of naturalism, photographic accuracy in the transfer of landscape, type, with a special despondency, leading the viewer to the thought of the eternity of the tragic hopelessness of the world order. Even such a work as significant in its theme as “Evening of the Strike” by E. Larmans (1894), not to mention the painting “Death” (1904; both - Brussels, Museum of Modern Art), is distinguished by a mood of despair and aimlessness of action.

Most characteristic of the development of Belgian art is the work of James Ensor (1860-1949). From genre realistic paintings, Ensor gradually comes to symbolism. The fantastic, eerie images of this artist, his craving for allegories, the depiction of masks and skeletons, for defiantly bright, almost noisy coloring, was undoubtedly a kind of protest against the petty-bourgeois narrow-mindedness and vulgarity of the bourgeois world. However, Ensor's satire is devoid of a concrete social content, it seems to be a satire on the human race, and in these properties of his art it is impossible not to see the germ of further formalistic deviations in the art of Belgium.

J. Ensor occupies a special place in the graphics of Belgium. His original, full of nervous energy etchings are very expressive, they convey an atmosphere of inner excitement and anxiety. Particularly dramatic are the landscapes “View of Mariakerke” (1887) and “The Cathedral” (1886; both in the engraving room of the Royal Library in Brussels), built on a sharp and paradoxical contrast between the majestic creation of man and the crowd swarming like an alarmed anthill at the foot of the Gothic temple. The combination of satire with fantasy - the national tradition of Belgian art, dating back to I. Bosch - finds a new and sharp refraction here.

The literary symbolism associated with the name of Maurice Maeterlinck, the appearance in the architect and applied art of Belgium of new stylistic phenomena associated with the Art Nouveau trend (architect A. van de Velde and others), played a significant role in the fine arts of Belgium. Under their influence in 1898-1899. the “1st Latem group” was formed (named after the place where the artists settled, the village of Latem-Saint-Martin near Ghent). This group was headed by the sculptor J. Minnet, it included G. van de Wusteine, V. de Sadeler and others. Their work was based on the idea of the priority of the "higher" spiritual world over reality. Overcoming impressionistic trends, these masters tried to move away "from the surface of phenomena", "to express the spiritual beauty of things." The Latemians turned to national pictorial traditions, to the Dutch primitives of the 14th-16th centuries, but in their work, which most fully expressed the ideas of symbolism and then developed under the sign of ever stronger expressionism, they were, in essence, very far from those traditions to which they referred. II in the strict, beautiful landscapes of Valerius de Sadeler (1867-1914) and in the works permeated with mysticism of the younger member of the group - Gustav van de Wusteine (1881-1947) - there is no place for the image of a person.

At the beginning of the century, pointillism also received a rather strong development, the brightest representative of which in Belgium was Theo van Reiselberghe (1862-1926).

In the early 20s. the “2nd Latem group” was created, working under the influence of expressionism, although expressionism itself in Belgium, associated with the tragic events of the First World War, takes on a special color. The head of this direction was Constant Permeke (1886-1952). In the large, widely painted canvases of this master, the subjects familiar to Belgian art - land, sea, images of peasants - are painted in tones of tragedy and deep spiritual confusion. Through all the deliberate deformation, the emphasis on the spiritual limitations and rudeness of Permeke's peasant images, his sympathy and sympathy for people who allowed the artist to create emotionally impressive images breaks through. The gloomy, dull coloring, the indistinctness of the action, the immobility of human characters convey the mood of mournful forebodings and hopelessness (“The Betrothed”, 1923; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art).

Gustave de Smet (1877-1943), Jean Brusselmans (1884-1953) reworked the principles of expressionism in their own way, the first by simplifying the forms, attaching great importance to the compositional harmony of their paintings, the second by increasing, bringing to a piercing power the color system of their landscapes. Interest in color as a carrier of emotional impact in painting connected Brusselmans with the Brabant Fauvists group, which included R. Woutsrs, E. Taitgat, and F. Cox. Of particular value is the art of Rick Wouters (1882-1916). Passion for brightly decorative color combinations does not obscure for this artist the psychological qualities of his models; in contrast to the French Fauvists, Wauters is looking for plasticity, the volume of things - such are his “Lesson” (1912; Brussels, Museum of Fine Arts), the late “Self-Portrait with a Black Bandage” (1915; Antwerp, collection of L. van Bogart), “Nele in red" (1915; private collection).

Since the 30s. surrealism develops in Belgium, two representatives of which are becoming widely known - these are R. Magritte (b. 1898) and P. Delvaux (b. 1897). These masters are characterized by a combination of purely salon prettiness with a sick fantasy in the very combinations of individual parts of the composition, obsessive ideas of an erotic plan, etc. At the same time, “intimist” artists Albert van Dyck (1902-1951), Jacques Mas (b. 1905) worked with them. ), who limited their creativity to narrowly intimate landscape and genre painting. The painters L. van Lint (b. 1909) and R. Slabbink (b. 1914) were first associated with the "Intimists", who moved into the postwar and especially into the 1950s. to abstract painting, which was widely spread and recognized in Belgium.

Few of the masters of Belgian painting remain in the 20th century. in realistic positions. The most significant of them is Isidore Opsomer (b. 1878), the author of sharp, vitally expressive and deep psychological portraits (“Portrait of K. Huysmans”, 1927; Antwerp, Royal Museum of Fine Arts). Opsomer created a number of still lifes, very picturesque, fresh and bright in color.

Social themes, the themes of the struggle of the Belgian people for their rights are heard in the works of Pierre Polus (b. 1881) and Kurt Peiser (1887-1962), and especially the young progressive artist Roger Somville (b. 1923), who also works in the field of monumental painting, stained glass and carpet art. Large thematic paintings on the themes of the struggle of the Belgian people are created by E. Dubrenfo, L. Deltour, R. Saumville, these artists work in close contact with architects.

The modern Belgian graphic school is characterized by a bold statement of new themes and new stylistic problems. In addition to the already named D. Ensor, Jules de Breuker (1870-1945) was the largest etcher in Belgium. His sheets are devoted to the life of urban slums, the social contrasts of the modern capitalist world. Breaker's piercing gaze sees the tragicomic side of life, and, despite the analytical nature of his work, they are fanned with deep compassion for people. In this sense, many of Breaker's sheets ("Death soars over Flanders", 1916) are connected with the folk traditions of Belgian art.

The most prominent representative of modern Belgian graphics is Frans Mazerel (b. 1889), who also worked in the field of monumental and easel painting. Maserel's creative activity is inextricably linked with the interests of the advanced circles of not only the Belgian, but also the French and German intelligentsia. Starting from the First World War, when Maserel came out with a series of sharp anti-militarist newspaper drawings, he asserts himself as a master who devoted his entire work to the struggle of mankind for high humanistic ideals. During this period, Maserel was closely associated with leading journalists and artists, and was friendly with Romain Rolland; at the same time, his work as an illustrator began, the first woodcut series were created (“The Way of the Cross of a Man”, 1918; “My Book of Hours”, 1919, etc.) - In these series, as in a silent chronicle, the life path of modern man passes, his struggle, the growth of his consciousness, his joys and sorrows. The sharpness of contrasts, brevity and expressiveness of visual means often bring Maserel's engravings closer to the poster.

Along with the greatest masters of modern European culture, F. Mazerel strives for the organic development of the traditions of democratic culture of the 19th century, the traditions of realism and humanism, and high, effective philanthropy. At the same time, while solving the fundamental social problems of our time in art, Maserel constantly strove to expand the means of realistic art, to create a new realistic pictorial language, consonant with the modern worldview.

The language of Maserel's engravings is characterized by brevity, pithiness, saturated with deep metaphorical associations. Mazerel's sheets have a subtext; for all their expressive catchiness, they unfold their content gradually. The depth of the author's intention is hidden not only in each sheet, but also in the ratio of the sheets of each thematic series, in their order, in their plot and emotional difference and ideological and artistic unity. The language of contrast, characteristic of engraving, in the hands of Maserel becomes a flexible weapon of social characterization, serves to convey the subtlest lyrical experiences and direct agitational appeal.

A series of engravings dedicated to the modern city (“City”, 1925) is magnificent. The expressiveness of the drawing and the whole composition never turns into excessive deformation, Maserel's language is understandable. Even resorting to symbolism (Siren, 1932), the artist does not deviate from pictorial concreteness, he consciously strives for clarity, for the opportunity to speak with people with his art. Notes of optimism are especially strong in Maserel's latest works, his series "From Black to White" (1939), "Youth" (1948), in the artist's paintings. Exposing the vices of modern bourgeois society, Maserel never loses a clear social criterion, he believes in progressive forces, believes in the final victory and greatness of man. Deeply folk art Maserel is imbued with the idea of struggle for peace, Maserel is an example of an artist-fighter, serving with his art the high ideals of justice. “I am not an esthete enough to be only an artist,” Maserel said.

L. Spilliart (1881-1946), who almost did not experience the influence of expressionism, is somewhat apart in the Belgian graphics, a master of lyrical, restrained in color watercolors (“A Gust of Wind”, 1904; “White Clothes”, 1912).

The most significant figure in Belgian sculpture of the 20th century is Georges Minnet (1866-1941). A student of Rodin, Minne had little to do with the creative principles of his teacher, his friendship with Maeterlinck had a much greater influence on the formation of his personality. Based on abstract, general ideas, Minne gives a somewhat abstract spirituality to his work. This is a master of subtle and precise transmission of gesture; the constant desire to express concepts, rather than specific manifestations of human feelings, leads the sculptor to some far-fetched images, distortion of the plastic form. Such are his "Mother Mourning Her Child" (1886, bronze; Brussels, Museum of Modern Art), "Young Man on Her Knees" (1898, marble; Essen, Folkwang Museum). In 1908-1912. Minnet turns to the present, his portraits of Belgian workers are based on careful observation of nature and continue the tradition of 19th century sculpture. At the end of his life, in drawings on religious subjects, the symbolic and mystical features characteristic of Minne's work appear again.

In general, modern Belgian sculpture is developing under the sign of naturalistic and formalist quests, with the exception of the work of Ch. Leple (b. 1903), who creates emotional, beautiful portrait busts and sculptural compositions, and O. Jespers (b. 1887), a master who deliberately imitates Negro primitives.

The medal art, traditional for this country, is being greatly developed in Belgium. Modern Belgian decorative ceramics (workshop in Dura), decorative sculpture (master P. Kay; b. 1912), painted decorative vessels with a desire for decorative brightness, naturalness of forms and decor, an organic connection with modern architectural interior.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. in Belgium there is a rapid growth of industrial and commercial cities based on the intensive development of the country's natural resources (iron ore and coal) and the predatory exploitation of vast African colonies. The spontaneous location of industry, private ownership of land, and the administrative independence of the suburbs (communes) characteristic of Belgium impeded the normal development and growth of large cities, reconstruction work in which was mainly limited to the improvement of the center and the development of urban transport. The aggravation of the housing crisis caused various forms of housing construction of "cheap" residential buildings for workers: joint-stock, cooperative and charitable societies.

During this period, extensive construction of new types of industrial, business and public buildings began in the cities of Belgium, reflecting both the development of the economy and the emergence of a new customer, in particular, such as the working class organized in trade unions - the construction of so-called people's houses on a cooperative basis. (for example, in Brussels, designed by the architect V. Horta in 1896-1899), where trade, cultural, educational and office premises were combined in one building.

In the early 1890s Belgium becomes one of the main (in European architecture) centers of struggle against the canons of classicism and eclecticism (including the so-called national romanticism). The Belgian architects A. van de Velde, V. Horta, P. Ankar, whose work during this period was characterized by the rejection of the stylistic eclecticism of architecture of the 19th century, were at the origins of the emergence of a new “style” - European Art Nouveau. and persistent attempts to find a modern style based on the use of the possibilities of new materials, designs and taking into account new functional requirements for buildings.

