The role of synonyms in the modern world. Lexical phenomena
Synonyms of the Russian language
INTRODUCTION
3
4. Classification of synonyms
Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
The role of synonyms in the language of works of art. Not all meanings of words are equally known to all speakers. Therefore, in the speech of different persons who have different mastery of the rules of synonymous approximations allowed by the literary norm, unequal speech synonymy may occur.
An example is the word “vegetate.” It has two meanings: 1) to grow, to grow and 2) to lead an empty, aimless existence. In the first meaning, the verb to vegetate is now used very rarely. The verb is usually used in colloquial language with the meaning of being very cold. In this meaning, it enters into synonymous connections not only with its prefix variant to chill, but also with the word freeze, although this last word, in turn, means not only to become very cold, but also to die from the cold.
The relevance of research determined by the general theoretical significance of synonymy relations in the system of linguistic connections. Knowledge of the synonymous riches of the native language is a necessary condition for human speech culture. If we repeat the same word all the time, for example, the word “writer,” then it will irritate the reader, like the sound of scratching on glass.
The wrong choice of word makes the speech inaccurate, and sometimes distorts the meaning of the statement, for example, “the weather accompanied a good rest” (instead of favorable); “the martens will soon have an inheritance” (meaning offspring); “On the entrance exam to the Academy, an applicant wrote in an essay: “I know that the ancestors of A.S. Pushkin are still alive” (of course, he meant the descendants of the poet).
Ridiculous statements in such cases give the phrase a comical sound. You can write and say stale bread, loaf; a callous person, but one cannot say “stale candy” (chocolate), “callous comrade.” You can’t keep repeating: he said, she said. Language also provides us with other possibilities: whispered, said, shouted, shouted, objected. Thanks to synonyms, we have the opportunity to avoid the same words and phrases in speech and at the same time preserve the desired meaning.
The relevance of the topic determined the purpose and objectives of the study.
Purpose of the study is to study the role of synonyms in the language of works of art.
Research objectives.
show that choosing the right synonym and its correct use is a necessary condition for bright, expressive and accurate speech;
reveal the essence of synonyms and the reasons for their occurrence;
determine the distinctive features of synonyms from each other;
conduct a linguistic experiment with 5th grade students on the use of words synonymous with the verb “to say”;
acquire the skills of independent work with various literature and dictionaries on a chosen topic.
1. Historical aspect of the emergence of synonyms
There are various kinds of connections between words in a language. These connections do not operate in isolation from each other, but to varying degrees of conditionality. Due to the complexity of the entire system of connections, one or another type of connection between words is usually taken for study and considered in possible isolation from other connections. The subject of consideration in this case are synonymous connections and words, the relationships between which are determined by these connections, i.e. synonyms.
In linguistic science, the study of synonyms began a very long time ago, so a large number of special works have accumulated, many of which contain interesting thoughts and subtle observations.
Even the ancient Greeks, carefully studying synonyms, came to the conclusion that they contained the richness of the language: an abundance of thoughts in words and a variety of expressions.
Roman scientists realized not only the similarity of synonymous words, but also the difference between them. So, for example, Quintilian wrote: “But since different things have different names - either more accurate, or more beautiful, or more expressive, or better sounding - then all of them should not only be known, but also ready and, so to speak, , in plain sight, so that when the speaker needs them, the best ones can be easily selected from them.”
In the 18th century French scientists successfully worked to determine the nature of the synonym. In 1718, Girard’s voluminous and very significant work entitled “The Correctness of the French Language, or Different Meanings of Words That Can Be Synonymous” was published. The Frenchman Bose collected and published French synonyms in one book; A few years later, Abbot Roubaud published the “Great Synonymic Dictionary.”
From German scientists of the 18th century. Adelung and Eberhardt were interested in synonyms, and Johnson from the English ones.
The first Russian work, to some extent touching on the problem of synonyms, was “The Slavic Russian Lexicon and Interpretation of Names,” compiled by P. Berynda and published in Kyiv in 1627.
This “Lexicon” does not have any serious scientific significance, but is of interest to the linguist as the first attempt to work on synonyms.
In the 18th–19th centuries, based on the teachings of M.V. Lomonosov about the three calms, Russian philologists made a number of attempts to theoretically and practically develop the problem of synonyms, which resulted in the appearance of a number of theoretical articles, the publication of observations, notes, lists of individual synonymous series, and the publication of dictionaries.
In 1783, “The Experience of the Russian Estates” was published by D.I. Fonvizin, containing 32 synonymous rows, which include about 110 words. This dictionary is a satirical and journalistic work and is of interest to a linguist only as the first work of this kind. But the response to criticism of “The Experience of the Russian Estates”, where D.I. Fonvizin sets out his views on the nature of a synonym. These statements have not lost their significance in our time.
A.S. Shishkov in his “Discourse on the eloquence of the Holy Scriptures and what constitutes the wealth, abundance, beauty and strength of the Russian language and by what means it can be further disseminated, enriched and improved” (1811) touches on the issues of stylistic differentiation of synonymous words, considering the differences between native Russian and Old Church Slavonic words. For example, he notes that the words below - I'll go in differ in place of use: the first - “decently important”, and the second - “medium or simple syllable”. A.S. Shishkov also noted the presence of a greater or lesser degree of this feature in synonymous words. Yes, words current And present, in his opinion, differ not only in that one is more elevated than the other: “although they both express an indefinite amount of time, however, one of them means a greater amount than the other.” Different quantitative meanings lead to the fact that “these words are combined with different words: “Which Now hour?" (and not now); "We are in current fasted for a year" (and not present)". Thus, A.S. Shishkov proposed distinguishing words by style and quantity of attribute.
N. Ibragimov, in his article “On Synonyms,” defines synonyms as “names of the same thing in its various relations, the essence of words that have a common meaning among themselves and their own meaning for each individual,” and also makes an attempt to substantiate the origin of synonyms in the language. Thus, the presence in a language of synonymous pairs horse – horse, get in - please he explains as the result of the transition of words from adverb to adverb. N. Ibragimov considers synonyms as proof of the richness of the language, as a means of avoiding repetition, achieving rhyme, improving syllables and stylistic differentiation: “We have Slavic-Russian sayings in a high syllable, Russians in an ordinary syllable, and areal ones in a low syllable, meaning the same thing, they have different dignity, for example larynx – throat, pharynx».
In 1818, an employee of the Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, Pyotr Kalaidovich, published “An Experience in a Dictionary of Russian Synonyms.” This dictionary consists of 77 dictionary entries, the words are not arranged alphabetically. The author does not adhere to a single principle in the interpretation of synonyms: a general explanation of the meanings of words included in one dictionary entry is rarely given; as a rule, only the differences between synonymous words are determined; their meaning is not confirmed by examples.
The preface to the “Experience of a Dictionary of Russian Synonyms” is of great interest to a linguist. Touching upon the issue of the origin of synonyms, the author tries to prove that synonyms are not unambiguous words: “Concepts about things are expressed in words, but if each thing can be considered from all sides, in relation to and connection with other things, then concepts about it can also be different images of expression, and these expressions have different degrees of signification, just as one color can have many different shades. From this consideration of things, synonyms arose in every language. Synonyms, containing a general signification, have a particular meaning that distinguishes them from other words of the same name. So, in no language there are synonyms that contain the same concept in a limited sense.” Quoting the statements of the French scientist Dumarcet that it is useless to have many words to express one concept, and about the need for private words for all concepts that have similarities and connections with each other, Kalajdovich also provides his own evidence, developing further the provisions of Dumarcet: “If there were synonyms unambiguous, then language, the first means of communicating one’s thoughts to another, would be difficult for memory; for the ear alone would feel the difference in the words of the same name, and the mind could not see either the power of expression, or the connection of many signs, or the various degrees of the same concept... Synonyms containing one power of sign should soon go out of use as words are useless; but we see the opposite: all synonyms are used in the language. This is proof of the difference in their meaning."
“Dictionary of Russian synonyms or estates,” published in 1840 under the editorship of A. Galich, contains a description of 226 synonymous series. Words that begin a synonymous series are arranged alphabetically. A synonymous dictionary entry begins with a list of words that the author considers synonyms, for example: ABC – primer – abevega; arrest – conclusion; actor – comedian – actor. This is followed by a definition of the meaning of the word according to the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy”, and then an explanation of the particular meaning of each word is given. In A. Galich’s dictionary, the meaning of words is not only explained, but also illustrated with examples from the works of Lomonosov, Karamzin, and from the “Journal of the Ministry of Public Education.”
The value of this work comes down mainly to the ordering and systematization of the presentation of synonyms. There is nothing new in the definition of synonyms as “words similar to each other in a certain idea, but different in their special meanings.” Not understanding the ways of language development, Galich put forward in the preface the deeply erroneous opinion that synonyms are a sign of language backwardness: “In languages that have reached the highest degree of education, there are few such extremely similar words to each other; everything is already determined there...”
The greatest interest from the works of linguists of the 19th century. presents an article by I.I. Davydov “On the Russian synonym dictionary.” I.I. Davydov divides words into two categories: those that express the physical, or visible, world, and those that express the spiritual, or internal world. I.I. Davydov believes that “the names of visible objects cannot be accepted one instead of another, because our ideas differ as sharply from each other as the very objects they express. Therefore, the words crafts, arts, natural sciences are precise and definite; in this category one should not look for a synonym.” According to I.I. Davydov, the area of synonyms - words of the inner, or spiritual world. The article defines synonyms as words “which, being similar to each other like brothers, differ from one another in some feature... Synonyms do not represent either equality or identity of words in relation to their meaning.”
