Ritual genres of folklore. Large folklore genres, their features

Oral folk art - is a traditional verbal creativity of the people. It can be both ancient and new - created in our days. Its main feature is that this art of the word is passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth.

There are a lot of genres in verbal folk art. These are legends, epics, epics, proverbs and sayings, riddles, ditties, fairy tales, songs ... You can list them endlessly. The Creator is not an individual, but a nation. That is why not a single work has its own specific, single author.

For centuries, the creations of people have evolved into whole verbal forms, subsequently forming rhymes (“poems”). Thanks to this technique, the work was easier to transmit and remember. Thus, ritual, round dance, dance, lullaby songs appeared.

The theme of folklore creativity completely depended and continues to depend on culture, beliefs, history and the region where the people live. But the main feature of such creations was and remains the combination of a direct reflection of life with a conditional one. Simply put, in folklore there is not, and there was no mandatory reflection of life in the form of life itself, convention is always allowed in it.

Genres of folklore

In order to better understand what oral folk art is, it is necessary to get to know its genres better, and there are a great many of them in this form of verbal art.

Proverbs and sayings

Let's start with those that we know well and sometimes use in everyday life - with proverbs and sayings. These types of oral art are among the most interesting genres that have survived to this day.

No one knows for sure when these genres of oral art appeared. The undoubted fact remains how accurately and concisely, figurative, logically complete saying, expresses the people's mind and experience accumulated over many centuries.

Meanwhile, many of us have long been accustomed to thinking that proverbs and sayings are one and the same. Actually it is not. A proverb is a complete sentence containing folk wisdom. It is written in simple, often rhyming language.

An example of Russian proverbs:

"God saves man, who save himself"

"Small spool but precious"

"A penny saves a ruble"

Then, as a saying is an established phrase or phrase. It is meant for decoration.

An example of Russian sayings:

"Stay with the nose" (to be deceived)

"Disservice" (help turning to harm)

"When cancer on the mountain whistles" (never)

Signs

Signs are another folklore genre that has undergone quite a few changes, but still has not lost its wisdom and has reached modern man.

It appeared in ancient times, when our ancestors were very close to nature, when people watched it, the phenomena taking place around, and found connections between events. Over time, the people put their observations into words. So signs appeared that through the centuries carry the knowledge of ancestors collected in themselves.

Some examples of weather signs:

Larks fly - to heat, chaffinch - to cold.

A lot of juice flows from a birch - by a rainy summer.

Sparrows bathe in the sand - to rain.

Also, many old signs related to home and life have come down to our days. The most common is: "Spill salt - shed tears." It is believed that this sign appeared in the middle of the 17th century, during the times of riots and uprisings in Rus'. Back then, salt was literally worth its weight in gold. From here such a meaning appeared - spilling such an expensive "seasoning" as salt will inevitably lead to a quarrel in the house.

A few more examples of household signs that are undoubtedly familiar to us:

“You whistle at home - you will overlook the money”

"Clothes inside out - to a hassle"

“You sew on yourself - you sew up a memory”

belief

It reflects the desire of a person to explain and streamline the world around him, to comprehend his place in nature, surrounded by a variety of animals and plants.

Fairy tales

Since ancient times, individual elements of children's folklore have also been preserved -. Later, this genre of oral art changed greatly. This happened under the influence of aesthetic and pedagogical functions, but still it continues to exist.

However, some genres of verbal art eventually "die off", and humanity gradually forgets about them. This process is a natural phenomenon, it does not indicate the decline of folk art. On the contrary, the process of “withering away” is a sign that, due to changes in the conditions of human existence, the artistic collective creativity of the people is developing, as a result of which new genres appear and old ones disappear.

epics

Such genres include (or, as they were also called, antiquities, Russian heroic-patriotic songs-tales, the main plot of which was important historical events or the heroic deeds of heroes and warrior maidens). This genre arose in Ancient Rus', existed until the Middle Ages and gradually began to be forgotten by the 19th century.

In addition, ritual folklore can also be attributed to almost forgotten genres. Let's take a closer look at its components.

Calendar folklore and annual song cycle

These small genres appeared in connection with the need to follow the agricultural cycle, as well as the changes taking place in nature and religious holidays.

Many proverbs, signs, advice and prohibitions have developed in calendar folklore. Here are some of which have survived to this day:

"It will melt early - it will not melt for a long time"

"March sows snow and warms the sun"

Not a few songs were composed by the people for the annual song cycle. So it was customary to bake pancakes, perform the rites of seeing off winter and sing ritual songs. This and some of the old traditions have survived to this day.

family folklore

It included such small genres as: family stories, lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, wedding songs, funeral lamentations.

The name "Family Stories" speaks for itself, and this genre of verbal art has existed since time immemorial - perhaps as long as a person lives in this world. It is noteworthy that it is formed quite apart, as a rule, within the framework of the family and close circle.

In addition, this genre has its own peculiarity, it can form "certain expressions" that are understandable only to family members or people present at the time of the event that led to the appearance of this phrase. So, for example, in the Tolstoy family there was such an expression as "the architect is to blame."

The birth of this expression was preceded by an event: when Ilya Tolstoy was five years old, on New Year's Eve he was presented with the promised cup. The happy child ran to show everyone his gift. Running across the threshold, he stumbled and fell. The cup broke. Little Ilya, justifying himself, said that he was not to blame, but the architect who made this threshold was to blame. Since then, in the family of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy, an expression equivalent to the winged one appeared - "the switchman is to blame."