Henri van de Velde (1863-1957) was one of the largest representatives and ideologists of European modernity. He opposed the canons of the classics and "facade", fought for a three-dimensional composition, for a new approach to creating interiors and household items. At the same time, he was against the introduction of industrial methods of mass production into the processes of building buildings and the manufacture of household items, defended artisanal methods for the production of household products and advocated the individuality of each project.

The second largest supporter of Art Nouveau, Victor Horta (1861-1947), was the architect who not only applied the creative principles of Art Nouveau for the first time in practice (the mansion on Turen Street in Brussels, 1892-1893), but also largely determined the direction of the search for the architectural decor of this " style." At the turn of the 1880-1890s. For several years he was engaged in intensive laboratory formal-aesthetic searches for a new decor and was the first to use the elastic meandering line of “strike with a whip” (Horta line), which then became one of the characteristic features of all decorative Art Nouveau and became most widespread in almost all European countries at the end of 1890- early 1900s.

On the development of creative directions of Belgian architecture of the 20-30s. The fact that before the war Belgium was one of the main centers for the development of modernity could not but have an impact, and such major architects as van de Velde and Horta continued to work intensively in the postwar years, and although they moved away from orthodox modernity, but were very far in their work from radical innovation. True, van de Velde tried during this period to develop the rationalistic aspects of modernity. However, he actually experienced in his work a stage that, on the whole, had already been passed by the rationalist trends in European architecture in the prewar years. Horta, under the influence of American architecture (he was in the USA in 1916-1919), tried to spread neoclassicism in Belgian architecture using a simplified order devoid of decorative elements (Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels, 1922-1928).

Rationalist trend in the architecture of Belgium in the 20-30s. was associated primarily with the work of young architects, whose main field of activity was the so-called "social" construction of cheap housing, carried out by municipalities and cooperatives using state loans. This construction, due to the extremely limited funds allocated for it, required architects to use new effective building materials and structures in their projects, to create a rational layout of apartments. The construction of cheap houses was actually that creative laboratory, where architects, in the conditions of austerity, trying to create a relatively comfortable housing for workers, tried to use the principles of typification and achievement of applied sciences (for example, the requirement of insolation, that is, lighting with direct sunlight), introduced into mass housing modern sanitary and technical equipment, central heating, electricity, garbage chutes and built-in furniture, and also sought to connect the architectural image of the building with its new functional and constructive basis.

One of the first modern residential complexes not only in Belgium, but also in Europe was designed by Victor Bourgeois (1897-1962) near Brussels in 1922-1925. the village of Cite Modern (modern city). Here, planning techniques new for those years were applied: special landscaped places for recreation were provided in the quarters, playgrounds for children were arranged, and houses were placed taking into account the most advantageous orientation. Moreover, Bourgeois was so consistent in pursuing the principle of the most advantageous orientation of apartments that he designed a number of houses that could not be placed in the north-south direction for reasons of the general composition of the village layout (for example, to create a closed space of the central square), he designed with ledges (sawtooth in plan). Apartments in the houses of the village were designed with cross-ventilation and with mandatory lighting of all rooms with daylight. The external appearance of the houses reflected such features characteristic of reinforced concrete as a flat roof, corner and recumbent windows, and light canopies over the entrances.

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Of great interest from the point of view of the development of rationalist trends in post-war Belgian architecture is school construction, where the search for a functional solution to the plan and volumetric-spatial composition of the building, taking into account the new requirements of the educational process, was carried out in the same way as in the construction of cheap housing, in conditions of the strictest cost savings.

New trends in the field of architecture, although with difficulty, still made their way in the construction of unique public buildings. The International Exhibition of 1935 in Brussels became a kind of arena for the struggle of rationalist trends with neoclassicism and eclecticism, the traditional appearance of many pavilions of which hid their modern constructive basis. Such, for example, is the Great Palace of the Century, built according to the design of the architect Jean van Peek. The bold design of the ceiling of its huge hall (reinforced concrete parabolic arches) is not revealed in the external appearance of the building, the facade of which is a stepped composition stylized in the spirit of neoclassicism. However, already at this exhibition, in a number of pavilions (though not the main ones), new materials and structures (glass, reinforced concrete) were boldly used to create the appearance of a modern building.

The destruction caused by the Second World War required extensive restoration work. Moreover, unlike restoration construction after the First World War, when the desire to restore much in its former form prevailed, under the new conditions, restoration was combined with reconstruction work, especially in old areas of cities, where intricate planning and narrow streets caused transport difficulties. Broadcast urban plans, which were created in large numbers in post-war Belgium, ultimately came down to specific measures to unleash traffic in the central region of Brussels, timed to coincide with the organization of the 1958 International Exhibition in Brussels. In order to unload the transport network of the central part of the city from the transit traffic of passengers between two dead-end railway stations in Brussels, a through tunnel connected their tracks with an underground station in the city center.

Housing construction in post-war Belgium is of considerable interest. Here we can note the overcoming of the traditions of building cities with single-family houses with "vertical" apartments, individual premises of which are located on several floors, and a decisive transition to the construction of modern types of apartment buildings (sectional, gallery, tower), combined into residential complexes, including a number of public buildings (mainly household and commercial). Such residential complexes are usually located on undeveloped sites: the Kiel complexes in Antwerp (architects R. Brahm, R. Mas and V. Marmans, 1950-1955), on Manevrov Square in Liege (project by architects of the EGAU group, 1956) and others. Residential complexes are built up, as a rule, with houses of several types, and in order to increase the area of undeveloped territory, many houses are placed on supports, often V-shaped, which gives the composition of new Belgian residential complexes spatiality, a certain formal sharpness and originality.

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In densely built-up old areas of cities, where houses of different eras with narrow multi-storey facades stand in continuous rows along the streets, new houses have to be built into this “layer cake”. Moreover, Belgian architects do not seek in these cases to imitate the external appearance of neighboring houses, but boldly introduce a modern building made of concrete and glass into a number of houses of different eras, which gives a special flavor to the entire building. These new buildings are, as a rule, profitable houses, in the design of which architects have to show truly virtuoso skill and ingenuity, since a narrow plot makes it possible to arrange window openings only on the torns of the house (towards the street and into the courtyard).

Since the second half of the 50s. in Belgian architecture, the influence of the American variety of functionalism, the school of Mies van der Rohe, increased. First of all, this applies to the construction of office buildings, one of which is the Social Security Building in Brussels, built in 1958 according to the project of the architect Hugo van Cuijk. Successfully located on one of the high points of the city, this building is a flat high glass prism with a rectangular base, as if growing out of a wider stylobate. The building closes the perspective of one of the main thoroughfares of the city and is the compositional center of a complex but expressive ensemble, including the surrounding multi-temporal buildings and a picturesquely planned shady square in front of the building, in which numerous Msnier sculptures are placed outdoors. These realistic sculptures contrast sharply with the building's modern appearance, whose urban character is further emphasized by the stream of cars speeding along the modern highway, which leads into the tunnel near the building.

One of the most famous and undoubtedly one of the best works of Belgian architecture of the post-war period is the building of the new Brussels air terminal, built in connection with the 1958 exhibition by the architect M. Brunfo. In the planning and spatial composition of this building, both purely utilitarian and artistic tasks are successfully solved. The interior of the main operating room makes the greatest impression. The hall is covered with cantilever aluminum trusses 50 m long, resting on ^-shaped supports. One of the longitudinal walls of the hall has been turned into a huge glass screen facing the summer field.

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A significant event in the architectural life of Belgium was the International Brussels Exhibition in 1958. Belgian architects were directly involved in the creation of many exhibition pavilions and other buildings, the construction of which was associated with its opening. Among these buildings, one can note such peculiar structures as the Atomium (engineer A. Waterkeyn, architects A. and J. Polak), which can be classified as symbolic monuments; pavilion "Reinforced Concrete Arrow" - with a cantilever of 80 m (engineer A. Paduard, architect J. van Dorselaer), which demonstrated the constructive capabilities of reinforced concrete, as well as the Pavilion of the Information Center built in the center of Brussels, the ceiling of which is a saddle-shaped shell resting on two reinforced concrete supports in the form of a hyperbolic paraboloid, made of a wooden three-layer glued slab (architects L. J. Bochet, J. P. Blondel and O. F. Philippon, engineer R. Sarge).

culture

Belgian artists

The peak of the flowering of painting in Belgium falls on the period of Burgundian rule in the 15th century. During the Renaissance, artists painted portraits with intricate detail. These were vital and non-idealized paintings in which the artists tried to achieve maximum realism and clarity. This style of painting is explained by the influence of the new Dutch school.

For Belgian painting, the 20th century was the second golden age. But artists have already retreated from the principles of realism in painting and turned to surrealism. One of these artists was Rene Magritte.

Belgian painting has an old tradition that the Belgians are justifiably proud of. The Rubens House Museum is located in Antwerp, and the Royal Museum of Fine Arts is located in Brussels. They became a manifestation of the deep respect of the Belgians for their artists and ancient traditions in painting.

Flemish primitivists

Even at the end of the Middle Ages in Europe, attention was paid to painting in Flanders and Brussels. Jan Van Eyck (circa 1400-1441) revolutionized Flemish art. He was the first to use oil to make durable paints, and to mix paints on canvas or wood. These innovations made it possible to keep the paintings longer. During the Renaissance, panel painting began to spread.

Jan Van Eyck became the founder of the Flemish primitivism school, depicting life in bright colors and in motion on canvases. In Ghent Cathedral there is an altar-polyptych "The Adoration of the Lamb", created by the famous artist and his brother.

Flemish primitivism in painting is distinguished by especially realistic portraits, clarity of lighting, and careful depiction of clothes and textures of fabrics. One of the best artists who worked in this direction was Rogierde la Pasture (Rogier van der Weyden) (circa 1400-1464). One of the famous paintings by Rogirde la Pasture is Descent from the Cross. The artist combined the power of religious feelings and realism. Rogierde la Pasture's paintings inspired many Belgian artists who inherited the new technique.

The possibilities of new technology were expanded by Dirk Bouts (1415-1475).

Hans Memling (circa 1433-1494) is considered the last Flemish primitivist, whose paintings depict 15th-century Bruges. The first paintings depicting industrial European cities were painted by Joachim Patinir (circa 1475-1524).

Bruegel dynasty

Belgian art in the early 16th century was greatly influenced by Italy. The painter Jan Gossaert (circa 1478-1533) studied in Rome. To paint pictures for the ruling dynasty of the Dukes of Brabant, he chose mythological subjects.

In the 16-17 centuries. The Bruegel family had the greatest influence on Flemish art. One of the best painters of the Flemish school was Pieter Brueghel the Elder (circa 1525-1569). He came to Brussels in 1563. His most famous works are canvases depicting comical figures of peasants. They provide an opportunity to plunge into the world of the Middle Ages. One of the famous paintings by Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564-1638), who painted canvases on religious themes, is The Census in Bethlehem (1610). Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568-1625), also known as Brueghel the Velvet, painted intricate still lifes depicting flowers against a background of velvet draperies. Jan Brueghel the Younger (1601-1678) painted magnificent landscapes and was court painter.

Artists of Antwerp

The center of Belgian painting in the 17th century moved from Brussels to Antwerp - the center of Flanders. To a large extent, this was influenced by the fact that one of the first world-famous Flemish artists Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) lived in Antwerp. Rubens painted magnificent landscapes, paintings with a mythological plot and was a court painter. But the most famous are his canvases depicting puffy women. The popularity of Rubens was so great that the Flemish weavers created a large collection of tapestries depicting his magnificent paintings.

Rubens' pupil, the court portrait painter Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), became the second Antwerp painter to achieve worldwide fame.

Jan Bruegel the Elder settled in Antwerp, and his son-in-law David Teniers II (1610-1690) established the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp in 1665.

European influence

In the 18th century, Rubens' influence on art still remained, so there were no significant changes in the development of Flemish art.

From the beginning of the 19th century, a strong influence of other European schools on the art of Belgium began to be felt. François Joseph Navez (1787-1869) added neoclassicism to Flemish painting. Constantin Meunier (1831-1905) preferred realism. Guillaume Vogels (1836-1896) painted in the Impressionist style. The supporter of the romantic trend in painting was the Brussels artist Antoine Wirtz (1806-1865).