Article by I.I. Davydova is interesting not only for her insight into the essence of a synonym, for her valuable observations in the field of synonymy of concrete and abstract nouns, but also for her attempt at a critical approach to the works of her contemporaries in this field.
Thus, by the second half of the 19th century. In the field of synonymy, a number of correct and interesting observations were made:
synonyms were defined as words that are close, but not identical in meaning (among the synonyms, those naming the same thing were identified);
it was found that synonyms are an indicator of the development of a language, its richness, flexibility, and serve to diversify the expression of thought;
it was also noted that synonymous words differ stylistically, in the degree of attribute, and in their ability to be combined with one or another range of words;
that the area of synonymy is words with an abstract meaning.
Synonymous dictionaries of the 18th–19th centuries, scientifically unfounded and methodologically weak, turned out to be completely unsuitable for use. This was noted by contemporaries. For example, V.G. Belinsky, I.I. Davydov pointed out numerous errors in dictionaries and the need for a critical approach to them.
In the second half of the 19th century. interest in synonymy, as in all lexical problems, declined sharply and resumed only in the 20th century.
In the first third of the 20th century. synonymous dictionaries by N. Abramov and V.D. were published. Pavlova-Shishkina and P.A. Stefanovsky. These dictionaries did not introduce anything new either into the theoretical development of the problem of synonyms or into the methodology for constructing synonymous dictionaries and turned out to be even less suitable for practical use than the dictionaries of the 19th century. These were lists of synonymous (and very often incorrectly composed) series without any interpretations or illustrations.
In Soviet times, a very large number of synonymous dictionaries and articles were published that analyzed and considered the problems of synonyms and synonymous series. Since in the 50-70s of our century interest in the problems of synonyms greatly increased (the reasons are probably clear to everyone: the struggle for the culture of speech, the desire to master the lexical riches of the language, etc.), a large number of scientific and periodicals were published literature, which was supposed to review, study and present to readers a visual representation of what synonyms are. Issues of the theory of synonyms were raised in such periodicals as the magazine “Russian Language at School”, “Issues of Linguistics”, “Reports and Communications of the USSR Academy of Sciences”, in “Scientific Notes” of universities and pedagogical institutes, in the collections “Issues of Speech Culture” and etc.
In 1953, a popular science essay by V.K. was published in Sverdlovsk. Favorin "Synonyms in the Russian language". The essay consists of sections: 1. Vocabulary and synonyms; 2. Clarifying synonyms; 3. Genre synonyms; 4. Expressive synonyms; 5. Euphemisms; 6. Additional notes on the classification of synonyms.
The classification is based on V.K. Favorin lies in the division of synonyms into single-subject and multi-subject. The author refers to single-subject words that denote the same subject of thought, for example: moon – month – satellite of the earth; to multi-subject – denoting, “strictly speaking, different, although close in meaning, concepts: sad – sad – sad».
But A.N. defines the concept of synonyms very contradictorily. Gvozdev in “Essays on the stylistics of the Russian language.” On page 55, synonyms are defined as words that are close in meaning, and already on page 57 - as words with the same subject meanings, which serve to denote the same concepts and differ only in additional shades.
Then such publications as “Some Issues in the Theory of Synonyms” by A.B. were published. Shapiro (covers a large number of problems: synonym and term, synonymy and polysemy, lexico-grammatical type of synonyms, synonymic series), “A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by V.N. Klyuevoy (1953), which is considered the prototype of subsequent dictionaries. Next comes a large number of articles on the topic of the theory of synonymy in general and synonymy in particular: an article by E.M. Galkin-Fedoruk “Synonyms in the Russian language”, of course, one cannot ignore the interesting article by A.D. Grigorieva “Notes on lexical synonymy”; the article by E.M. is also very original. Beregovskaya “On the definition and classification of synonyms”, and another interesting article by Soviet scientists “Notes on lexical synonymy” by V.A. Zvegintseva. A large number of articles, monographs, comments and synonymous dictionaries themselves have been published from the 40s - 50s to the present day. A large number of dictionaries, including synonymous ones, are now published by the Drofa publishing house. To cover the entire volume of information, which includes all articles and scientific works, we would need to stock up on rolls of paper and sit down to work for 30–40 years.
2. Essence and meaning of synonym in Russian
A brief review of the literature on lexical synonymy allows us to reduce the variety of definitions of synonyms existing in scientific works, manuals, and articles to two:
Synonyms are words that sound different, are close, but not identical in meaning. This definition of synonyms developed at the end of the 18th century. and has survived to this day. A number of scientists, for example A.M. Zemsky, S.E. Kryuchkov, M.V. Svetlaev, A.M. Finkel and N.M. Bazhenov, A.I. Efimov, A.N. Gvozdev, L.A. Bulakhovsky et al. adhere to this definition of synonyms.
Synonyms are words that denote the same phenomenon of objective reality, but differ in shades of meaning, stylistic affiliation, etc. This view is shared by scientists: R.A. Budagov, N.M. Shansky, E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk.
The question of phraseological synonymy in Russian linguistic science has been raised quite recently. Among the works on phraseological synonymy, the article by T.A. is of significant interest. Bertagaev and V.I. Zimin “On the synonymy of phraseological phrases in the modern Russian language.” Observations on the structure of synonymous phraseological units forced the authors of the article to put forward the concept of phraseological variant and, to a certain extent, contrast it with phraseological synonyms. The definition of phraseological synonyms as “phraseological phrases that, expressing the same objective meaning, differ from each other in certain expressive shades or in that they relate to different functional types of speech”, and a phraseological variant as “a phraseological expression that has undergone internal grammatical change or having a component replaced by its synonym” is not objectionable.
The classification of phrases seems correct; the different ability of phraseological synonyms to enter into combinations with one or another circle of words is correctly noted.
However, the division of phraseological synonyms into ideographic and stylistic given in the article raises objections. Thus, it is unreasonable, in our opinion, to determine the components of the series die - stretch out your legs - get out etc. as stylistic synonyms, and a number diligently - rolling up one's sleeves - by the sweat of one's brow - tirelessly– as ideographic synonyms. The first of these phraseological phrases and their equivalent word not only differ stylistically, but also differ in shades of basic meaning. For example, phraseology stretch your legs different from a neutral word die. Stretch your legs– this means ‘to die from overwork, insufficient nutrition’. This phraseological unit belongs to the colloquial style of speech and, thus, differs from the equivalent word both in style and shades of meaning. Phraseologism spirit out has the connotation of ‘death by impact, quick, instantaneous’. It is also stylistically colored. Words of another series have, in addition to differences in shades of meaning, stylistic differences. Diligently– a stylistically neutral word, phraseological unit by the sweat of his brow bookish, somewhat outdated.
T.A. Bertagaev and V.I. Zimin argue: “Among the synonyms-phraseologisms there is a large number of equivalent synonyms, identical in semantic meanings and stylistic characteristics. This significantly distinguishes phraseological synonymy from dictionary synonymy, in which, as is known, equivalent words are found very rarely (cf.: linguistics – linguistics). Why does the language, while expelling equivalent synonyms, completely “tolerate” the abundance of equivalent synonyms-phraseologisms? This is explained, firstly, by the fact that the word is much more dependent on the phrasal environment than the phraseological unit. For the meaning of a word, its connections with other words are very important. It is these connections that, as a rule, destroy the equivalence of dictionary synonymy. For the meaning of a phraseological unit, connections with other words are less important: it has very strong and durable internal connections.”
This opinion can hardly be considered justified. First of all, there are not so many equivalent phraseological units and they are no less dependent on the context than words. It is known that some phraseological units have a system of forms, revealing the ability to harmonize; In a number of phraseological units, there is also the possibility of changing the order of words and even the possibility of replacing one component with another.
V.T. Shklyarov in his article “On phraseological synonyms in the Russian language” writes that phraseological units are synonymous “if they are identical in meaning and differ only in semantic and stylistic shades.” This formulation is contradictory: since they differ semantically, it means they are not identical. As one of the indispensable factors of synonymy of phraseological units by V.T. Shklyarov distinguishes compatibility with a certain, more or less closed circle of words denoting similar or related concepts. The author illustrates this idea with examples: phraseological units with all his might, with all his might, with all his might, with all his might with the meaning “quickly” are synonymous, i.e. identical in meaning and combined with words denoting related concepts: run, rush, drive, rush(meaning “to run”). The author does not include phraseological units in this synonymous series not by days, but by hours(grow), as if by magic(appeared, appeared) in one sitting(to do), although they also mean “quickly”.
Synonyms- these are words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning.
For example: everywhere - everywhere, twelve - dozen, brave - brave, boundless - boundless, scold - scold, near - around - nearby, differently - differently, in view of - as a result, trashy - bad, because - since, here - here, hurry - hurry.
A group of synonyms consisting of two or more words is called a synonymous series.
A synonymous series can also be formed from single-root words: forget - forget, overtake - overtake, fatherland - fatherland, expel - expel, silence - silence and so on.
Synonyms- words denoting the same phenomenon of reality. However, when calling the same thing, synonyms usually call the same thing differently - either highlighting its different sides in the thing called, or characterizing this thing from different points of view. That is why synonyms, denoting the same thing, as a rule, are not words absolutely identical to each other, both in terms of semantics and in terms of their emotional and stylistic properties. They almost always differ from each other in the following features (Fig. 1.):
some shades in the lexical meaning;
its emotionally expressive coloring;
belonging to a certain style of speech;
its use;
the ability to combine with other words.
Rice. 1. Distinctive features of synonyms from each other
Usually the difference between synonyms goes along several lines at once.