Disturbing, distorted and blurry paintings by Antoine Wirtz, such as the work "Hasty Cruelty", executed around 1830, are the beginning of Surrealism in art. Fernand Khnopff (1858-1921), known for his frightening portraits of dubious women, is considered an early exponent of the Belgian symbolist school. His work was influenced by Gustav Klimt, a German romantic.

James Ensor (1860-1949) was another artist whose work moved from realism to surrealism. Mysterious and creepy skeletons are often depicted on his canvases. Society of Artists "LesVingt" (LesXX) in 1884-1894. organized an exhibition of works by famous foreign avant-garde artists in Brussels, thereby enlivening the cultural life in the city.

Surrealism

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Cezanne's influence has been felt in Belgian art. During this period, the Fauves appeared in Belgium, depicting bright landscapes drenched in the sun. A prominent representative of Fauvism was the sculptor and artist Rick Wauters (1882-1916).

Surrealism appeared in Brussels in the mid-twenties of the 20th century. Rene Magritte (1898-1967) became a prominent representative of this trend in art. Surrealism began to develop in the 16th century. Phantasmagoric paintings by Pieter Brueghel the Elder and Bosch were painted in this style. There are no landmarks in Magritte's canvases; he defined his surrealist style as "a return from the familiar to the alien."

Paul Delvaux (1897-1989) was a more shocking and emotional artist, his canvases depict bizarre, elegant interiors with misty figures.

The CoBrA movement in 1948 campaigned for abstract art. Abstractionism was replaced by conceptual art, headed by Marcel Brudtaers (1924-1976), an installation master. Broodtaers depicted familiar objects, such as a saucepan filled with mussels.

Tapestries and lace

Belgian tapestries and lace have been considered luxury for over six hundred years. In the 12th century, hand-made tapestries began to be made in Flanders, later they began to be made in Brussels, Tournai, Oudenarde and Mechelen.

From the beginning of the 16th century, the art of lace making began to develop in Belgium. Lace was woven in all provinces, but lace from Brussels and Bruges was most valued. Often the most skilled lacemakers were patronized by aristocrats. For the nobility, beautiful tapestries and exquisite lace were considered a sign of their position. In the 15-18 centuries. lace and tapestries were the main exports. And today Belgium is considered the birthplace of the best tapestries and lace.

The Flemish cities of Tournai and Arras (today located in France) by the beginning of the 13th century became famous European weaving centers. Craft and trade developed. The technique made it possible to make more delicate and expensive work; threads of real silver and gold began to be added to wool, which increased the cost of products even more.

The revolution in the manufacture of tapestries was made by Bernard van Orley (1492-1542), who combined Flemish realism and Italian idealism in drawings. Later, the Flemish masters were lured to Europe, and by the end of the 18th century, all the glory of the Flemish tapestries passed to the Parisian factory.

Belgium all year round

The Belgian climate is typical of northern Europe. It is for this reason that celebrations can be carried out both on the street and at home. The weather conditions perfectly allow the capital's artists to perform both at stadiums and in ancient buildings. The inhabitants of Belgium know how to use the change of seasons. For example, in the summer, a flower festival opens in the capital. The Grand Place is covered with millions of flowers every second of August. The opening of the dance, film and theater season takes place in January. Here, premieres from “car cinemas” to old abbeys are waiting for their viewers.

In Brussels, you can watch the passage of various festivals all year round. Here you can see luxurious, full of life historical processions. They have been held every year since medieval times. The latest experimental arts of Europe are demonstrated here.

Holidays

New Year - January 1
Easter - floating date
Clean Monday - floating date
Labor Day - May 1
Ascension - floating date
Trinity day - floating date
Spirits Monday - floating date
Belgian National Day - July 21
Dormition - August 15
All Saints Day - November 1
Armistice - November 11
Christmas - December 25

Spring

As the days of spring lengthen in Belgium, cultural life is revitalized. Tourists are starting to come here. Music festivals are held right on the street. When the city parks are in bloom, Laiken's tropical greenhouses, which are known throughout the world, are opened for visitors. Belgian chocolate makers are busy preparing all kinds of sweets for the significant Easter holiday.

International Fantasy Film Festival (3rd and 4th week). Fans of miracles and oddities are waiting for new films in cinemas throughout the capital.
Ars Music (mid-March - mid-April). This holiday is one of the best European festivals. Famous performers come to it. Often, concerts take place in the Museum of Old Masters. All music connoisseurs are present at this festival.
Euroantique (last week). The Heysel Stadium is full of visitors and vendors looking to buy or sell antiques.
Easter (Easter Sunday). There is a belief that before Easter, church bells fly to Rome. Returning, they leave Easter eggs in the fields and forests especially for children. Thus, every year more than 1000 painted eggs are hidden by adults in the Royal Park, and the kids from all over the city gather to look for them.

April

Spring baroque on Sablon (3rd week). The famous Place de la Grande Sablon gathers young Belgian talents. They play music from the 17th century.
Royal greenhouses in Laiken (12 days, dates vary). When cacti begin to bloom, as well as all sorts of exotic plants, the personal greenhouses of the Belgian royal family are opened especially for the public. The rooms are made of glass and finished with iron. A large number of various rare plants are kept here from bad weather.
Festival in Flanders (mid-April - October) This festival is a musical feast that mixes all sorts of styles and trends. More than 120 famous orchestras and choirs perform here.
"Screen scenes". (3rd week - end). Especially for the audience, new European films are presented daily.

Celebration of Europe Day (May 7-9). Due to the fact that Brussels is the European capital, this is once again emphasized at the celebration. For example, even Mannequin Pis is dressed in a blue suit, which is decorated with yellow stars.
Kunstin-Festival of Arts (May 9-31). Young theater actors and dancers take part in this festival.
Queen Elizabeth Competition (May - mid-June). This music competition gathers fans of the classics. This competition has been running for over forty years. Young pianists, violinists and singers perform there. Famous conductors and soloists choose among them the most worthy performers.
20 km race in Brussels (last Sunday). Running in the capital, in which more than 20,000 amateurs and professional runners take an active part.
Jazz rally (last day off). Small jazz ensembles perform in bistros and cafes.

Summer

In July, the season of court splendor opens in Ommengang. This is a fairly old custom. A huge procession moves along the Grand Place and the surrounding streets. At this wonderful time of the year, you can hear the music of various directions. Performers can play music in various venues, such as the huge King Baudouin stadium in IJsel, or in small cafe bars. On Independence Day, all Belgians come to the Midi fair. It takes place on the square where the trays are installed and paths are being built.

Brussels Summer Festival (early June - September). Concert programs are held in famous ancient buildings.
Festival in Wallonia (June - October). Holding a series of gala concerts in Brussels and Flanders makes it possible to present the most gifted young Belgian soloists and orchestra players to the audience.
Festival cafe "Cooler" (last week). For three days, a very fashionable program takes place in the rebuilt Tour-e-Taxi warehouse. The audience is expected by African drummers, salsa, ethnic music and acid jazz.
Music Festival (last day off). Benefits and concerts are held for two weeks in a row in city halls and museums dedicated to world music.

July

Ommegang (1st weekend of July). Tourists come from all over the world to watch this action. This festival has been taking place in Brussels since 1549. This procession (or, as it is called, "detour") goes around the Grand Place, all the streets that adjoin it, and moves in a circle. More than 2000 participants take part here. Thanks to the costumes, they turn into renaissance city dwellers. The parade passes by high-ranking Belgian officials. Tickets must be ordered in advance.
Jazz-folk festival "Brosella" (2nd day off). The festival takes place in Osseghem Park. It attracts all the famous musicians from Europe.
Summer festival in Brussels (July - August). At this time of the year, musicians play classical pieces in the Lower and Upper Towns.
Midi Fair (mid-July - mid-August). Carrying out the fair at the famous Brussels station Gardu-Midi. This event runs for a whole month. It is very popular with children. This fair is considered the largest in Europe.

Belgium Day (July 21). Conducting a military parade in honor of Independence Day, which has been celebrated since 1831, after which fireworks are launched in the Brussels Park.
Open Days at the Royal Palace (last week of July - 2nd week of September). The doors of the Royal Palace are opened for visitors. This event is held for six weeks in a row.

August

Maypole (Meiboom) (August 9). This festival originated in 1213. Participants of this action dress up in huge costumes - dolls. The procession passes through the Lower City. It stops at the Grand Place, then a Maypole is placed there.
Flower carpet (mid-August, every 2 years). This holiday takes place every other year. This is a tribute to floriculture in Brussels. The entire Grand Place is covered with fresh flowers. The total area of such a carpet is approximately 2000 m².

Autumn

In autumn, Belgian entertainment moves under the roof - to cafes or cultural centers where you can listen to modern music. During "Heritage Days" the public has the opportunity to enjoy the architecture by visiting private houses that are closed to the public at other times and viewing the collections located there.

September

Birthday Mannequin Pis (last day off).
The famous sculpture of a pissing boy is dressed up in another suit, donated by some high-ranking foreign guest.

Festival "Happy City" (first day off).
At this time, about 60 concerts are held in three dozen of the best Brussels cafes.
Botanical Nights (last week).
The French cultural center "Les Botaniques", located in the former greenhouses of the Botanical Gardens, hosts a series of concerts that will delight all connoisseurs of jazz music.
Heritage days (2nd or 3rd day off).
For a few days, many protected buildings and private houses, as well as closed art collections, open their doors to visitors.

October

Audi Jazz Festival (mid-October - mid-November).
All over the country, the sounds of jazz are heard, diluting the autumn boredom. Local performers play, but some European stars often perform at the Palace of Fine Arts in Brussels.

Winter

In winter, it usually rains and snows in Belgium, so almost all events during this period are moved indoors. Art galleries host world-class exhibitions, and the Brussels Film Festival hosts the work of both established masters and young talents. Before the Christmas holidays, the Lower Town is lit up with bright illumination, and on Christmas the tables of the Belgians are decorated with traditional dishes.

"Sablon's Nocturne" (last day off). All shops and museums of the Grande Sablon are not closed until late in the evening. Carriages with harnessed horses drive around the fair, carrying customers, and on the main square everyone can taste real mulled wine.

December

St. Nicholas Day (December 6).
According to legend, on this day the patron saint of Christmas Santa Claus comes to the city, and all Belgian children receive sweets, chocolate and other gifts.
Christmas (December 24-25).
As in other Catholic countries, Christmas in Belgium is celebrated on the evening of December 24th. The Belgians exchange gifts, and the next day they go to visit their parents. All kinds of Christmas attributes adorn the streets of the capital until January 6th.

January

King's Day (January 6).
On this day, special almond "royal cakes" are prepared, and everyone who wants to search for the pea hidden there. The one who finds it is declared king for the whole festive night.
Brussels Film Festival (mid - end of January).
Premiere of new films with the participation of European movie stars.

February

Antiques Fair (2nd and 3rd week).
The Palace of Fine Arts gathers antique dealers from all over the world.
International Comics Festival (2nd and 3rd week).
Comic book writers and artists come to the city that has had a strong influence on the art of comic book drawing to share experiences and showcase new work.

More varied and colorful than Flemish architecture and sculpture, Flemish painting of the 17th century unfolds in its magnificent flowering. Even more clearly than in these arts, the eternally Flemish emerges here from a mixture of northern and southern foundations, as an indestructible national treasure. Contemporary painting in no other country captured such a rich and colorful area of subjects. In new or restored temples, hundreds of gigantic baroque altars were waiting for images of saints painted on large canvases. In palaces and houses, vast walls yearned for mythological, allegorical and genre easel paintings; Yes, and portraiture, which developed in the 16th century to a life-size portrait, remained a great art in the full sense of the word, combining captivating naturalness with the nobility of expression.