So, if we compare the synonyms work – Job, then the main difference between them will lie in the semantic features of the words. Synonymized words work And Job will be only when they express the concepts of “occupation, labor” or “product of labor, product, product” (cf.: physical work, labor; printed work, labor, etc.); the word labor has the meaning of “effort aimed at achieving something” (cf.: stood up with difficulty, did not give myself the trouble to think, solved this problem without difficulty) (when combinations “got up with work”, etc. are impossible). Word Job has the meaning of “activity” (cf.: work of the heart), “service” (to go to work, go to work) (in the absence of these meanings in the noun labor), etc.
Difference between synonyms sleep - sleep - rest manifests itself, first of all, in the emotional, expressive and stylistic coloring characteristic of each word: verb sleep is an interstyle and neutral designation of the corresponding state, verb sleep– colloquial and disapproving, verb rest– outdated and ironic, etc. Synonyms A little – a little, boring – tedious differentiated by the sphere of their use: the first words of the pairs are inter-style, the second are characteristic only of colloquial speech. In synonymous pairs airplane – airplane, mac – cloak synonyms differ in their usage: airplane And mac refer to obsolete words airplane And cloak are part of the current vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Synonyms sudden – sudden, brown – dark-brown, smash – leaven etc. differ from each other in their ability to link with other words: words sudden, leaven attached in their use to words death, nose(you cannot say “sudden arrival”, “crush the enemy”, etc.), the word brown used in contrast to a synonymous adjective dark brown only to indicate the color of eyes and horses (in the latter case as obsolete) (you cannot say “brown pencil”, “brown coat”, etc.).
As we see, synonyms, naming the same thing, always differ in some way. However, these differences necessarily presuppose their nominative community, which determines the main property of synonyms - the possibility of replacing one word with another in certain contexts.
Synonyms are often defined as words of different sounds that have similar meanings. This definition inaccurately characterizes the essence of synonyms as a phenomenon of the language system. One might think that among synonyms there are only words that necessarily differ from each other by additional shades of meaning, although in fact there are also synonyms, the difference between which lies only in expressive-stylistic coloring or usage, etc. One might also think that there are no synonyms that can replace each other (after all, the meanings of synonyms are only close, and not identical), although in fact this is the most important, most characteristic property of synonyms, in contrast to those that are relatively close in meaning, but all non-synonymous words.
As already noted, synonyms among words of significant parts of speech always act as lexical units denoting the same phenomenon of objective reality. This identical nominative function is the core thanks to which words in the lexical system of a language are combined into open (unlike antonyms) synonymous series.
On the one hand, small and simple binary associations are observed (cf.: horse - horse, ripe - mature, get well - get better etc.), on the other hand, there are polynomial synonymous series (cf.: face - face - muzzle - mug - physiognomy - physiognomy - mug - mug and etc., die - die - die - die etc., shortcomings - gaps - defects - shortcomings and so on.).
As in binomial associations, so in polynomial ones, the main word is highlighted, which determines the nature of the entire synonymous series. The main one is always a word (it is sometimes called the dominant of a synonymous series), which is a stylistically neutral lexical unit, which is a simple name, without any evaluative moment in relation to what it is called.
Each word of a synonymous series must be synonymous not only with the main word, but also with all other words in this group. This means that at least one meaning must be characteristic of absolutely all members of the synonymous series. Due to the polysemy of many words in the Russian language, the same word may have several synonyms, which will not be in synonymous relationships with each other. For example, synonyms for the word heavy words will have different meanings difficult(hard, difficult work) gloomy, joyless(heavy, gloomy, joyless thoughts), severe(heavy, severe punishment) dangerous(serious, dangerous illness), incomprehensible(heavy, incomprehensible language), quarrelsome(heavy, grumpy character). These words are not in a synonymous relationship with each other.
Synonyms are not identical in their sound, structure and origin. However, synonyms can also be observed in the language system, which at present do not differ at all in their meaning and relation to the context. They are called absolute synonyms or lexical doublets. Their existence in a language is justified only by its development and is usually a temporary phenomenon. Most often, these kinds of synonyms exist either as parallel scientific terms (cf. linguistic terms: orthography - spelling, nominative - nominative, fricative - fricative etc.), or as single-root formations with synonymous affixes ( slyness - slyness, wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard etc.).
Over time, absolute synonyms, if they do not disappear but remain in existence in the language, are differentiated, diverge either in semantics, or in stylistic qualities, or in use, etc., turning either into synonyms in the full sense of the word (cf.: head - head, believe - believe), or in words that are not in synonymous relationships (cf.: lover - lover - lover). It should be borne in mind that in a number of cases very minor, subtle differences are observed in synonyms.
The bright synonymy of the modern Russian literary language is one of the evidence of its vocabulary wealth. It makes it possible to express the most subtle assessments of thought, the opportunity to diversify speech, makes the language more figurative, effective and expressive.
Synonymy- a phenomenon is always deeply national; it is created in different languages in different ways. Synonyms appeared in the Russian literary language either as a result of the formation of new words on the basis of existing building material, or as a result of the replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language due to the vocabulary of territorial and professional dialects, and partly jargons, or as a result of the assimilation of foreign words from the vocabulary of other languages.
3. Functional and stylistic role of synonyms
The role of lexical synonyms is very diverse and significant. They help clarify and supplement our ideas about objects and phenomena of reality, and characterize them more clearly and comprehensively. Therefore, the richer the synonymous series, the wider their boundaries, the richer the language, the greater opportunities it provides for its creative use. It is not for nothing that K.I. Chukovsky considered one of the manifestations of the skill of writers and speakers (in particular, translators) to be their ability to use the synonymous riches of the Russian language. Conversely, the inability to use synonyms impoverishes the language. He gives an example of how a translator, having words in the originalhorse, boat, palace, thin , translates them throughout the entire narrative only word for word, that is, repeats each of them many times, whereas in Russian these words have several synonyms or semantically similar words:horse -- horse, stallion, trotter, racer, black ; boat -- boat, shuttle, boat, scow; castle -- castle, chambers, mansions, palace; thin -- lean, thin, frail, frail, skinny.
According to M.I. Fomina, in a somewhat schematic form the following functions of lexical synonyms can be named:
1. Semantic (ideographic) ), orshade-semantic Andclarifying functions. They serve to differentiate meanings. For example, a synonymconsonant by the wayfriendly clarifies the meaning of the latter, pointing to the special coherence and rhythm of actions; wordsscream, roar have an intensifying connotation of meaning compared to a synonymous wordscream . Consequently, in the first and second cases, semantic paradigms of synonyms are formed.
2. Style distinguishing function , which consists in the fact that synonyms indicate the style and scope of their use. Such synonyms, according to the terminology of R. A. Budagov, are called stylistic. They usually stand out against the background of a dominant that is not clearly assigned to a particular style and form stylistic paradigms of synonyms.
For example, an interstyle wordcandid synonymous and interstyleobjective and the word used primarily in book stylesimpartial ; with interstyleget excited, worry colloquial style words are synonymizedto get excited, to get excited , get worked up.
3. Actually stylistic function , characterized by the fact that an emotional-expressive (connotative) meaning is added to the denotative meaning. Such synonyms (as opposed to style ones) are called stylistic.
For example, a stylistically neutral wordcure synonymous with solemnly elevatedheal ; neutralwalk synonymous stylistically neutralstroll, stroll and dismissively ironicflaunt .
The last two functions are difficult to clearly separate one from the other, since the stylistic affiliation of a word is often semantically enhanced by special emotional and expressive content. Thus, the inter-style, stylistically neutral word unforgettable is synonymous with a) neutral indelible, b) a word with a touch of solemnity unforgettable and c) bookish, outdated, often used with a touch of irony memorable and ever-memorable, i.e. “unforgettable” (ever-from obsolete everlasting - eternal, everlasting). Thus, expressive-stylistic paradigms of synonyms arise in the language.
The semantic distinctive, i.e. actually semantic, function allows you to use the technique of replacing one synonym with another in the text to eliminate repetition of words (L. A. Novikov calls it the “substitution function”): The whole hallapplauded . They clapped , raising his hands (A.N.T). In this case, neutralization is observed, synonyms become completely interchangeable.
The so-called stringing of synonyms is often used, i.e. using a chain of words with similar meanings. And in this case, there may be words nearby that are different in their stylistic affiliation and stylistic coloring. This method allows you to name the object itself (or sign, action, phenomenon); update the semantics of compared words; express a certain attitude, give an assessment and, therefore, strengthen the visual and expressive capabilities of the text: They shouted that this was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old mandeceived, cheated, cheated (Adv.);
The use of synonyms in the so-called antonymous situation is observed: The actors do nothands , Ahands , Notfingers , Afingers , to such an extent their movements are figuratively solemn... They do notwalk , Aare marching , Notsitting, Aare seated , Notlie , Areclining . When contrasted, synonyms do not mutually exclude each other, but, by clarifying, complement and give an expressive assessment.
The skillful use of synonymous means of the Russian language characterizes the creative activity of translators, journalists, and editors. Sometimes not only the choice of a synonym itself, but also its location in the text can lead to inaccuracy. For example, by connecting with a conjunction words that are similar in meaningsad -- sad in a sentenceDifferent thoughts, sometimes sad And sad, get into your head , the author of the newspaper article made an obvious mistake.
The choice of a synonym that is necessary and appropriate for each specific case is helped not only by an in-depth study of the lexical means of the Russian language, but also by constant work with dictionaries.
In everyday speech, synonyms perform two vital functions for everyone who speaks Russian.
Firstly, this substitution function some words by others. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in the act of speech: Here wild geese flew by, a line of swans white as snow flew by (Chekhov).