Next to this large painting, which Belgium shared with Italy and France, flourished here, continuing the old traditions, original cabinet painting, mostly on small wooden or copper boards, unusually rich, embracing everything depicted, not neglecting religious, mythological or allegorical subjects, preferring everyday life of all classes of the population, especially peasants, cab drivers, soldiers, hunters and sailors in all its manifestations. The designed landscape or room backgrounds of these small-figured paintings turned into independent landscape and architectural paintings in the hands of some masters. This series is completed by images of flowers, fruits and animals. To the nurseries and menageries of the ruling archdukes in Brussels, overseas trade brought marvels of flora and fauna. The richness of their forms and colors could not be overlooked by the artists who mastered everything.

For all that, in Belgium there was no longer any ground for monumental wall painting. With the exception of Rubens's paintings in the Antwerp Jesuit Church and a few ecclesiastical series of landscapes, the great masters of Belgium created their large paintings on canvas, wall and ceiling paintings for foreign rulers, and the decline of the Brussels technique of tapestries, to which Rubens's participation gave only a temporary rise, made participation superfluous. other Belgian masters, such as Jordans and Teniers. But the Belgian masters took a well-known, although not as deep as the Dutch, participation in the further development of engraving and etching. The Dutch by birth were even the best engravers before Rubens, and the participation of the greatest Belgian painters: Rubens, Jordanses, Van Dycks, Brouwers and Teniers in "painting engraving" - etching, is partly only a side affair, partly even doubtful.

Antwerp, the wealthy Low German trading city on the Scheldt, is now, more than ever, the capital of Low Netherlandish painting. Brussels painting, perhaps only in the landscape looking for independent paths, became a branch of Antwerp art; even the painting of the old Flemish centers of art, Bruges, Ghent and Mecheln, at first lived only by its relationship to the Antwerp workshops. But in the Walloon part of Belgium, namely in Lüttich, one can trace an independent attraction to the Italians and the French.

For the general history of Flemish painting of the 17th century, in addition to the collections of literary sources by Van Mander, Goubraken, de Bie, Van Gool and Weyermann, the lexicons of Immerseel, Kramm and Wurzbach, consolidated, only partly outdated, books by Michiels, Waagen, Waters, Rigel and Philippi are important . In view of the predominant importance of Scheldt's art, one can also mention the history of Antwerp art by Van den Branden and Rooses, which, of course, requires additions and changes. The related chapter of the author of this book in his and Woltmann's History of Painting is already outdated in detail.

Flemish painting of the 17th century achieved complete freedom of pictorial arrangement and execution, internal unity of drawing and colors, the most smooth breadth and strength in the creative hands of its great master Peter Paul Rubens, who made Antwerp the central place for the export of paintings for all of Europe. There was no shortage, however, of masters standing at the transition between the old and the new directions.

In the national realistic sectors, with small figures against the backdrop of a developed landscape, only echoes of the greatness and immediacy of Pieter Brueghel the Elder still lived. The rendering of the landscape in the transitional era remains within the "stage style" created by Giliss Van Coninxloo, with its tufted tree foliage and bypassing the difficulties of aerial and linear perspective by developing separate, alternating one after another, differently colored tones. The founders of the present landscape painting, the Antwerp brothers Matthäus and Paul Bril (1550-1584 and 1554-1626), also proceeded from this conditional style, about the development of which almost nothing is known. Matthäus Bril appeared suddenly as a painter of landscape frescoes in the Vatican in Rome. After his early death, Paul Bril, his brother's friend in the Vatican, further developed the then-new Netherlandish landscape style. Few authentic paintings by Matthäus have survived; the more came from Paul, whose ecclesiastical and palace landscapes in the Vatican, in the Lateran, and in the Rospigliosi Palace in Santa Cecilia and Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, I have reported in other places. Only gradually do they pass under the influence of the freer, with greater unity of the executed landscapes by Annibale Carracci, to the balanced transitional style indicated above. The further development of Bril, which is part of the general history of landscape painting, is reflected in his numerous, partly marked by years, small landscapes on boards (1598 in Parma, 1600 in Dresden, 1601 in Munich, 1608 and 1624 in Dresden, 1609, 1620 and 1624 - in the Louvre, 1626 - in St. Petersburg), usually abundant in trees, rarely trying to convey a certain area. In any case, Paul Bril belongs to the founders of the landscape style, from which the art of Claude Lorrain grew.

In the Netherlands, the Antwerp Josse de Momper (1564 - 1644), best represented in Dresden, developed the Koninxloo stage style in smartly painted mountain landscapes, not particularly rich in trees, on which "three backgrounds", sometimes with the addition of a fourth sunlit, usually appear in in all its brown-green-gray-blue beauty.

The influence of older paintings by Bril is reflected in the second son of Peter Brueghel the Elder, Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568 - 1625), before his return to Antwerp, in 1596, who worked in Rome and Milan. Criveli and Michel dedicated separate works to him. He painted mostly small, sometimes miniature pictures that give the impression of a landscape even when they represent biblical, allegorical or genre themes. It is they who firmly adhere to the Coninksloo style with tufted foliage, although they convey the mutual transitions of the three backgrounds more subtly. Characteristic of Jan Brueghel's versatility is that he painted landscape backgrounds for figure painters like Balin, figures for landscape painters like Momper, floral wreaths for masters like Rubens. Known for his freshly and subtly executed "Fall" of the Hague Museum, in which Rubens painted Adam and Eve, and Jan Brueghel landscape and animals. His own landscapes, abundantly equipped with a motley folk life, still not particularly expressive in conveying the sky with its clouds, are predominantly hilly areas irrigated by rivers, plains with windmills, village streets with tavern scenes, canals with wooded banks, busy country roads on wooded heights and forest roads with woodcutters and hunters, vividly and faithfully observed. Early paintings by him can be seen in Milan's Ambrosiana. It is best represented in Madrid, well in Munich, Dresden, St. Petersburg and Paris. Of particular importance in the sense of searching for new ways was his painting of flowers, which most convincingly conveyed not only the beauty of forms and the brightness of colors of rare colors, but also their combinations. Pictures of the colors of his brush possess Madrid, Vienna and Berlin.

Of his collaborators, we must not miss Hendrik van Balen (1575 - 1632), whose teacher is considered to be Rubens' second teacher, Adam van Noort. His altar paintings (for example, in the Church of Jacob in Antwerp) are unbearable. He became famous for his small, smoothly painted, sugary paintings on boards with content mainly from ancient fables, for example, the Feast of the Gods in the Louvre, Ariadne in Dresden, Gathering Manna in Brunswick, but his paintings of this kind also lack artistic freshness and immediacy.

The transitional landscape style described above continued, however, among weak imitators until the beginning of the 18th century. Here we can note only the strongest masters of this direction, who transferred it to Holland, David Winkboons from Mecheln (1578 - 1629), who moved from Antwerp to Amsterdam, painted fresh forest and village scenes, on occasion also biblical episodes in a landscape setting, but most willingly temple holidays in front of village taverns. His best paintings in Augsburg, Hamburg, Braunschweig, Munich, St. Petersburg are quite directly observed and painted with flowery colors, not without force. Rellant Savery of Courtrai (1576 - 1639), to whom Kurt Erasmus devoted a lovingly written study, studied the German wooded mountains in the service of Rudolph II, after which he settled as a painter and etcher, first in Amsterdam, then in Utrecht. His light-filled, gradually merging three planes, but somewhat dry in execution, mountainous, rocky and forest landscapes, which can be well seen in Vienna and Dresden, he equipped with live groups of wild and tame animals in hunting scenes, in images of paradise and Orpheus. He also belongs to the earliest independent flower painters. Adam Willaerts from Antwerp (1577, died after 1649), who moved to Utrecht in 1611, was a representative of the seascape of this transitional style. His coastal and marine views (for example, in Dresden, at Weber in Hamburg, in the Liechtenstein Gallery) are still dry in the pattern of the waves, still rude in depicting ship life, but captivating with the honesty of their relationship to nature. Finally, Alexander Kerrinx of Antwerp (1600 - 1652), who transferred his Flemish landscape art to Amsterdam, still follows Coninxloe in the paintings with his signature, but in the later paintings of Brunswick and Dresden, is obviously influenced by Van Goyen's brownish Dutch tonal painting. . He belongs, therefore, to the transitional masters in the fullest sense of the word.

Of the Antwerp masters of this type who remained at home, Sebastian Vranks (1573 - 1647) reveals undoubted success as a landscape painter and painter of horses. He also depicts foliage in the form of bunches, most often hanging like a birch, but gives it a more natural connection, gives a new clarity to the airy tone and knows how to convey a vital character to the actions of the confidently and coherently written horses and riders of his battle and robber scenes that can be seen. , for example, in Braunschweig, Aschaffenburg, Rotterdam and at Weber in Hamburg.

Finally, in architectural painting as early as the 16th century, following the paths of Steenwick the Elder, he developed a transitional style, consisting in the gradual replacement of the letter following nature with artistic charm, his son Gendrik Steenwick the Younger (1580 - 1649), who moved to London, and next to him, the main Thus, Peter Neefs the Elder (1578 - 1656), whose interior views of churches can be found in Dresden, Madrid, Paris and St. Petersburg.

In general, Flemish painting was obviously on the very right path of returning to small art, when the great art of Rubens rose above it like the sun and carried it along with it into the realm of light and freedom.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577 - 1640) - the sun around which all Belgian art of the 17th century revolves, but at the same time one of the great luminaries of the pan-European art of this period. Contrary to all Italian Baroque painters, he is the main representative of the Baroque in painting. The fullness of forms, freedom of movement, dominance over the masses, which gives picturesqueness to the baroque style of architecture, in Rubens' paintings, they renounce the heaviness of stone and, with the intoxicating luxury of colors, receive an independent, new right to exist. With the power of individual forms, the grandeur of the composition, the blossoming fullness of light and colors, the passion of life in the transfer of sudden actions, the strength and fire in exciting the bodily and spiritual life of his fleshy male and female, dressed and undressed figures, he surpasses all other masters. The luxurious body of his fair-haired women with full cheeks, full lips and a cheerful smile shines with whiteness. Burnt by the sun, the skin of his male heroes glows, and their bold convex forehead is enlivened by a powerful arch of the eyebrows. His portraits are the freshest and healthiest, not the most individual and intimate for their time. No one knew how to reproduce wild and tame animals as vividly as he did, although due to lack of time, in most cases, he left his assistants to depict them in his paintings. In the landscape, the execution of which he also entrusted to assistants, he saw, first of all, the general effect due to atmospheric life, but he himself painted, even in old age, amazing landscapes. His art embraced the whole world of spiritual and physical phenomena, the whole complexity of the past and the present. Altar paintings and again altar paintings he painted for the church. He painted portraits and portraits mainly for himself and his friends. Mythological, allegorical, historical images and hunting scenes he created for the greats of this world. Landscape and genre paintings were occasional side jobs.

Orders rained down on Rubens. At least two thousand paintings came out of his studio. Great demand for his art caused the frequent repetition of whole paintings or individual parts by the hands of his students and assistants. At the zenith of his life, he usually left hand-painted paintings to his assistants. There are all transitions between his own handwritten works and the paintings of the studio, for which he only gave sketches. With all the similarity of the basic forms and basic moods, his own paintings reveal significant changes in style, the same as those of many of his contemporaries, from hard plastic modeling and thick, heavy writing to a lighter, freer, bright execution, to more lively outlines, to more soft, airy modeling and full of mood, illuminated by the flowery colors of tonal painting.

At the head of the latest literature on Rubens is Max Rooses' broadly conceived cumulative work: The Works of Rubens (1887-1892). The best and most important biographical works are those of Rooses and Michel. Collected works, after Waagen, were also published by Jakob Burchardt, Robert Fischer, Adolf Rosenberg and Wilhelm Bode. Separate questions about Rubens were analyzed by Ruelens, Voltman, Riegel, Geller von Ravensburg, Grossman, Riemanns and others. Rubens, as an engraver, was engaged in Gimans and Voorthelm-Schnevogt.