Secondly, this refinement function. It is caused by the desire and need to more clearly designate phenomena, objects and their signs in the process of communication between the speaker and the listener, the writer and the reader.
4. Classification of synonyms
In Russian lexicology, the view of synonyms as words denoting the same phenomenon of objective reality has recently been adopted. This definition does not conflict with the systemic nature of vocabulary. The specific nature of vocabulary as a system is manifested, first of all, in the presence of a number of very peculiar connections between words as elements of this system, namely: grammatical, etymological, thematic, stylistic, homonymous, antonymic, synonymous, associative. Connections can be distant and close, direct and indirect, and can have varying degrees of conditionality.
According to the concept they express, words are grouped with other words of the language, forming a system of themes. The division of words into topics exists within each part of speech. A topic can include an infinite number of words and be limited in quantity.
Topics are divided into subtopics, for example, the topic “household items” includes a number of subtopics: “home”, “dishes”, “furniture”, “toilet accessories”, etc.; the topic “parts of the human body” includes subtopics: “parts of the body ", "parts of the limbs", "parts of the head".
Words united by one topic have varying degrees of similarity in meaning. So, in the topic “Parts of the human body” the words palms And cheeks are brought together only by naming parts of the human body; words cheeks And lips are brought together by a more specific community: they name the parts of the face; words eyes And eyes, forehead And brow are brought together not only as names of parts of the human body, not only as names of parts of the face, but as names of the same part. The meanings of these words are extremely similar in naming one and the same phenomenon of objective reality. Within the subtopic, these words are a separate group, further thematically indivisible.
The question of the similarity of word meanings is closely related to the problem of synonymy. For a very long time, synonyms were interpreted as words that were close in meaning, and the criterion for synonymy was the possibility of replacing one word with another. The degree of similarity of the meanings of synonymous words has not been determined.
Similarity of word meanings is a very, very broad concept. Yes, words honest, courageous, courageous, quick-witted, fearless, polite, efficient, correct, truthful etc. are similar in meaning, since they express the positive qualities of a person. Within this set of words, groups are distinguished: “words that name the qualities of a person in the face of danger” (fearless, fearless, courageous, courageous, courageous); “naming the character, characteristics of a person’s mind in his relation to reality” (sharp-witted, quick-witted); words with the meaning: “expressing genuine feelings and thoughts” (truthful, honest, sincere). In none of these groups of words can any smaller groupings be distinguished; these groups represent the limit of the thematic division of words, or microthemes.
It is within the microtheme that words have the utmost closeness of meaning due to the naming of the same phenomenon of objective reality. Consequently, we can put an equal sign between the microtheme and the synonymous series.
The relationships between words in synonymous rows are heterogeneous. So, in a synonymous series rooster - hens - cocking - pig - loops word rooster contrasts with all other words in the series as a stylistically neutral word chickens contrasted as archaism, words kochet, loops, piven are contrasted with other words as territorially limited. But all these words do not differ in shades of basic, general meaning.
In a row valuable – expensive – precious all words are stylistically neutral, but differ in shades of basic meaning. Yes, in a word valuable, in addition to the main meaning common to this series of words - having a high price - there is a hint of significance, the importance of the item being defined, for example: “The winners of the competition were awarded valuable gifts” (“Soviet Moldova”, 1962, 18/IV). Such a shade in the word Expensive no, for example: “They did not consider their [sables] fur dear and they valued wolverine more” (Arsenyev). Precious has the meaning “very valuable”: “Her clothes are luxurious, her sandals are attached precious clasps burning with gold and stones” (Garshin).
In a synonymous series wet – humid – damp – wet word volgy contrasted with words wet – damp – damp as regional; words wet – damp – damp differ in shades of the main meaning: impregnated with liquid, moisture. Word wet has the greatest degree of this characteristic, the word wet– the smallest. Thus, in this series, the differences between words are both in stylistic coloring and in shades of meaning.
In a synonymous series horse - horse - nag word horse stylistically neutral, word horse is more often used in a high, solemn style, and the word nag contrasted with words horse And horse with its additional shades: nag- an emotionally charged word meaning “thin, exhausted horse.” So, in this series, there are differences between words both in stylistic coloring and in shades of meaning.
Thus, there is no complete identity between synonyms; they differ in stylistic coloring and shades of meaning. But sometimes it can be difficult to identify the shades of meaning that distinguish two synonyms. For example, words homeless And homeless, seem to be completely identical, but there are differences between them due to the fact that one of them is formed from the combination without shelter, another - from a combination without a home as a result of which the word homeless more abstract and broader in scope.
Synonymous words differ not only in stylistic coloring and shades of general, basic meaning. Each word has its own history of origin, functioning within the limits of an active or passive vocabulary, acquires a number of meanings, and enters into associative connections with other words.
Synonymous words also differ in their ability to word production, the ability to form forms of subjective assessment, and the ability to enter into word combinations with other words. For example, from the word eye a large number of words were formed: eye socket, eye meter, eye socket, fried eggs, ocular, over-eye, post-orbital, infra-orbital, stare, behind-the-eye and so on.; this word forms forms of subjective assessment: peephole, eyes, eyes etc. – and has the ability to combine with a colossal number of words.
Synonymous with it eyes has few derivative words: glasses, full-time, part-time, full-time, part-time, part-time, part-time; does not form forms of subjective assessment; it is extremely rare in the singular form. Word ability eyes combinations with other words are limited. So, the word doesn't fit eyes with adjectives: mutton, colorless, impudent etc.
Words isolated in a synonymous series according to one characteristic are connected by various types of connections (etymologically, stylistically, grammatically) with other words of the language. For example, the word raw etymologically connected with words of almost all significant parts of speech : dampness, damp, damp and etc.
Words included in the synonymous series, which represents the narrowest thematic isolation of words, as already mentioned, are always limited to belonging to one lexico-grammatical category of words, to one part of speech, therefore it is impossible to establish synonymous relations between words like brave - brave man, since these words are included in different topics and name: 1) a sign, 2) an object endowed with a given sign.
Phraseological units are similar to words in a number of ways and together with them form a synonymous system of language.
One and the same phenomenon of objective reality can be designated not only by a word belonging to one or another part of speech, but also by a phraseological phrase related to the word of this part of speech. Therefore, within one synonymous series there can be not only words, but also phraseological units. Phraseological phrases are most often contrasted with neutral words of a given synonymous series in terms of stylistic coloring and shades of meaning. Phraseological units also differ from each other in stylistic coloring and shades of meaning (cf.: loudly - with good obscenities - at the top of my voice - at the top of my voice).
Like synonymous words, synonymous phraseological units have different abilities to be combined with other words. So, for example, phraseological unit swear words combines with the words: yell, scream, and a phraseological unit at the top of my lungs combines with the words: yell, scream. roar, sing, croak etc.; phraseological unit in all of Ivanovo combines not only with the above words, but also with a number of other words, for example snore. Phraseologisms also differ from each other in their ability to formulate words; for example, from phraseology at the top of my lungs formed verb bawl. Phraseologisms in all of Ivanovo And swear words did not serve as the basis for the formation of words.
Based on the above features, synonyms should be considered words of one part of speech and equivalent phraseological units, with different sounds and naming the same phenomenon of objective reality, differing in shades of the main meaning common to each of them, or in relation to different speech styles, or both at the same time. Synonyms also differ in their ability to combine with other words, their ability to form words and form forms of subjective evaluation.
Figure 2 schematically shows the classification of synonyms.
Rice. 2. Classification of synonyms
Based on the differences in semantics and stylistic coloring, it seems legitimate to distinguish the three most common categories of synonyms:
1. Semantic synonyms: bold - brave - courageous - fearless - fearless; homeless - homeless.
2. Stylistic synonyms: eyes – eyes – peepers – zenki – eyes; city - city
3. Semantic-stylistic synonyms: eat – eat – gobble – gobble – gobble up; loudly - with good obscenities - at the top of my voice - at the top of my voice.
Semantic synonyms.
Semantic synonyms are stylistically neutral words that differ from each other in shades of the basic meaning common to each of them. For example, words brave And brave united by a common meaning - “not experiencing fear”, but “brave - not only not knowing fear, but also decisive in overcoming obstacles.” Examples: “But Shuisky should not be trusted: Evasive, but brave and crafty” (Pushkin); “That’s it, Sokolov, you are a real Russian soldier. You are a brave soldier" (Sholokhov).
The main purpose of semantic synonyms in language is to serve as a means of accurately expressing thoughts in each particular case of speech use. For example, words get bored And get bored have a general meaning - to become unpleasant from frequent repetition, but in a word get bored there is an additional connotation due to its etymological connection with the word boredom: to bore, causing boredom. Compare: “A smart person never gets bored and doesn’t become familiar” (Pavlenko); "I'm afraid get bored you with your complaints about fate” (A. Ostrovsky); “No matter how much you look at the sea, it never get bored. It is always different, new, unprecedented” (Kataev); “My garden is terrible for me. tired of it"(Turgenev).
Stylistic synonyms.
Stylistic synonyms are words that are identical in meaning and different in stylistic coloring.
We define this or that word as a stylistic synonym when compared with the corresponding stylistically neutral word, therefore, in each pair of stylistic synonyms or in a series there will certainly be a stylistically neutral word.
Stylistic synonymy is widespread among words of all parts of speech, for example: wolf - biryuk, lips - mouth, forehead - brow, rooster - cocking, crimson - crimson, naked - naked, love - amorous, real - real, sleep - rest, eat - eat, cold - cold, this - this, than - rather than, how - exactly, so that - in order, etc.
Unlike semantic synonyms, among stylistic synonyms there is a large number of nouns with a specific meaning. This is quite natural, since one and the same specific object in different eras of the life of a language in different places of its distribution could receive different names.
Stylistic synonyms are extremely heterogeneous. Among them there are two large groups:
1) outdated words (archaisms), which in the modern Russian literary language correspond to other names for the same objects and phenomena. This also includes words of poetic vocabulary, most of which are now outdated;
2) words that have a significant distribution in the modern Russian language, but function either within a certain territory (dialectisms), or in certain styles of oral and written speech (in common speech, in book style, etc.).
Semantic-stylistic synonyms
Semantic-stylistic synonyms are words and their equivalents that denote the same phenomenon of objective reality and differ not only in stylistic coloring, but also in shades of common meaning for each of them. Semantic-stylistic synonyms would be, for example, the words: horse - nag.
Wed: “Fed horses They, shaking their cut-off tails, were thrown and splashed with snow scraps” (Sholokhov); " Horse, old broken nag, covered in soap, stood rooted to the spot” (M. Gorky). The word nag means “weak” skinny, sick horse”; as an emotionally charged word nag and stylistically contrasted with the neutral word horse.
The words are also synonyms walk - trudge. They mean the same action, just a word go stylistically neutral, word trudge – colloquial and, in addition to the general meaning, contains additional shades: trudge- this means walking with difficulty, slowly, barely moving your legs.
Work And pore over– synonyms, just a word pore over how a vernacular is contrasted with a stylistically neutral word work and differs from it in shades of meaning: pore over– is to work painstakingly and diligently, overcoming difficulties, mainly performing small, labor-intensive work. For example: “And my father got busy, pored over, drove around, wrote and didn’t want to know anything” (Turgenev).
General meaning of words enemy, foe - one who is in a state of enmity with someone. In a word enemy the meaning of hostility, intransigence is expressed more strongly than in the word foe. Word foe has a stylistic connotation, it is bookish, somewhat outdated; word enemy– interstyle. Compare: “They came to the dead man from all sides enemies and others" (Pushkin); “I was forced to hide from my enemies"(Pushkin); "Friend and foe yours are chilling” (Koltsov); “He and the prince were terrible enemies tried to harm each other at every step” (Pisemsky).
General meaning of words to be afraid, to be cowardly- experience a feeling of fear, apprehension. In a word be a coward, in addition to indicating the feeling of fear and timidity, there is also a shade of contempt for the one who experiences this feeling. Afraid - the word is stylistically neutral, be a coward - colloquial. Wed: “Don’t you remember that I I'm afraid?"(Pushkin); “The people around him kept silent: they were not were cowardly, or they laughed” (Turgenev); “He didn’t seem himself. With his usual intelligence, he, of course, guessed that Pugachev was dissatisfied with him. He was a coward in front of him, and looked at me with distrust” (Pushkin).
General meaning of words walk, hobble - move in space by moving your legs, but hobble- this is walking with difficulty, waddling or falling on your leg, limping. Hobble – spoken word, go - stylistically neutral. Wed. examples: " Going The revolution is ahead, and bourgeois democracy is hobbling behind it” (V.I. Lenin); "Into the room, hobbling on crooked legs, a little old man came in” (Turgenev).
Words thick And full opposite in meaning to the word thin, But full - moderately well-fed thick– well-fed beyond measure, i.e. they differ in the degree of the trait. In addition, these words differ in stylistic coloring: the word thick in this meaning it has a colloquial connotation. See examples: “Laundress Broadsword, thick both the pockmarked girl and the crooked cowshed Akulka somehow agreed to throw themselves at mother’s feet at the same time, blaming themselves for criminal weakness” (Pushkin); “I drove a German engineer with the rank of army major in the Oppel Admiral. Oh and thick he was a fascist! Small, pot-bellied" (Sholokhov); “Imagine, dear readers, a man full, tall, about seventy years old, with a clear and intelligent gaze under an overhanging eyebrow, with an important posture, measured speech, a slow gait: here’s Ovsyanikov for you” (Turgenev).
Synonyms are different from each other. It is accepted, first of all, to divide synonyms into ideographic and stylistic. However, it is possible to differentiate by syntactic features, degree of complexity, etc.
Words that are very close, but not identical in meaning, and differ in shades of meaning, are called conceptual (or ideographic) synonyms. An example of conceptual synonyms are adverbs silently And Can not hear. Wed: Past the windows silently cars rushed past the windows Can not hear cars rushed by; or He silently He snuck up on me Can not hear crept up on me. Semantic difference between words silently And Can not hear very small: silently indicates the absence of sound, Can not hear emphasizes the perception of the hearing ear.
The conceptual synonyms are: look - look, beautiful - pretty, think - reflect, suddenly - unexpectedly.
When considering many synonyms, their stylistic difference attracts attention. Synonyms that are identical in meaning but differ in stylistic coloring are called stylistic. Rows of stylistic synonyms are usually formed if one of the synonyms belongs to the so-called neutral vocabulary, the other to colloquial or colloquial, high or official, etc. Quite long rows are possible, consisting of words of different stylistic colors. For example, in the synonymous series steal - kidnap - snatch - steal verb steal neutral in style kidnap– official, steal refers to colloquial vocabulary, steal- to vernacular (this series can be continued mainly by further adding words of lower style). Other examples of synonymous series of this type: get tired - get tired, for nothing - for nothing, strange - wonderful, look - look.
Synonyms may differ from each other in the degree of modernity: one word is modern, the other (with the same meaning) is outdated: airplane - airplane, city - hail, cold - cold, criminal - thief, because - because, Evenk - Tungus.
Synonyms may differ in their scope of use. For example, one word is national, another is dialectal, regional, one word is national, another is professional, etc. : pot - makhotka(region), very - early(region), eggplants - demyanki(region), swim - swim(region), revolver - cannon(jarg) .), jaundice – hepatitis(honey.), cook - cook(marine) page - strip(prof.).
Synonyms may differ in the degree of compatibility with different words:
Adverbs categorically And flatly identical in meaning, but categorically combined with many words (categorically declare, categorically demand, categorically refuse, etc.), flatly in modern speech - only with a verb refuse. Let us give more examples of synonyms with limited compatibility (the words with which these synonyms are combined are given in brackets ): open - open(mouth), brown - brown(eyes), black – black(horse).
Synonyms may differ from each other in syntactic features. For example: two verbs with the same meaning require different noun cases (i.e. have different controls). These are the verbs begin And start: start work (win. pad.), but start work (dat. pad.); lose And lose: to lose trust (win. fall.), but to lose trust (genus, fall.); have And have: to have self-control (vin. pad.), but to have self-control (tv. pad.), etc.
Synonyms may vary in degree of complexity. In this case, most often one word has a phraseological phrase as a synonym: to be born - to be born; little - the cat cried; keep quiet - keep your mouth shut; often that's the case; expose - bring to light, etc.
Thus, having deeply researched, analyzed and compared the classifications of synonyms of various scientists, we summarize the results in the form of a table. 1.
Table 1
Classifications of synonyms
Linguistic scientists
Functions of synonyms in text
Synonyms
Depending on the functions
By proximity of values
By structure
Margarita Ivanovna Fomina
1.Meaning-distinctive
(ideographic) or shade-semantic (techniques of clarification, substitution, stringing, opposition)
2.Style distinctive
3. Actually stylistic
1.General language:
A) synonyms -
euphemisms
B) synonyms - conversions
2. Occasional
Ivanovna Vendina
1.Semantic
2. Stylistic
3. Semantic - stylistic
(doublets)
2.Partial:
A) quasi-synonyms
1.Mono-root
2.Multi-roots
Rostislav Nikolaevich Popov
1. Substitutions
2.Clarifications
1. Semantic (ideographic, conceptual)
2. Stylistic
3. Semantic - stylistic
1.Actually
linguistic
Grigorievna
Goltsova
1. Semantic (ideographic)
2. Stylistic
3. Semantic - stylistic
4.Absolute (doublets)
1.General language
2. Contextual
Evgenievna Alexandrova
1. Substitutions
2.Clarifications
3. Expressive -
stylistic
1. Conceptual (ideographic)
2. Stylistic
Using synonyms in stylistic speech
The nature of synonyms is dual: on the one hand, these are words that mean the same thing, and on the other hand, they are words that differ in some way.
This duality of the nature of synonyms underlies their use in speech. In some cases, their semantic identity (or very close similarity) is used primarily; in others, the main attention is paid to the difference. And finally, in a number of cases both sides are taken: both semantic proximity and difference.
The presence of synonyms in speech, the very existence of synonymous series, allows the author to choose from several very similar words in meaning the most necessary, the only possible one for a given case. Great masters show an example of impeccably precise choice of words from a number of almost identical synonyms. Here are examples taken from the works of A.S. Pushkin: An old man, tall, pale and thin(“Dubrovsky”); His appearance seemed remarkable to me: he was about forty, average height, thin and broad-shouldered (“The Captain’s Daughter”). In the first case, the appropriate word is thin: we are talking about a sick old man; in the second, which talks about the physically strong Pugachev, Pushkin uses the adjective thin.
There are numerous and varied cases of using synonymous series. Let us note, first of all, a technique that can be called stringing synonyms: in one sentence there are several words nearby that mean the same thing (or almost the same thing). This is sometimes used to enhance expressiveness. Let us give a number of examples. “Have you ever written drama?” - "No". – “Try. Try it."(Fed.); “For me,” was the quiet answer, “there is one island, it shines further and further, more and more brightly. I I'm in a hurry, I'm in a hurry, I will see him at dawn” (A. Gr.); She was not only thick. She was powerful, mighty(Cat.); But there was one indispensable passenger at this station , constant, eternal guest at home, its full member is Akim Lvovich Volynsky (Fed.); I haven’t read a book for a long time where the motive of compassion and pity was so justified, high(I. Zolotussky).