Rubens was born in Siegen, near Cologne, from respected Antwerp and received his first artistic education in the city of his fathers from Tobias Verhegt (1561 - 1631), a mediocre landscape painter of the transitional style, then studied for four years with Adam Van Noort (1562 - 1641), one of the average masters of mannered Italianism, as is now known, and then worked for another four years with Otto Van Ven, a rich in fiction, empty in the forms of a false classic, to whom at first he closely joined and in 1598 became a guild master. In 1908, Habertzwil devoted detailed articles to the three teachers of Rubens. It is impossible to establish with certainty a single picture of the early Antwerp period of Rubens. From 1600 to 1608 he lived in Italy; first in Venice, then mainly in the service of Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua. But already in 1601, in Rome, for the three altars of the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, he painted The Finding of the Cross, The Crowning with Thorns, and The Exaltation of the Cross. These three paintings, now belonging to the chapel of a hospital in Grasse, in southern France, reveal the style of his first Italian period, still searching for himself, still influenced by copies from Tintoretto, Titian and Correggio, but already full of independent striving for strength and movement. In 1603, the young master went to Spain with an order from his prince. From the paintings he painted there, the figures of the philosophers Heraclitus, Democritus and Archimedes in the Madrid Museum reveal still pompous, dependent forms, but also a strong impression to the psychological depth. Returning to Mantua, Rubens painted a large three-part altarpiece, the middle picture of which, with the homage of the Gonzaga family to St. Trinity, was preserved in two parts in the Mantua library, and from the wide, abundant side paintings, showing the ever-growing power of the forms and actions of the masses, the Baptism of Christ ended up in the Antwerp Museum and the Transfiguration in the Nancy Museum. Then in 1606, the master again painted in Rome for Chiesa Nuova a magnificent, already full of Rubensian power in his light-filled figures, the altarpiece of the Assumption of St. Gregory”, now owned by the Grenoble Museum, and in Rome replaced already in 1608 by three other, not at all the best paintings by the same master. More clearly reminiscent of Caravaggio's style is the spectacular "Circumcision of Christ" of 1607 in Sant'Ambrogio in Genoa. However, researchers such as Rooses and Rosenberg attribute the master to the Italian period, when he copied the works of Titian, Tintoretto, Correggio, Caravaggio, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael, and a number of paintings by his brush, apparently, however, written later. Large allegories of display and virtue in Dresden, originating from Mantua, strong in form and color, if they were not written, as Michel thinks with us, around 1608 in Mantua, then we rather admit, together with Bode, that they appeared according to return of Rubens to his homeland than with Roosers, that they were written before his Italian trip to Antwerp. The confidently drawn and plastically modeled image of Jerome in Dresden also reveals a peculiar Rubensian manner, perhaps even too developed for his Italian period, to which we now attribute this picture. Upon the return of Rubens in 1608 to Antwerp, already in 1609 he was appointed court painter to Albrecht and Isabella, and his style, already independent, quickly developed to grandiose power and grandeur.

Cluttered in composition, restless in outline, uneven in lighting effects is his Adoration of the Magi (1609-1610) in Madrid, marked, however, by a powerful movement. Full of life and passion, powerful in muscular modeling of bodies, his famous three-part image "Exaltation of the Cross" in Antwerp Cathedral. Stronger Italian memories are felt in simultaneous mythological pictures, such as Venus, Cupid, Bacchus and Ceres in Kassel, and the stout, chained Prometheus in Oldenburg. Characteristic examples of a large-scale portrait of this era are the landscape portraits of Albrecht and Isabella in Madrid and the magnificent Munich picture, representing in a honeysuckle arbor the master himself with his young wife, Isabella Brant, brought back to his homeland in 1609, an incomparable image of calm pure happiness love.

The art of Rubens discovered a further flight between 1611 and 1614. The huge painting "Descent from the Cross" with the majestic "Visit Mary Elizabeth" and "Entrance into the Temple" on the wings, in the Antwerp Cathedral, is considered the first work in which the master brought his types and his method of writing to full development. Wonderful is the passionate vitality of individual movements, even more wonderful is the penetrating power of pictorial performance. Mythological paintings such as "Romulus and Remus" in the Capitoline Gallery, "Faun and Faun" in the Schonborn Gallery in Vienna also belong to these years.

Paintings by Rubens in 1613 and 1614, confident in composition, with clearly defined forms and colors, are some paintings marked as an exception by his name and year of execution. Such are the pure in form, beautiful in colors painting “Jupiter and Callisto” (1613), full of magical light “Flight into Egypt” in Kassel, “Frozen Venus” (1614) in Antwerp, pathetic “Lamentation” (1614) in Vienna and "Susanna" (1614) in Stockholm, whose body is no doubt more pleasant and better understood than the too luxurious body of his earlier Susanna in Madrid; in terms of painting, powerful symbolic images of the lonely crucified Christ against the background of a darkened sky in Munich and Antwerp adjoin these paintings.

From that time on, commissions piled up in Rubens' studio to such an extent that he gave his assistants a more conspicuous participation in the execution of his paintings. The oldest, besides Jan Brueghel, belongs to the outstanding painter of animals and fruits Frans Snyders (1579 - 1657), according to Rubens himself, who painted the eagle in the Oldenburg painting with Prometheus mentioned above, and the lively landscape painter Jan Wildens (1586 - 1653), who worked from 1618 for Rubens. The most remarkable collaborator was Anton van Dyck (1599 - 1641), who later became an independent figure. In any case, having become a master in 1618, he was until 1620 the right hand of Rubens. Rubens's own paintings of these years usually contrast the bluish penumbra of the body with a reddish-yellow spot of light, while the paintings with the clearly established cooperation of Van Dyck are distinguished by a uniform warm chiaroscuro and a more nervous pictorial transmission. Among them are six large, enthusiastically painted images from the life of the Roman consul Decius Moussa, in the Liechtenstein Palace in Vienna, the cardboards of which Rubens made for woven carpets in 1618 (surviving copies are in Madrid), and large decorative plafond paintings (preserved only sketches in various collections), and some of the spectacular in composition, with many figures of the altarpieces of this church, “The Miracle of St. Xavier" and "Miracle of St. Ignatius”, saved by the Vienna Court Museum. Van Dyck's collaboration is also undeniable in the huge Crucifixion in Antwerp, on which Longinus, on horseback, pierces the side of the Savior with a spear, in the Madonna with penitent sinners in Kassel, and according to Bode also in the Munich Trinity Day and in the Berlin Lazar, according to Rooses also in the dramatic lion hunt and in the no less dramatic, passionate and quick kidnapping of the daughters of Leucippus in Munich. All these paintings shine not only with the bold power of Rubens' composition, but also with the penetrating subtlety of the feeling of Van Dyck's painting. Among the hand-painted paintings, painted in the main parts by Rubens himself between 1615 and 1620, there are also the best religious paintings - full of ebullient, agitated mass movements "The Last Judgment" in Munich and full of inner animation "Assumption of Our Lady" in Brussels and in Vienna, as well as masterful mythological paintings, luxurious "bacchanalia" and images of "Thiazos" in Munich, Berlin, St. Petersburg and Dresden, in which the power of the overflowing sensual joy of life, translated from Roman into Flemish, apparently reaches full expression for the first time . The “Battle of the Amazons” in Munich (circa 1620), a creation inaccessible in the sense of the picturesque transmission of the most violent scuffle and battle, although written in a small size, adjoins here. Then there are life-sized naked children, like excellent putti with a garland of fruit in Munich, then violent hunting scenes, lion hunting, of which the best is in Munich, and boar hunting, of which the best hangs in Dresden. This is followed by the first landscape paintings with mythological additions, for example, the full mood of Aeneas' Shipwreck in Berlin, or with natural surroundings, such as the radiant Roman landscape with ruins in the Louvre (circa 1615) and the landscapes full of life "Summer" and "Winter (c. 1620) at Windsor. Majestically conveyed, broadly and truthfully written without a hint of the old mannerisms, illuminated by the light of all kinds of celestial manifestations, they stand like landmarks in the history of landscape painting.

Clearly, majestically, powerfully, the portraits of Rubens of this five-year period finally appear. A masterful work of his self-portrait in the Uffizi, his portrait group "Four Philosophers" in the Pitti Palace is magnificent. In the prime of her beauty is his wife Isabella in the noble portraits of Berlin and The Hague. Around 1620, an amazing portrait of Susanna Fuhrman in a hat with a feather, fanned with the most delicate chiaroscuro, was also painted in the London National Gallery. The famous male portraits of the master of these years can be seen in Munich and in the Liechtenstein Gallery. How passionately Rubens depicted episodes from the sacred world history, hunting scenes and even landscapes, he painted his portrait figures just as calmly, being able to convey their bodily shell with monumental power and truth, but without trying to spiritualize internally, grasped only in general, facial features.

Van Dyck left Rubens in 1620, and his wife Isabella Brant died in 1626. A new impetus for his art was his remarriage to the beautiful young Helena Furman in 1630. However, his artistic and diplomatic trips to Paris also served as impetus ( 1622, 1623, 1625), Madrid (1628, 1629) and London (1629, 1630). Of the two large historical series with allegories, 21 huge paintings from the life of Marie de Medici (the story was written by Grossman) now belong to the best decorations of the Louvre. Sketched by the masterful hand of Rubens, painted over by his students, finished by himself, these historical paintings are filled with many modern portraits and allegorical mythological figures in the spirit of modern baroque and present such a mass of individual beauties and such artistic harmony that they will forever remain the best works of painting of the 17th century. From a series of paintings of the life of Henry IV of France, two half-finished ones ended up in the Uffizi; sketches for others are kept in different collections. The nine paintings glorifying James I of England, with which Rubens a few years later decorated the plafond fields of the main hall in White Hall, blackened from London soot, are unrecognizable, but they themselves do not belong to the most successful works of the master.

Of the religious paintings painted by Rubens in the twenties, the great fiery "Adoration of the Magi" in Antwerp, completed in 1625, again marks a turning point in his artistic development with its freer and broader brush, lighter language of forms and more golden, airy coloring. . The light, airy "Assumption of Mary" of the Antwerp Cathedral was completed in 1626. This is followed by the picturesque, free "Adoration of the Magi" in the Louvre and "The Education of the Virgin Mary" in Antwerp. In Madrid, where the master again studied Titian, his coloring became richer and "flowery". The "Madonna" with saints adoring her in the Augustinian church in Antwerp is a more baroque repetition of Titian's Frari Madonna. A meaningfully revised part of the "Triumph of Caesar" by Mantegna, located in 1629 in London (now in the National Gallery), judging by her letter, could also appear only after this time. This decade is especially rich in large portraits of the master. Older, but still full of warming good looks, is Isabella Brant in a beautiful portrait of the Hermitage; already sharper features are represented by the portrait in the Uffizi. Among the finest and most colorful is the double portrait of his sons in the Liechtenstein Gallery. The expressive portrait of Caspar Gevaert at his desk in Antwerp is famous. And the aged master himself appears before us with a thin diplomatic smile on his lips in a beautiful bust portrait of Aremberg in Brussels.

The last decade that fell to the lot of Rubens (1631 - 1640) stood under the star of his beloved second wife, Elena Furman, whom he painted in all forms, and who served him as nature for religious and mythological paintings. Her best portraits by Rubens belong to the most beautiful female portraits in the world: half-length, in a rich dress, in a hat with a feather; life-size, sitting, in a luxurious dress open at the chest; in a small form, next to her husband for a walk in the garden - she is in the Munich Pinakothek; naked, only partly covered with a fur mantle - in the Vienna Court Museum; in a suit for walking in the field - in the Hermitage; with her firstborn on the sashes, arm in arm with her husband, and also on the street, accompanied by a page - at Baron Alphonse Rothschild in Paris.