The technique of stringing synonyms is also found among satirical writers: But someone somewhere doesn’t worked, didn’t get involved, didn’t coordinate, didn’t call, didn’t settle, didn’t ventilate, didn’t probe and didn’t consult (S. and Sh.). Wed. Ilf and Petrov’s parody of the speeches of bad speakers: It is necessary, comrades, raise, sharpen, stick out, wide expand and raise the questions of our book production to their fullest extent.
When stringing synonyms, the identity or very close semantic similarity of words is emphasized.
When using synonyms comparatively, the difference between words is primarily used. The types of comparative presentation of synonyms are varied.
Often a comparison of synonyms is used in dialogue, and words of one synonymous series are, as it were, distributed among the interlocutors. Let's give an example from “The Captain's Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin:
– Vasilisa Egorovna very brave“lady,” Shvabrin remarked importantly. – Ivan Kuzmich can testify to this.
– Yes, hear you,” said Ivan Kuzmich, “ a woman of some modest ten.
In Shvabrin’s somewhat bookish speech, “brave lady” sounds quite naturally; Just as characteristic of Ivan Kuzmich’s language, which is close to folk speech, is the expression “a woman of a timid ten.”
Synonyms in dialogue, therefore, are one of the means of comparative speech characteristics.
The comparative presentation of synonyms is found not only in dialogues. V. Gilyarovsky in his book “Moscow and Muscovites” talks about different clubs in old Moscow: In the Merchant Club ate a yard of sterlet at dinners. Dressed up ladies in Okhotnichy ate delicacies"
The difference between synonyms is emphasized even more when they are contrasted. For example: Here, on the shore, they take possession not thoughts namely thoughts; creepy, and at the same time I want to stand endlessly, look at the monotonous movement of the waves and listen to their menacing roar (Ch.).
The presence of synonyms in the language helps to diversify speech and avoid tedious repetitions.
K.I. Chukovsky in his book “Alive as Life” writes that the dull repetition of words like showed And revealed determines to a large extent the style of many school essays and quite “adult” works of literary criticism.
Let us give a number of examples in which there is no noticeable semantic, stylistic or other difference between synonyms that diversify speech: The darkness of the autumn night that surrounded us shuddered and, timidly moving away, opened for a moment to the left – boundless steppe, on the right – infinite sea (M.G.); And this meant that night had come and a different life began. As soon as Venus appeared and the thrush began to sing, Khmolin and Elagin immediately lit a cigarette, and Vanya could clearly see the lights of the cigarettes and the smoke sliding in blue layers towards the ravine. Yes, the night had come, although it was light and the sunset seemed to last and turn green halfway up the sky... (Kaz.); A faithful son and companion of Russia, Chekhov continues to keep pace with her today. He belongs everywhere, desired everywhere (Leon.); The road is open everywhere. There is a green light everywhere - the path is clear (I. and P.).
However, writers often, introducing synonyms to avoid monotony of speech and tedious repetitions, achieve additional expressiveness, because one of the synonyms introduces some new shade (semantic or stylistic). He (Gorky) gladly smooths out the manuscript and carefully adds it to a whole pile of other unknownmanuscripts, who will probably also go with him to Moscow (Fed.). Wordmanuscripthow archaism carries in this case a slight shade of irony.
The variety of shades characteristic of synonyms determines special attention to the choice of the desired word of a synonymous nature, especially in written communication. It is necessary to choose the most figurative, capacious and appropriate words in a given context, accurately and expressively conveying the expressed thought, to search and find “the only possible words” (L. Tolstoy) to express this content.
The ability to master the synonymous means of the Russian language is manifested both in the correct choice of the corresponding word from the synonymous series, and in the correct use of synonyms within the same context. Thus, when reworking the text of the novel “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy in the sentence: That same year, Ilya Andreevich died, and, as always happens, with his death the former family - word former replaces with adjective old. This replacement is explained by the fact that the word former insufficiently expressive and capacious in its semantic content: former- it is only what was previously, before, not modern, outdated; old but it is also ancient, existing from a long time ago, for a long time (cf.: an old friend, and not a former friend; an old dress, and not a former dress, an old truth, and not a former truth, etc.).
The use of synonyms within the same context can be of a very different nature; synonyms can be used for different stylistic purposes.
On the one hand, the use of synonyms (this is perhaps the most common case) may be due, first of all, to the desire to avoid tautology, too frequent repetition of the same words: Here flew by wild geese, flashed by a string of beautiful swans as white as snow (Chekhov.).
On the other hand, the use of synonymous words can be used to create an enumeration or gradation: “Goodbye, dear Sasha!” - she thought, and life was pictured ahead of her new, wide, spacious(Chekhov.). Sometimes the technique of “stringing” synonyms is used, for example: ... I’m crazy I love, adore music, I dedicated my whole life to it (Chekhov.).
Finally, in fiction, the use of different members of a synonymous series in the same context can be directly subordinated to certain stylistic tasks associated with a conscious verbal “game”. So, for example, from A. Blok: He approached... he shakes her hand... his gaze looks into clear eyes.
A favorite method of using synonyms in fiction and journalistic literature is their antonymization, turning them from names of the same thing into names of seemingly different phenomena. It is precisely on the opposition of synonymous face And erysipelas For example, Vyazemsky constructed the epigram “He is two-faced!”: He is two-faced! God forbid: I slandered a fool in vain. On this frank face there is not even one faces.
No less successful is the similar use of synonyms by Martynov; with their help, the poet very sparingly, but surprisingly clearly shows the emergence of love in the lyrical hero: But now I clearly see, distinguish more and more clearly, how eyes turn into eyes, how in mouth turn into lips, how in affairs turn into speeches.
We have already spoken above about the historical nature of the synonymous system of the modern Russian literary language, which is constantly being restructured in connection with corresponding changes in vocabulary in general. Words that were not previously in synonymous relationships with each other become synonymous over time, and vice versa. Therefore, synonymous series change both qualitatively and quantitatively. If we turn to the synonymous series headed by the main word eyes, then we will see that in the Old Russian language the specified word (denoting a glass ball) was not included in the corresponding synonymous series: as a designation of the organ of vision, the word eyes strengthened in the Russian language only in the 16th century. If we turn to the literary language of the first quarter of the 19th century, we will also see that the word under consideration included the word glances, now not related to him (cf.: Noticing the tremulous impulse, lowering his gaze in annoyance) in the draft even: Lowering his eyebrows at his gaze, he pouted. (Pushkin).
The existence of phraseological units equivalent to words and the ability to express concepts descriptively determine the presence of synonymous deposits not only between words, but also between words and expressions. In such cases, the phraseological phrase is included in the corresponding synonymous series as one of its members (cf.: for sure - definitely - how to drink; unexpectedly - suddenly - out of the blue; flog - tear off - register Izhitsa; obstacle - hindrance - stumbling block ; the sun is the luminary of the day) (cf.: The luminary of the day has gone out. (Pushkin), the river is the water line (cf.: Autumn rain knocks on the windowsill, Still with fragments of lead. While the sunrises and sunsets are still painted with Soldier’s blood, While it is called the water line river (Gudzenko), etc.
The existence of synonymy of a word and a phraseological turn - with a tendency towards brevity and conciseness - leads to the emergence of new words on the basis of phraseological turns: Babel pandemonium - pandemonium, wash the bones - bone, close your eyes - close your eyes, go well - get better, etc. However, the reverse process of “decomposition” of a word into a phraseological turn is also observed here (cf.: sleep - sleepy, hit - strike, fight - fight, etc.).
The rich synonymous system of the modern Russian language does not exclude at the same time the fact that a number of words do not have synonyms (primarily these are different terms).
Among the synonyms there are not only different roots (chains - shackles - chains; back - back - back; road - path - path, etc.), but also related ones, having the same non-derivative basis (thicket - thicket; past - past; fox - fox; study - study, etc.). Such synonyms can be called single-root synonyms. Single-root synonyms are words that arose on the basis of words of the same root, sometimes even on the basis of the same producing stem (cf.: tourist - tourist, sit - sit, fisherman - fisherman, liar - liar, deliberately - deliberately, etc. .P.).
5. Research in the field of practical application of synonyms in the Russian language on the basis of students of class 5 “B” of BOU Secondary School No. 34
To substantiate and confirm the theoretical provisions presented inIn this work, an experimental study was organized, during which it was supposed to prove the effectiveness of using synonyms in Russian speech.
The experiment was carried out on the basis of 5 "B" class BOU secondary school No. 34 and consisted of the following stages: ascertaining, formative and control-diagnostic.
The purpose of the experiment is to develop students’ cognitive activity in the field of using synonyms in oral and written speech.
Tasks:
1) conduct an analysis and assessment of the level of cognitive activity of students in the field of using synonyms in the Russian language;
2) to develop the ability to use synonyms in oral and written speech;
When implementing the experiment we used:
Interactive methods for students to master synonyms.
Exercises that teach you to highlight elements that are permissible only in oral speech and find replacements for them in written speech;
Tasks aimed at activating vocabulary through the use of synonyms in students’ active speech.
21 students of grade 5 "B" of secondary educational institution No. 34 took part in the experiment.
At the initial stage, through a presentation, I showed the role and meaning of synonyms in the Russian language. Together with the students, we carried out an analysis of works of art by Russian authors, which showed that choosing the right synonym and its correct use is a necessary condition for bright, expressive and precise speech, which is actively used in fiction.
The second stage of the experiment was aimed at developing skills in the active use of synonyms in schoolchildren’s oral and written speech. Students were offered exercises, riddles, and puzzles that expanded their understanding of synonyms.
On the third control and diagnostic At this stage, students were asked to select 5 or more synonyms for the word “active”. Figure 3 shows the results of the work performed.
Rice. 3. Results of the control and diagnostic stage of the experiment
As is clearly shown in Figure 3, 14% of students coped with the task without difficulty, selecting 5 or more synonyms, 33% coped with the proposed task with difficulty, selecting 1-3 synonyms, and 53% of students did not cope with the task without picking up a single one. synonym for the word "active".
The results of the analytical work done indicate that it is necessary to more often draw the attention of schoolchildren to dictionaries of the Russian language in order to expand both the general understanding of synonyms and the skills of skillful and active use of synonyms in speech. This will avoid monotonous and dull repetition of the same words and enhance the expressiveness of the statement.
CONCLUSION
The results of our research allow us to make the following conclusions:
1. Synonymy refers to rather complex linguistic phenomena (phenomena in which the essence of something is revealed) that have different interpretations. Most scientists understand synonymy as a type of semantic relationship that develops between words, in which words in synonymous relationships express the same meaning (the match can be complete or partial), but have a different subject of designation. Such linguists include M.I. Fomina, R.A. Budagov, A.A. Bragina, A.P. Evgenieva, V.I. Kodukhov, D.E. Rosenthal, N.M. Shansky, R.N. Popov, N.G. Goltsova, T.I. Vendina, Z.E. Alexandrova, L.A. Bulakhovsky, M.F. Palevskaya, D.N. Shmelev.
There are other points of view. For example, G.O. Vinokur believed that synonymy is a scientific fiction, since a synonym is a synonym only as long as it is in the dictionary, in the context of living speech it is impossible to find a single position in which the speaker did not care how to saychild orchild, horse orhorse.
A.A. Reformatsky and A.I. Efimov believes that there are no words identical in meaning in a language. According to A.D. Grigorieva, only semantic identity (and not the proximity of meanings, as some assume) allows us to consider words as synonyms. Such definitions do not exclude, but complement each other, contributing to a deeper understanding of the essence of the phenomenon of synonymy.
2. Synonyms are combined into a synonymous series, have a common semantic content, but differ in shades of meaning and stylistic affiliation. In a synonymous series there is always a reference word or dominant, that is, a word that most clearly expresses the concept characteristic of the words included in this series.
3. Synonymy is closely related to polysemy. Synonyms help show the difference in shades of meaning of a polysemantic word. Depending on the meaning, a polysemantic word can be included in different synonymous series. Let us give an example from the “Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” by Z.E. Alexandrova: cold - 1) icy, frozen, harsh, frosty; 2) cooled down, frozen; 3) dry, restrained; 4) indifferent, indifferent, wooden, lethargic, insensitive.
4. In a text, synonyms can perform 4 functions: clarification, replacement, stringing, contrast (according to M.I. Fomina). Depending on the functions, semantic, stylistic and semantic-stylistic synonyms are distinguished (T.I. Vendina, R.N. Popov), and N.G. Goltsova adds absolute synonyms to them. In terms of structure, synonyms can be single-rooted or multi-rooted (T.I. Vendina), and based on the proximity of meanings - general linguistic and contextual.
5. There are many synonyms in the Russian language, but the process of the emergence of new synonyms is not interrupted. Synonymous rows are replenished:
1) by penetrating the language and mastering foreign language vocabulary:opposition, contrast; equilibrium, balance; cramp, convulsion .
2) dialect vocabulary:talk, chatter; cold, chilly; generous, plump .
3) due to the development of polysemy of the word; compare:peripheral - provincial, deep, non-central; fresh -1) cold (about the weather), 2) today's (about the newspaper).
4) as a result of word formation processes:late, belated; multiply, multiply.
6. Skillful use of synonyms in speech helps to avoid monotonous and dull repetition of the same words and enhances the expressiveness of the statement, so you should more often refer to Russian language dictionaries.
List of used literature
1. Alexandrova Z.E. Dictionary of Russian synonyms: Ok. 9000 synonymous series./ Ed. L.A. Cheshko. - 5th ed., stereotype.-M.: Rus. lang., 1986. - 600 p.
2. Bozhenkova R.K. Russian language and culture of speech: A textbook for students of higher educational institutions / R.K. Bozhenkova, N.A. Bozhenkova. - Moscow: Verbum-M, 2004. - 560 pp.: table, diagram.
3. Bragina A.A. Neologisms in the Russian language. - M., 1973.
4. Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. - M., 1965.
5. Vendina T.I. Introduction to linguistics: Proc. allowance / T.I. Vendina. 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Higher School, 2005. - 391 p. - ill.
6. Krongauz M.A. Semantics: A textbook for students. linguistic fak. higher textbook establishments/ Maxim Anisimovich Krongauz. - 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2005. - 352 p.
7. Palevskaya M.F. Synonyms in Russian. - M., 1964.
8. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics: Textbook for universities / A.A. Reformatsky; Ed. V.A. Vinogradov - 5th ed., revised. - M.: Aspect Press, 2006. - 536 p.
9. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: Iris-Press. 2002.
10. Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Manual for teachers. Ed. 2nd, rev. and additional M., "Enlightenment", 1976.
11. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language in 2 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva, vol. 1. - L., 1971.
12. Modern Russian literary language: Textbook / P. A. Lekant, N.G. Goltsova, etc. Ed. P.A. Lekanta. - 6th ed., erased. - M.: Higher school, 2004. - 462 p.
13. Modern Russian language. M., “Enlightenment”, 1978. - 463 p.
14. Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology: Textbook / M.I. Fomina. - 4th ed., rev. - M.: Higher. school, 2003. - 415 p.
15. Shmelev D.N. Modern Russian language: Lexicon. - M., 1977.
synonym literature fiction Russian
Knowledge of the synonymous riches of the native language is a necessary condition for human speech culture. Synonyms– these are (Greek synonymos - the same name) words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both. Synonyms, as a rule, belong to the same part of speech and act as interchangeable elements of a statement. Unpleasant, disgusting, disgusting, disgusting, disgusting.
The words denoting genus-species relationships are not synonymous: flower - daisy. Words denoting related concepts: house - apartment are not synonymous either.
Synonyms may vary:
1). Wed also the words go - wander, open - open;
2) style of use: a stylistically neutral word can have bookish, high or, conversely, lowered synonyms, for example: sleep - rest - sleep, eat - taste - eat, hello - hello - great;
3) components of lexical meaning and style of use(for example, conversation and chatter: the word chatter has an evaluative component meaning “empty, frivolous”, not contained in the word conversation, while the word chatter has a reduced connotation compared to the word conversation); Wed also walk - trudge - march - trudge;
4) compatibility with different words: the compatibility may not coincide partially (open your eyes, mouth, book, etc. - open your mouth) or completely (positional synonyms - words with the same conceptual content, but with a complete mismatch of lexical compatibility): the set of animals in a language is called differently, depending on what animals we are talking about: a herd of cows; flock of sheep; a flock of birds, wolves; school of fish; a pack of dogs; herd of horses;
5) degree of modernity: neck - neck, fisherman - fisherman, helicopter - helicopter;
6) sphere of use: cook - cook (prof.), rooster - cocking (dial.), parents - ancestors, shoelaces (jarg.). Some researchers do not consider words that differ in the degree of modernity and sphere of use to be synonymous;
7) management: characteristic of someone/what – characteristic of someone/what.
Types of lexical synonyms
Taking into account the semantic and stylistic differences of synonyms, they are divided into several groups.
1.Synonyms, differing shades in meaning, are called semantic (from the gr. semantikos - denoting) (youth - youth, red - crimson - scarlet).
2. Synonyms that have the same meaning, but differ in stylistic coloring, are called stylistic. These include:
a) synonyms belonging to various functional styles of speech [cf.: live (interst.) - live (official-business), newlyweds (official) - young (colloquial)];
b) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades [cf.: (colloquial) sensible (with a positive connotation) - brainy, big-headed (with a touch of rude familiarity); said it - blurted it out - blurted it out - chipped it off - soaked it up - gave it away]. Intra-style synonymy, especially developed in colloquial speech, is much richer and brighter than inter-style synonymy.
3. Synonyms that differ both in meaning and in their stylistic coloring are called semantic-stylistic. For example: angry - angry. The verb to get angry has a neutral stylistic connotation, while to get angry has a colloquial connotation. In addition, the verb to be angry has an additional connotation in the meaning of “to be very angry.”
4. Absolute synonyms that do not differ in either shades of meaning or stylistic coloring (legislation - jurisprudence, linguistics - linguistics, throw - throw, extinguish - extinguish, during - in continuation, hippopotamus - hippopotamus).
Stylistic functions of synonyms
1. The most important stylistic function of synonyms is be a means of expressing thoughts most accurately. Surrounding phenomena and objects, their properties, qualities, actions, states are known by us with all their features; the concept is called the word most suitable for expressing the desired meaning.
This is how a series of synonyms arise that make it possible to detail the description of the phenomena of reality with extreme accuracy.
2. Synonyms can perform in speech clarification function. The use of synonyms that complement each other allows you to more fully express the idea (He ran, or rather rushed.).
3. Synonyms are also used in the function of explanation (These random, or, as they say, peculiar, velocities are measured in the disk by a few tens of kilometers per second).