The most significant church works of this flourishing, radiant late era of the master are the majestic and calm in composition, shining with all the colors of the rainbow, the altar of St. Ildefons with powerful figures of donors on the doors of the Vienna Court Museum and a magnificent altarpiece in Rubens' own funerary chapel in the Church of Jacob in Antwerp, with saints of the city painted from faces close to the master. More simple works, such as: St. Cecilia in Berlin and magnificent Bathsheba in Dresden are not inferior to them in tone and colors. Among the precious mythological pictures of this period are the glittering Judgments of Paris in London and Madrid; and what passionate vitality breathes Diana's hunt in Berlin, how fabulously luxurious the feast of Venus in Vienna, what a magical light illuminates Orpheus and Eurydice in Madrid!

Preparatory for this kind of paintings are some genre images of the master. So, the character of the mythological genre captures the boldly sensual, life-size "Hour of Date" in Munich.

The prototypes of all the secular scenes of Watteau are the famous, with flying gods of love, paintings called "Gardens of Love", with groups of luxuriously dressed couples in love at a festival in the garden. One of the best works of this kind is owned by Baron Rothschild in Paris, the other is in the Madrid Museum. The most important genre paintings with small figures from folk life, painted by Rubens, are the majestic and vital, purely Rubensian peasant dance in Madrid, the half-landscape tournament in front of the moat of the castle, in the Louvre, and the fair in the same collection, the motives of which are already reminiscent of Teniers.

Most of the real landscapes of Rubens also belong to the last years of his life: such is the radiant landscape with Odysseus in the Pitti Palace, such are the landscapes, new in design, artistically explaining, with a simple and wide image of the surroundings, the flat area in which Rubens' dacha was located, and with a majestic, full of mood transfer sky changes. The most beautiful are the fiery sunset in London and the landscapes with a rainbow in Munich and St. Petersburg.

Whatever Rubens undertook, he turned everything into shining gold; and whoever came into contact with his art, as a collaborator or follower, could no longer break out of his vicious circle.

Of the numerous pupils of Rubens, only Anton van Dyck (1599 - 1641) - whose light, of course, refers to the light of Rubens, like the lunar light of the sun - reaches the heavens of art with a head illuminated by brilliance. Although Balen is considered his real teacher, Rubens himself called him his student. In any case, his youthful development, as far as we know, was under the influence of Rubens, from which he never deviates completely, but, in accordance with his more impressionable temperament, reworks into a more nervous, gentle and subtle manner in painting and less strong in drawing. . A long stay in Italy finally turned him into a painter and master of colors. It was not his business to invent and dramatically exacerbate live action, but he knew how to place figures in his historical paintings in clearly thought-out relationships to each other and communicate to his portraits the subtle features of social status, which became the favorite painter of the nobles of his time.

The latest summary works on Van Dyck are by Michiels, Giffrey, Kust and Schaeffer. Separate pages of his life and art were explained by Vibiral, Bode, Hymans, Rooses, Lau, Menotti and the author of this book. Even now they are arguing about the distinction between different periods of life, which were connected mainly with travel. According to the latest research, he worked until 1620 in Antwerp, in 1620 - 1621 in London, in 1621 - 1627 in Italy, mainly in Genoa, with a break from 1622 to 1623, carried out, as Rooses showed, probably at home, in 1627 - 1628 in Holland, then again in Antwerp, and from 1632 as a court painter of Charles I in London, where he died in 1641, and during this period, in 1634 - 1635 was in Brussels, in 1640 and 1641 in Antwerp and Paris.

There are hardly any early works of Van Dyck in which the influence of Rubens would not be noticeable. Even his early Apostolic series already show traces of the Rubensian manner. Of these, some of the original heads are preserved in Dresden, others in Althorp. Among the religious paintings painted by Van Dyck according to his own design, at his own peril and risk, from 1618 to 1620, while he was in the service of Rubens, belong to the “Martyrdom of St. Sebastian", with the overloaded old composition "Lamentation of Christ" and "Bathing Susanna" in Munich. "Thomas in St. Petersburg", "The Copper Serpent" in Madrid. None of these paintings can boast of perfect composition, but they are well painted and flowery in color. The Dresden “Jerome” is picturesque and deeply felt in the soul, representing a vivid contrast to the neighboring more calm and roughly written Jerome Rubens.

Then follow: The Mocking of Christ in Berlin, the strongest and most expressive of these semi-Rubens paintings, and beautiful in composition, no doubt sketched by Rubens, St. Martin" at Windsor, sitting on a horse, holding out a cloak to a beggar. The simplified and weaker repetition of this Martin in the Saventham church is closer to the later manner of the master.

Van Dyck is a great artist in this Rubens era, especially in his portraits. Some of them, combining the well-known advantages of both masters, were attributed to Rubens in the 19th century, until Bode returned them to Van Dyck. They are more individual in individual features, more nervous in expression, softer and deeper in writing than the simultaneous portraits of Rubens. The oldest of these semi-Rubens portraits by Van Dyck are both bust portraits of an elderly married couple in 1618 in Dresden, the most beautiful are the half-figures of two married couples in the Liechtenstein gallery: a woman with gold lacing on her chest, a gentleman pulling on gloves, and sitting in front of a red curtain lady with a child on her lap, in Dresden. The magnificent Isabella Brant of the Hermitage belongs to him, and from the Louvre a double portrait of the alleged Jean Grusset Richardeau and his son standing next to him. Of the double portraits, the spouses standing next to each other are known - the portrait of Frans Snyders and his wife with very forced poses, Jan de Wael and his wife in Munich, is the most picturesque. Finally, in the youthful self-portraits of the master, with a thoughtful, self-confident look, in St. Petersburg, Munich and London, his very age, about twenty, indicates an early period.

From religious paintings painted by Van Dyck between 1621 - 1627. in Italy, in the south, there remained a beautiful scene, inspired by Titian, with the "Coin of Peter" and "Mary with the Child" in a fiery halo, in the Palazzo Bianco, reminiscent of Rubens, the "Crucifixion" in the royal palace in Genoa, tenderly felt in picturesque and spiritual terms , the Entombment of the Borghese Gallery in Rome, the languid head of Mary in the Pitti Palace, the magnificent, radiant family in the Turin Pinacothek, and the powerful, but rather mannered altarpiece of the Madonna del Rosario in Palermo with elongated figures. Of the secular paintings, we will mention here only the beautiful, in the spirit of Giorgione, the painting depicting the three ages of life in the city museum in Vincenza and the simple in composition, but fiery painting "Diana and Endimon" in Madrid.

A confident, firm and at the same time gentle stroke modeling in dark chiaroscuro and a deep, rich coloring of the Italian heads striving for unity of mood are also manifested in his Italian, especially Genoese portraits. Painted in a bold foreshortening, almost facing the viewer, the equestrian portrait of Antonio Giulio Brignole Sale, waving his hat in his right hand as a sign of greeting, located in the Palazzo Rossi in Genoa, was a true indicator of the new path. Noble, with Baroque columns and draperies in the background, the portraits of Signora Geronimo Brignole Sale with her daughter Paola Adorio in a dark blue silk dress with gold embroidery and a young man in the clothes of a noble person, from the same collection, stand at the height of absolute portrait art. They are adjoined by portraits of the Marchesa Durazzo in a light yellow silk damask dress, with children, in front of a red curtain, a lively group portrait of three children with a dog and a noble portrait of a boy in a white dress, with a parrot, kept in the Palazzo Durazzo Pallavicini. In Rome, the Capitoline Gallery has a very vital double portrait of Luca and Cornelis de Wael; in Florence, in the Palazzo Pitti, there is a spiritually expressive portrait of Cardinal Giulio Bentivoglio. Other portraits of Van Dyck's Italian period found their way abroad. One of the finest is owned by Pierpont Morgan in New York, but they can also be found in London, Berlin, Dresden and Munich.

The five-year period (1627 - 1632) spent by the master in his homeland after returning from Italy turned out to be extremely fruitful. Large, full of movement altarpieces, what are the powerful Crucifixes in the church of St. Zhen in Dendermonde, in the church of Michael in Ghent, and in the church of Romuald in Meheln, and the adjoining "Exaltation of the Cross" in the church of St. Gens in Courtrai does not represent him as well as the works full of inner life, to which we include the Crucifixion with the forthcoming in the Lille Museum, "Rest during the Flight" in Munich and individual Crucifixions full of feeling in Antwerp, Vienna and Munich. These paintings translate the images of Rubens from the heroic language to the language of feeling. The most beautiful paintings of this period include the Madonna with a kneeling couple of donors and angels pouring flowers in the Louvre, the Madonna with the Christ Child standing in Munich and the full mood of "Lament over Christ" in Antwerp, Munich, Berlin and Paris. Madonnas and lamentations in general were Van Dyck's favorite themes. He rarely took on images of pagan gods, although his Hercules at the Crossroads in the Uffizi, the images of Venus, Vulcan, Vienna and Paris show that he was able to deal with them to some extent. He remained mainly a portrait painter. About 150 portraits of his brush have been preserved from this five-year period. Their facial features are even sharper, in typically graceful, inactive hands there is even less expression than in Italian paintings of him of the same kind. A somewhat more aristocratic ease was added to their posture, and a more subtle general mood appeared in the colder coloring. Clothes usually fall easily and freely, but materially. Among the most beautiful of them, painted in full size, are the characteristic portraits of the ruler Isabella in Turin, in the Louvre and in the Liechtenstein Gallery, Philippe de Roy and his wife in the Wallace collection in London, double portraits of a gentleman and a lady with a child in their arms in the Louvre and in the Gothic Museum and a few more portraits of gentlemen and ladies in Munich. Among the most expressive waist and generation portraits we include the portraits of Bishop Mulderus and Martin Pepin in Antwerp, Adrian Stevens and his wife in St. Petersburg, Count Van den Berg in Madrid, and Canon Antonio de Tassis in the Liechtenstein Gallery. The organist Liberty looks languidly, the sculptor Colin de Nole, his wife and their daughter look boring at the portrait group in Munich. The portraits of a gentleman and a lady in Dresden and Marie Louise de Tassis in the Liechtenstein Gallery are distinguished by a noble, picturesque posture. Van Dyck's influence on all portraiture of his time, especially English and French, was enormous; however, in natural characteristic and inner truth, his portraits cannot be compared with those of his contemporaries Velázquez and Frans Hals, not to name others.

On occasion, however, Van Dyck also took up the engraving needle. Known for 24 easily and with great meaning executed sheet of his work. On the other hand, he commissioned other engravers to reproduce a large series of small portraits of famous contemporaries painted by him, painted in one gray tone. In the complete collection, this "Iconography of Van Dyck" in one hundred sheets appeared only after his death.

As the court painter of Charles I, Van Dyck painted little religious and mythological paintings during the last eight years of his life. Nevertheless, several of the best paintings written during his short stay in the Netherlands belong to this late time of the master. It was the last and most picturesque depiction of the "Rest on the Flight into Egypt", with a round dance of angels and flying partridges, now in the Hermitage, the most mature and most beautiful "Lamentation of Christ" in the Antwerp Museum, not only clear, calm and touching in composition, but an expression of true grief, but also in colors, with its beautiful chords of blue, white and dark gold, representing a masterful, enchanting work. Then follow the extremely numerous portraits of the English period. True, under the influence of the London court type, his heads become more and more like masks, his hands become less and less expressive; but the dresses are more refined and more material in writing, the colors, the silvery tone of which only gradually began to fade, win more and more in tender charm. Of course, Van Dyck also set up a workshop in London with large-scale production, in which numerous students were engaged. The family portrait at Windsor, showing the seated royal couple with two children and a dog, is a rather weak display. The equestrian portrait of the king in the same place in front of the triumphal arch was painted with great taste, his equestrian portrait in the National Gallery is even more picturesque, the delightful portrait of the king in a hunting suit in the Louvre is really picturesque. Of the portraits of Queen Henrietta Maria by Van Dyck, the one owned by Lord Northbrook in London and depicting the queen with her dwarfs on a garden terrace is among the freshest and earliest, and the one in the Dresden gallery, for all its nobility, is among the weakest and latest. Various portraits of the children of the English king are famous, belonging to the most attractive masterpieces of Van Dyck. Turin and Windsor have the finest portraits of the three royal children; but the most luxurious and prettiest of all is the Windsor portrait with the five children of the king, with a large and a small dog. Of the other numerous portraits of Van Dyck at Windsor, the portrait of Lady Venice Digby, with its allegorical additions in the form of doves and gods of love, heralds a new era, and the double portrait of Thomas Killigrew and Thomas Carew strikes with the life relationships depicted that are unusual for our master. The portrait of James Stuart, with a large dog clinging to him, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is distinguished by a special grace, a portrait of the betrothed, the children of William II of Orange and Henrietta Maria Stuart, in the city museum in Amsterdam is delightful. About a hundred portraits of the master's English period have been preserved.

Van Dyck died young. As an artist, he spoke, apparently, all. He lacks the versatility, fullness, and power of his great teacher, but he surpassed all his Flemish contemporaries in the subtlety of a purely pictorial mood.

Other important painters, collaborators and students of Rubens in Antwerp before and after Van Dyck, live only echoes of Rubens' art, Even Abraham Dipepbeck (1596 - 1675), Cornelis Schut (1597 - 1655), Theodor van Thulden (1606 - 1676), Erasmus Quellinus (1607 - 1678), the brother of the great sculptor, and his grandson Jan Erasmus Quellinus (1674 - 1715) are not so significant as to dwell on them. Representatives of various realistic departments of the Rubens workshop are of more independent importance. Frans Snyders (1579 - 1657) began with a dead nature, which he liked to perform in life size, broadly, realistically and, for all that, decorative; all his life he painted large, full of healthy observation images of kitchen supplies and fruits, such as are available in Brussels, Munich and Dresden. In the workshop of Rubens, he also learned to depict lively and fascinating, almost with the strength and brightness of his teacher, the living world, life-size animals in hunting scenes. His large hunting paintings in Dresden, Munich, Vienna, Paris, Kassel and Madrid are classic in their way. Sometimes conflated with Snyders is his brother-in-law Paul de Vos (1590 - 1678), whose large paintings of animals cannot match the freshness and warmth of Snyders' paintings. The new landscape style, developed under the influence of Rubens, which almost completely did away with the old three-color stage backgrounds and traditional tuft-like tree foliage, appears before us more clearly in the paintings and etchings of Lucas van Oudens (1595 - 1672), an assistant in the late period of the master in the landscape. His numerous but mostly small landscape paintings, of which nine hang in Dresden, three in St. Petersburg, two in Munich, are simple, naturally grasped images of the charming local border landscapes between the Brabant hilly region and the Flemish plain. The performance is wide and meticulous. His colors strive to convey not only the natural impression of green trees and meadows, brownish earth and bluish hilly distances, but also a slightly cloudy, bright sky. The sunny sides of its clouds and trees usually twinkle with yellow spots of light, and under the influence of Rubens, rain clouds and rainbows sometimes also appear.

The art of Rubens caused a revolution in the Netherlandish copper engraving. Numerous engravers, whose work he looked through, were in his service. The oldest of them, the Antwerp Cornelis Galle (1576 - 1656) and the Dutch Jacob Matham (1571 - 1631) and Jan Müller, still translated his style into an older language of forms, but the engravers of the Rubens school, a number of which are opened by Peter Southman from Harlem (1580 - 1643), and continues to shine with such names as Lukas Forstermann (b. 1584), Paul Pontius (1603 - 1658), Boethius and Schelte. Bolswerth, Pieter de Jode the younger, and above all the great chiaroscuro engraver Jan Wittdöck (b. 1604) managed to imbue their sheets with Rubensian force and movement. The new mezzotint technique, which roughened the surface of the plate by means of a pickaxe in order to scrape out a drawing on it in soft masses, was, if not invented, then for the first time widely used by Vallerand Vaillant from Lille (1623 - 1677), a student of Rubens's student Erasmus Quellinus, a famous excellent portrait painter and original painter of dead nature. Since, however, Vaillant studied this art not in Belgium, but in Amsterdam, where he moved, the history of Flemish art can only mention him.

Some important Antwerp masters of this period, who did not have direct relations with Rubens or his students, who joined Caravaggio in Rome, formed a Roman group. Clear outlines, plastic modeling, heavy shadows of Caravaggio soften only in their later paintings of a freer, warmer, broader painting that spoke of the influence of Rubens. At the head of this group is Abraham Janssens Van Nuessen (1576 - 1632), whose student Gerard Zegers (1591 - 1651) in his later paintings undoubtedly moved into the fairway of Rubens, and Theodore Rombouts (1597 - 1637) reveals the influence of Caravaggio in his genre, in life-size, with metallic lustrous colors and black shadows, paintings in Antwerp, Ghent, St. Petersburg, Madrid and Munich.

The oldest of the then Flemish painters who were not in Italy, Caspar de Crayer (1582 - 1669), moved to Brussels, where, competing with Rubens, he did not go further than taken eclecticism. They are headed by the Antwerp Jacob Jordaens (1583 - 1678), also a student and son-in-law of Adam Van Noort, the head of the truly independent Belgian realists of the era, one of the most significant Flemish outstanding painters of the 17th century, next to Rubens and Van Dyck. Rooses also dedicated an extensive work to him. Rougher than Rubens, he is more direct and original than him. His bodies are even more massive and fleshy than those of Rubens, his heads are rounder and more ordinary. His compositions, usually repeated, with slight changes for different paintings, are often more artless and often overworked, his brush, for all its skill, is drier, smoother, sometimes denser. For all that, he is a wonderful, original colorist. At first he writes freshly and briskly, weakly modeling in saturated local colors; after 1631, carried away by the charms of Rubens, he moves on to more delicate chiaroscuro, to sharper intermediate colors and to a brownish tone of painting, from which juicy deep basic tones effectively shine through. He also portrayed everything depicted. He owes his best success to life-size allegorical and genre paintings, in most cases on the theme of folk proverbs.

The earliest known painting by Jordaens "Crucifixion" in 1617 in the church of St.. Paul in Antwerp reveals the influence of Rubens. Jordaens is quite himself in 1618 in the "Adoration of the Shepherds" in Stockholm and in a similar picture in Braunschweig, and especially in the early images of a satyr visiting a peasant, to whom he tells an unbelievable story. The earliest painting of this kind is owned by Mr. Celst in Brussels; followed by copies in Budapest, Munich and Kassel. Early religious paintings also include the expressive images of the Evangelists in the Louvre and the Disciples at the Tomb of the Savior in Dresden; of the early mythological paintings, Meleager and Atlanta in Antwerp deserves mention. The earliest of his living compositions of family portrait groups (circa 1622) belong to the Madrid Museum.

The Rubensian influence is again evident in the paintings of Jordaens, written after 1631. In his satire of a peasant in Brussels, a turn is already noticeable. His famous depictions of the "Bean King", of which Kassel possesses the earliest copy - others are in the Louvre and in Brussels - as well as his innumerable images of the proverb "What the old sing, the little ones squeak", an Antwerp copy of which is dated 1638. even fresher in colors than the Dresden, written in 1641 - others in the Louvre and Berlin - already belong to the master's smoother and softer manner.

Before 1642, the rough mythological paintings "Procession of Bacchus" in Kassel and "Ariadne" in Dresden, lively excellent portraits of Jan Wirth and his wife in Cologne were also painted; then, until 1652, paintings animated externally and internally, despite the calmer lines, like St. Ivo in Brussels (1645), a superb family portrait in Kassel and a vibrant "Bean King" in Vienna.

In 1652, the master was in full force with an invitation to The Hague to take part in the decoration of the "Forest Castle", to which the "Deification of Prince Friedrich Heinrich" and "The Victory of Death over Envy" by Jordaens give his imprint, and in 1661 an invitation to Amsterdam, where he painted surviving but now almost indistinguishable paintings for the new town hall.

The finest and most religious painting of his later years is Jesus among the Scribes (1663) in Mainz; splendidly in colors, "Entrance to the Temple" in Dresden and the "Last Supper" permeated with light in Antwerp.

If Jordaens is too crude and uneven to be ranked among the greatest of the greats, then nevertheless, as an Antwerp burgher painter and painter of burghers, he occupies a place of honor next to Rubens, prince of painters and painter of princes. But precisely because of his originality, he did not create any remarkable disciples or followers.

Cornelis de Vos (1585 - 1651) was a master, like Jordans, who independently adjoined the pre-Rubensian past of Flemish art, especially outstanding as a portrait painter, striving for artless truth and sincerity with a calm, penetrating painting style, a peculiar brilliance in the eyes of his figures and full of light coloring. The best family portrait-group, with a relaxed composition, belongs to the Brussels Museum, and the strongest single portrait of the guild master Grapheus belongs to Antwerp. His double portraits of the married couple and his little daughters in Berlin are also very typical.

In contrast to his purely Flemish style, with an Italian touch, which was held with greater or lesser deviations by the vast majority of the Belgian painters of the 17th century, the Luttich Walloon school, explored by Gelbier, developed the Roman-Belgian style of the Poussin trend following the French. At the head of this school is Gerard Duffet (1594 - 1660), an inventive, highly polished academician, best known in Munich. Gérard Leresse (1641 - 1711), a pupil of his pupil Bartolet Flemalle or Flemal (1614 - 1675), a sluggish imitator of Poussin, who already moved to Amsterdam in 1667, transplanted from Lüttich to Holland this academic style imitating the French, which he pursued not only as a painter and printmaker of mythological subjects, but also with a pen in his book, which has a significant impact. He was an extreme reactionary and most of all contributed at the turn of the century to the turn of the healthy national trend of Netherlandish painting into the Romanesque fairway. "Seleucus and Antioch" in Amsterdam and Schwerin, "Parnassus" in Dresden, "Departure of Cleopatra" in the Louvre give a sufficient idea of him.

Leres, finally, returns us from the great Belgian painting to the small one; and this latter, undoubtedly, still experienced in small-figure paintings with landscape or architectural backgrounds the mature national flowering of the 17th century, which grew directly from the soil prepared by the masters of the transitional period, but achieved complete freedom of movement thanks to the omnipotent Rubens, in some places also thanks to new influences, French and Italian, or even the impact of young Dutch art on Flemish.

A real genre picture, and now, as before, played the first role in Flanders. At the same time, a rather sharp border is noticeable between the masters who depicted the life of the upper classes in secular scenes or small group portraits, and the painters of folk life in taverns, fairs and country roads. Rubens created examples of both genera. Secular painters, in the spirit of Rubens' Gardens of Love, depict ladies and gentlemen in silk and velvet, playing cards, having a feast, playing cheerful music or dancing. One of the first among these painters was Christian van der Lamen (1615 - 1661), known for paintings in Madrid, Gotha, especially in Lucca. His most successful student was Jérôme Janssens (1624 - 1693), the "Dancer" and whose dancing scenes can be seen in Braungschweig. Above him as a painter stands Gonzales Kokvets (1618 - 1684), a master of aristocratic small group portraits depicting family members united at home in Kassel, Dresden, London, Budapest and The Hague. The most prolific Flemish portrayers of the folk life of the lower classes were the Teniers. David Teniers the Elder (1582 - 1649) and his son David Teniers the Younger (1610 - 1690) stand out from the large family of these artists. The older one was probably a student of Rubens, the younger Rubens probably gave friendly advice. Both are equally strong in both landscape and genre. However, it was not possible to separate all the works of the elder from the youthful paintings of the younger. Undoubtedly, the elder owns the four mythological landscapes of the Vienna Court Museum, still busy transmitting the "three planes", "The Temptation of St. Anthony" in Berlin, "Mountain Castle" in Braunschweig and "Mountain Gorge" in Munich.

Since David Teniers the Younger was influenced by the great Adrien Brouwer of Oudenard (1606-1638), we give precedence to the latter. Brouwer is the creator and layman of new paths. Bode thoroughly researched his art and life. In many respects he is the greatest of the Netherlandish painters of folk life and at the same time one of the most inspired Belgian and Dutch landscape painters. The influence of Dutch painting on Flemish in the 17th century was first seen with him, a student of Frans Hals in Haarlem, already before 1623. Upon his return from Holland, he settled in Antwerp.