4. Synonyms can be used to compare the concepts they denote; in this case, the author draws attention to the differences in their semantics (Invite a doctor, but call a paramedic. - A.P. Chekhov).
5. In special cases, synonyms perform function of opposition(She did not walk, but walked).
6. The most important stylistic function of synonyms is substitution function when it is necessary to avoid repetition of words (He made a mistake, but his mistake was not noticed).
7. Synonyms are used for euphemization- a deliberately inaccurate designation of reality (the boss is delayed (= late), he is narrow-minded (= stupid).
Synonyms are combined into synonymous rows, for example: doctor - doctor - doctor - doctor. As part of a synonymous series, a dominant stands out - a word that, in comparison with other members of the series, has the most general meaning, is stylistically neutral, and has the most free compatibility (in this synonymous series this is the word doctor). Synonymous series can vary in number of words: from two or three to a dozen or more. Words can have stable combinations synonymous with them - phraseological units: to die - to give your soul to God. Phraseologisms can enter into synonymous relationships not only with words, but also with each other: give up your soul to God - go to the next world - play in the box - throw away your skates.
In addition to linguistic synonyms, which were discussed above, contextual synonyms are also distinguished - words that enter into synonymous relationships only in a certain context (for example, say - lisp - blurt - bark - stutter).
Synonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - synonym dictionaries.
Synonymy is one of the most striking manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in the associations that arise and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous connections. This feature is not inherent in all words of the Russian language. Thus, proper names, names of countries, cities, towns and their inhabitants, many specific names of household items, and words-terms do not enter into such relationships (although there are many exceptions in this area).
Synonyms differ from each other either in the shade of meaning (close), or in the stylistic coloring (unambiguous, i.e. identical), or both characteristics at the same time. For example: ruddy - pink, rosy-cheeked, pink-faced, red-cheeked; neighborhood - circle, district (colloquial); premature - early, untimely (uplifted, bookish with the words death, demise, death, etc.). The first ones differ mainly in shades of meaning. In the next two synonymous rows, along with semantic differences, there are also stylistic and stylistic ones.
What are synonyms for?
Firstly, to enrich speech. Our native Russian language is different from all other languages. The richness of speech, if we interpret this concept in a simplified way, is expressed in the ability to say the same thing in a hundred different ways. Secondly, synonyms are simply necessary to convey in speech various shades of meaning of a particular concept. And also for a more subtle transfer of the speaker’s attitude to the subject in question.
The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, convey thoughts more accurately and clearly, allow you to express the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc. http://www.velikiy-i-moguchiy .ru/leksicheskie_sinonimy_ih_tipy_i_rol_v_yazyke.html
Does a language need synonyms? It would seem much more convenient for each thing to have one single name. Where do synonyms come from and why? The answer is by no means on the surface.
The richness of speech can be judged by how we use synonyms in our native language. Synonyms have great semantic expressiveness and serve as an important means of enriching the language.
Synonyms help avoid repetition of the same words, enliven and diversify speech, and help convey the subtlest shades of meaning. But writers do not mechanically replace a repeated word with its synonym, but take into account the semantic and expressive nuances of the words used.
Thus, the use of synonyms makes our speech more accurate, vivid and expressive. The skillful use of synonyms is one of the signs of precise and expressive speech.
The role of synonyms in speech is extremely great.
1.Synonyms diversify our speech. The more synonyms there are in a language, the richer the language; the more often we use synonyms in our speech, the brighter and more expressive it becomes.
2. Synonyms convey thoughts more accurately, clearly, and allow one to express the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.
Exercise:
Find synonymous words in Evgeniy Belikov’s article “Finally, a car has been created that cannot be driven” (see Appendix 11).
3. Synonyms help avoid repetition of the same word, e.g. Sophia spoke about the worldwide struggle of the people for the right to life, about the long-standing battles of the peasants of Germany).
4. Sometimes in fiction and journalism the technique of stringing synonyms is used, i.e. Several synonymous words are used in the text in order to most accurately, comprehensively, and in detail characterize the phenomenon being described. For example, everything around is running, striving, shuddering tensely; everything groans, howls, grinds.
5. Synonyms can be contrasted in the text. For example, not eyes, but peepers. They did not look, but looked out.
6. In poetic speech, synonyms can be used in accordance with the requirements of rhythm and rhyme. For example:
In the iron nights of Leningrad
Silence during the siege.
But the silence is broken by battle... (Quiet.)
7. Synonymy is closely related to the phenomenon of polysemy. At the same time, in fiction or journalism, special attention should be paid to this. For example, the word quiet has several meanings, and each of them can have its own synonyms. So, in the phrase quiet sleep its synonyms are – calm, serene, but these words cannot replace the word quiet combined with the word Human. Synonyms for it in the phrase quiet man is - inconspicuous, modest; in a phrase quiet voice– weak, barely audible; in a phrase quiet ride adjective quiet synonymous – slow, calm etc.
Word profit also has several synonyms, which makes up a synonymous series: benefit, gain, gain. However, this word cannot always be replaced by any of the indicated synonyms. So, in the phrase: Meanwhile, Prokhor Petrovich carried out a six-month calculation of turnover. Balance sheet showed profit(Bump.). You can't say a word profit replace, for example, with the words profit, gain or benefit, since the meaning of the entire phrase will be distorted; word profit in this context is stylistically the most appropriate and accurate.
8. Given the context, words can be interchanged with synonyms (for example, look– sight; pedestal - pedestal; calm - calm, giant– giant, colossus, giant, titan etc.). However, words grouped into a common synonymous series cannot always be interchangeable in the context of the text (see example with words profit - benefit - gain etc.).
9. Along with general literary, accepted, usual (lat. usus- custom) synonyms in the process of use in speech (especially in the language of fiction and journalism) the role of synonyms are words that in ordinary use have nothing in common in their meaning. For example, in the sentence: A rosy-cheeked girl came out and slammed the samovar on the table.(M.G.) word knocked synonymous with the word put, although in common literary language they are not synonyms. This kind of usage is called occasional (lat. occasionalis– random), due to the individual selection of words only for a given context. Such words do not have a stable consolidation of synonymous meanings in the language system. They are not reflected in dictionaries.
The richness and expressiveness of synonyms in the Russian language creates unlimited opportunities for their targeted selection and careful use in speech. Writers, working on the language of their works, attach special importance to synonyms, which make speech precise and vivid.
Of the many words with similar meanings, the author uses the only one that in this context will be the most justified. The reader often has no idea that behind this or that word there was a whole series of synonyms, competing words, from which the author had to choose one, the most apt one. This hidden use of synonyms is reflected only in the handwritten drafts of the work. The synonymous replacements in M. Yu. Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time” are interesting: I stood behind one fat (initially curvy) lady; ...Or did I simply fail to meet a woman with a persistent (stubborn) character?; His [Pechorin's] soiled (dirty) gloves seemed deliberately sewn to fit his small aristocratic hand.
The open use of synonyms is a technique in which they coexist in the text, performing different functions. Thus, synonyms can clarify this or that concept: ... She married a simple, very ordinary and unremarkable person (Ch.). Synonyms are often used to clarify words: I will use it [the word ordinary] in the sense in which it means: ordinary, trivial, habitual (T.).
The author can compare synonyms, paying attention to the differences in the shades of their meanings: I still believe in goodness, in truth; but I not only believe, I believe now, yes, I believe, I believe (T.). It is even possible to contrast synonyms that have significant differences in semantic structure or stylistic coloring: How young he was then! How often and enthusiastically he laughed - he laughed, and did not laugh! (ABOUT.).
Turning to synonyms helps writers avoid repetitions: Didn’t the district doctor have a hellish stone?.. How is this, my God! The doctor - and does not have such a necessary thing! (T.). At the same time, synonyms not only diversify speech, but also introduce subtle semantic and stylistic shades into the design of the statement: The pharmacist was a blond woman, and at one time she safely gave birth to the pharmacist’s daughter, blond and scrofulous (Hertz.).
The use of synonyms as homogeneous members (predicates, definitions) helps to enhance the expression of an action or its sign: He was a kind and sympathetic person, fearless and decisive... How he loved brave, persistent people! (Quiet.)
The stringing of synonyms often gives rise to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (or weakens) the meaning of the previous one: He has certain views, beliefs, worldview (Ch.); You and I already have a duel, a constant duel, a continuous struggle (Ostr.).
Thanks to stable systemic connections, each word that has a synonym is perceived in speech in comparison with other members of the synonymous series. At the same time, expressively colored words are, as it were, “projected” onto their stylistically neutral synonyms. Therefore, the use of the vocabulary of “ultimate meaning” makes a special impression on the reader; Wed from F. M. Dostoevsky: Raskolnikov looked in horror at the locking hook jumping in the loop; Suddenly, in a rage, she grabbed him by the hair and dragged him into the room; ..He spat and ran away in a frenzy at himself.
When we encounter colloquial, vernacular, dialectal, etc. words in the text, we also mentally place them in synonymous rows, comparing them with neutral, commonly used ones. For example, in I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” Bazarov addresses a peasant boy: If you get sick and I have to treat you... (you don’t get sick, but you get sick) In another case: And tomorrow I’m leaving for my dad (to to dad, not to father). This comparison allows us to draw a conclusion about the hero’s preference in this situation for colloquial vocabulary.
The choice of synonyms by writers is also determined by the characteristics of their individual style. In this regard, A.M. Peshkovsky noted: “...it is possible to evaluate the author’s choice of one or another synonym only when considering a given text against the background of the entire work or even all the works of a given author.”
The ability to use the synonymous riches of the native language is a sure sign of professionalism and skill of the writer.
Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language - M., 2002.