At the same time, his art proves that the simplest epithets from the life of the common people can, thanks to their performance, acquire the highest artistic value. From the Dutch, he took the immediacy of the perception of nature, the pictorial performance, in itself artistic. As a Dutchman, he declares himself by strict isolation in conveying moments of various manifestations of life, like a Dutchman, with precious humor, he highlights scenes of smoking, fights, card games and tavern drinking parties.

The earliest paintings he painted in Holland, peasant drinking bouts, fights, in Amsterdam, reveal in their rough, nosy characters the responses of the Old Flemish transitional art. The masterpieces of this time are his already Antwerp “Card Players” and the tavern scenes of the Städel Institute in Frankfurt. Further development comes out sharply in "Knife" and "Village Bath" of the Munich Pinakothek: here the action is dramatically strong already without superfluous secondary figures; execution in all details is picturesquely thought out; from the golden chiaroscuro of color, red and yellow tones still glow. This is followed by the mature late period of the master (1633 - 1636), with more individual figures, a colder tone of color, in which green and blue paint locales stand out. These include 12 of his eighteen Munich and the best of his four Dresden paintings. Schmidt-Degener attached to them a number of paintings from private collections in Paris, but their authenticity, apparently, is not always precisely established. The best landscapes of Brouwer, in which the simplest motifs of nature from the environs of Antwerp are fanned with a warm, radiant transmission of air and light phenomena, also belong to these years. "Dunes" in Brussels, a painting with the name of the master, prove the authenticity of others. They have a more modern feel than all of his other Flemish landscapes. Among the best are the moonlight and pastoral landscape in Berlin, the red-roofed dune landscape in Bridgewater Gallery, and the powerful sunset landscape attributed to Rubens in London.

The genre paintings of the last two years of the life of the master of large sizes prefer light, shaded writing and a clearer subordination of local colors to a general, gray tone. Singing peasants, soldiers playing dice and the host couple in the drinking house of the Munich Pinakothek are joined by strong paintings depicting operations at the Staedel Institute and the Louvre "Smoker". Brouwer's original art is always the complete opposite of all academic conventions.

David Teniers the Younger, the favorite genre painter of the noble world, invited in 1651 by the court painter and director of the gallery of the Archduke Leopold Wilhelm from Antwerp to Brussels, where he died in old age, cannot be compared with Brouwer in the immediacy of the transfer of life, in the emotional experience of humor, but that is why it surpasses him with external refinement and urban stylization of folk life understood. He liked to depict aristocratically dressed townspeople in their relations with the village people, on occasion he painted secular scenes from the life of the aristocracy, and even transmitted religious episodes in the style of his genre paintings, inside exquisitely decorated rooms or among truthfully observed, but decorative landscapes. Temptation of St. Anthony (in Dresden, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Paris, Madrid, Brussels) belongs to his favorite topics. More than once he also painted a dungeon with the image of Peter in the background (Dresden, Berlin). Of the mythological themes in the style of his genre paintings, we will name "Neptune and Amphitrite" in Berlin, the allegorical painting " Five Senses" in Brussels, poetic works - twelve paintings from "Liberated Jerusalem" in Madrid. His paintings representing alchemists (Dresden, Berlin, Madrid) can also be classified as a high society genre. The vast majority of his paintings, of which there are 50 in Madrid, 40 in St. Petersburg, 30 in Paris, 28 in Munich, 24 in Dresden, depict the environment of villagers having fun during their leisure hours. He depicts them feasting, drinking, dancing, smoking, playing cards or dice, at a party, in a tavern or on the street. His light and free in its natural language of forms, sweeping and at the same time gentle writing experienced changes only in color. The tone of his “Temple Feast in the Half Light” of 1641 in Dresden is heavy, but deep and cold. Then he returns to the brown tone of the early years, which quickly develops into a fiery golden tone in such paintings as the dungeon of 1642 in St. Petersburg, the "Guild beer house" in 1643 in Munich and "The Prodigal Son" in 1644 in the Louvre, flares up brighter in such as the "Dance" of 1645 in Munich and the "Dice Players" of 1646 in Dresden, then, as the "Smokers" of 1650 in Munich show, gradually becomes grayer and, finally, in 1651, in "Peasant Wedding" in Munich, turns into a refined silver tone and is accompanied by the increasingly light and fluid writing that distinguishes Teniers' paintings of the fifties, such as his 1657 "Guard" at Buckingham Palace. Finally, after 1660 his brush becomes less confident, the coloring is again more brown, dry and cloudy. Munich owns a painting representing an alchemist, with features of a painting by an aged master from 1680.

Among the students of Brouwer, Joos van Kreesbeek (1606 - 1654) stands out, in whose paintings fights sometimes end tragically; Gillis van Tilborch (circa 1625 - 1678) is known from the students of Teniers the Younger, who also painted family group portraits in the style of Kokves. Along with them are members of the Rikavert family of painters, of whom especially David Rikaert III (1612 - 1661) rose to a certain breadth of independence.

Next to the national Flemish small-figure painting, there is a simultaneous, although not equivalent, Italianizing trend, the masters of which temporarily worked in Italy and depicted Italian life in all its manifestations. However, the largest of these members of the Dutch “community” in Rome, carried away by Raphael or Michelangelo, were the Dutch, to whom we will return below. Pieter Van Laer of Gaarlem (1582 - 1642) is the true founder of this trend, who influenced both the Italians of the Cherkvozzi type and the Belgians of the type of Jan Mils (1599 - 1668) equally. Less independent are Anton Goubau (1616 - 1698), who filled the Roman ruins with colorful life, and Peter Van Blemen, nicknamed Standardaard (1657 - 1720), who preferred Italian horse fairs, cavalry battles and camp scenes. Italian folk life has remained since the time of these masters an area that annually attracts crowds of northern painters.

On the contrary, landscape painting developed in the national Flemish spirit, with battle and robber themes, adjoining Sebastian Vranks, whose student Peter Snyers (1592 - 1667) moved from Antwerp to Brussels. Sniers' early paintings, such as those in Dresden, show him on a quite picturesque track. Later, as a battle painter of the House of Habsburg, he emphasized topographical and strategic fidelity more than painterly fidelity, as his large paintings in Brussels, Vienna and Madrid show. His best student was Adam Frans Van der Meulen (1631 - 1690), a battle painter of Louis XIV and a professor at the Paris Academy, who transplanted to Paris the style of Snyers, refined by him in aerial and light perspective. At the Palace of Versailles and at the Hotel des Invalides in Paris, he painted large series of wall paintings, flawless in their confident forms and the impression of a picturesque landscape. His paintings in Dresden, Vienna, Madrid and Brussels with campaigns, sieges of cities, camps, victorious entry of the great king are also notable for their bright pictorial subtlety of perception. This New Netherlandish battle painting was transferred to Italy by Cornelis de Wael (1592-1662), who settled in Genoa, and, having acquired here a more perfect brush and warm color, he soon moved on to depicting Italian folk life.

In Belgian landscape painting proper, described in more detail by the author of this book in The History of Painting (his own and Woltmann's), one can quite clearly distinguish the original, native, only slightly touched by southern influences trend from the pseudo-classical trend that adjoined Poussin in Italy. National Belgian landscape painting retained, in comparison with the Dutch, leaving aside Rubens and Brouwer, a feature of somewhat external decorativeness; with this feature, she appeared in the decoration of palaces and churches with decorative series of paintings in such abundance as nowhere else. Antwerpian Paul Bril instilled this kind of painting in Rome; later Frenchized Belgians Francois Millet and Philippe de Champagne decorated Parisian churches with landscape paintings. The author of this book wrote a separate article about church landscapes in 1890.

Of the Antwerp masters, one should first of all point to Caspar de Witte (1624 - 1681), then Peter Spirincks (1635 - 1711), who owns church landscapes erroneously attributed to Peter Risbrak (1655 - 1719) in the choir of the Augustinian church in Antwerp, and especially on Jan Frans Van Bloemen (1662 - 1748), nicknamed "Horizonte" for the clarity of the blue mountain distances of his successful, strongly reminiscent of Duguet, but harsh and cold paintings.

The national Belgian landscape painting of this period flourished predominantly in Brussels. Its ancestor was Denis Van Alsloot (circa 1570 - 1626), who, based on the transitional style, developed great strength, firmness and clarity of painting in his semi-rural, semi-urban paintings. His great-disciple Lucas Achtschellingx (1626 - 1699), influenced by Jacques d'Artois, participated in the decoration of Belgian churches with biblical landscapes with lush dark green trees and blue hilly distances, in a wide, free, somewhat sweeping manner. Jacques d'Artois (1613 - 1683), the best Brussels landscape painter, a student of the almost unknown Jan Mertens, also decorated churches and monasteries with large landscapes, the biblical scenes of which were painted by his friends, historical painters. His landscapes of the chapel of St. The author of this book saw the wives of the Brussels Cathedral in the sacristy of this church. Church landscapes were, in any case, also his large paintings of the Court Museum and the Liechtenstein Gallery in Vienna. With his small room paintings, representing the lush forest nature of the surroundings of Brussels, with its gigantic green trees, yellow sandy roads, blue hilly distances, bright rivers and ponds, you can best get to know Madrid and Brussels and also perfectly in Dresden, Munich and Darmstadt. With a luxurious closed composition, deep, saturated with bright colors, with a clear air with clouds, which are characterized by golden-yellow illuminated sides, they perfectly convey the general, but still only the general character of the area. Golden, warmer, more decorative, if you like, more Venetian in color than d'Artois, his best student Cornelis Huysmans (1648 - 1727), whose best church landscape is "Christ at Emmaus" of the Church of St. Wives in Mecheln.

In the seaside city of Antwerp, a marina also naturally developed. The desire for freedom and naturalness of the 17th century was realized here in the paintings representing the coastal and sea battles of Andries Aartvelt or Van Ertvelt (1590 - 1652), Buonaventura Peters (1614 - 1652) and Hendrik Mindergout (1632 - 1696), which, however, cannot to catch up with the best Dutch craftsmen in the same industry.

In architectural painting, which willingly depicted the inside of Gothic churches, the Flemish masters, like Peter Neefs the younger (1620 - 1675), who hardly went beyond a rough transitional style, also lacked the internal, light-filled, picturesque charm of Dutch images of churches.

The more audacity and brightness the Belgians brought to the images of animals, fruits, dead nature and flowers. However, even Jan Fit (1611 - 1661), a painter of kitchen supplies and fruits, did not go further than Snyders, who carefully executed and decoratively merged all the details. Flower painting also did not go in Antwerp, at least on its own, further than Jan Brueghel the Elder. Even Brueghel's student in this area, Daniel Seghers (1590 - 1661), surpassed him only in the breadth and luxury of the decorative layout, but not in understanding the charms of the forms and iridescent colors of individual colors. In any case, Seghers' flower wreaths on the Madonnas of great figure painters and his rare, independent images of flowers, like a silver vase in Dresden, reveal the clear cold light of incomparable execution. Antwerp in the 17th century is the main place of the Netherlandish painting of flowers and fruits, yet it owes this not so much to local masters as to the great Utrechtian Jan Davids de Gey (1606 - 1684), who moved to Antwerp and raised his son Cornelis, who was born in Leiden. de Gay (1631 - 1695), later also an Antwerp master. But it is they, the greatest of all painters of flowers and fruits, who are distinguished by their infinite love for finishing details and the power of painting, capable of internally merging these details, like masters of the Dutch, and not the Belgian type.

We have seen that there were significant connections between Flemish painting and Dutch, Italian, and French art. The Flemings were able to appreciate the direct, intimate perception of the Dutch, the pathetic elegance of the French, the decorative luxury of the forms and colors of the Italians, but, leaving aside defectors and isolated phenomena, they always remained only a quarter of themselves in their art, for the other quarter they were internally romanized and outwardly Germanic Dutch, who were able to grasp and reproduce nature and life with strong and impetuous enthusiasm, and in a decorative sense with mood.

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