Lullabies

Lullabies were another no less interesting genre in family folklore. In the old days, the ability to sing was considered a special art. During the game, mothers taught their daughters how to “cradle” correctly. This ability was necessary so that older girls at the age of six or seven could look after the younger ones. That is why special attention was paid to this skill.

The purpose of lullabies was not only to soothe, but also to protect the child. Many of the songs were "conspiracies". They were designed to protect a small child from the dangers that could lie in wait for him in the future. Often the lullabies were addressed to the spirits and mythological creatures, the bearers of sleep - the Dream, the Dream. They were called to lull the baby. At present, this genre of folk art is almost forgotten.

Pestushki and nursery rhymes

And nursery rhymes - were short tunes. They helped the child in the development and in the knowledge of the world around. Perhaps someone remembers from childhood - "Magpie-Crow ...". Such small songs-sentences encouraged the baby to act, instilled hygiene skills, developed fine motor skills, reflexes, helped to explore the world.

Tongue Twisters

Based on the difficulty of pronunciation, especially when pronouncing them quickly. Examples of tongue twisters:

• The cap is sewn, the cap is lucky, but not according to Kolpakovsky.
• The pig was dumb, dug the whole yard, dug half a snout.
• The tour is stupid, stupid.
• The bull has a blunt lip.
• Serum from yogurt.

G.S. Vinogradov cites jokes and questions in his materials, which are based on a pun. “Can you toss a pickle over the raft?” Of course I will. - "But you can't throw it." The matter is being clarified, - the question means: “Can you throw a cucumber with Alena over the plot?”

In the same vein, puzzling remarks. Approaching a girl or boy and pointing to the seams, they say: “You have lice,” instead of “sewn in.” Or "how many lice" instead of "how many buckets."

wedding songs

Wedding songs were strikingly different from all other small genres of family folklore. It was noteworthy that these songs did not sound outside the wedding ceremony. In addition, from a functional point of view, they were extremely important, as they played a kind of "legal role" in this event. Along with wedding songs, lamentations played an important role in the ceremony. They were an integral part of the holiday, they were lyrical stories that described the experiences of the bride, parents and friends.

Magnifications also played a significant role. With them, in the songs, the guests praised the bride and groom, wished the young well-being and happiness. In addition, not a single wedding could do without reproachful songs. This small component of the wedding ceremony was a comic song. As a rule, they were addressed to matchmakers, because of which the bride "left" her family, girlfriends and lost her maiden will.

Funeral lamentations or lamentations are another ancient folklore genre, about the time, the appearance of which, no one knows for sure. It has survived only in “scraps” to this day, but from the name you can easily understand what it is about and what this genre served for.

The main feature of this oral art was that it had its own “formula”, or rather a strict sequence, which each mourner “decorated” with his own creative element - a story about the life, love or death of the deceased. Now, for example, part of the ceremony, as well as cries can be seen and heard in the film "Viy" (1967).

Occasional folklore

Folklore inconsistent with common usage. It had an individual character, due to a specific situation, an occasion. It included such small genres as: incantations, counting rhymes, conspiracies.

invocations

Russian folklore is incredibly rich. They were small songs, often not devoid of humor and accompanied by playful actions. The plots of this small genre were very different: they could be incantations about the weather and weather phenomena, about nature and the seasons, about animals and fabulous creatures ...

Rain, lei! Rain, lei!

For me and people!

Spoonful for me.

On the people on the bowl.

And on the goblin in the forest -

Lei for a whole bucket!

Rhymes

- another small genre of verbal folk art. It originated a very long time ago, but now it has almost disappeared from modern folklore. Meanwhile, no matter how surprising it may sound, in ancient times, counting rhymes were widely used by adults. Their main function was the distribution of work.

Yes Yes. After all, then many types of work were not only very difficult, but sometimes life-threatening. Therefore, few people of their own free will wanted to take on such a case. And the counting rhymes made it possible to distribute the work between the participants so that no one was “offended”. Nowadays, this "important role" of counting rhymes has been lost, but they still exist and still fulfill their function in children's games.

CONSPIRACY

And finally, the most amazing, but by no means the last, rather complex in its structure, ancient genre of oral folk art, which, oddly enough, continues to live in our time - a conspiracy. The function, since the emergence of this genre, has not changed. He still continues to play the role of a "magic tool" designed to fulfill the desire of the speaker. As mentioned above, this genre is quite original in its execution and often complex in its design - this is its peculiarity.

You can talk about the genres of oral folk art for an infinitely long time, because all directions are interesting and unique in their own way. This article is intended only to acquaint the reader with the immense, multifaceted wealth of human culture and wisdom, clearly reflecting the experience of previous generations.

Folklore. Genres of folklore

Folklore(from English folk- people, lore- wisdom) - oral folk art. Folklore arose before the advent of writing. Its most important feature is that folklore is the art of the spoken word. This is what distinguishes it from literature and other forms of art. Another important distinguishing feature of folklore is the collectivity of creativity. It arose as a mass creativity and expressed the ideas of the primitive community and clan, and not of an individual.

In folklore, as in literature, there are three types of works: epic, lyrical and dramatic. At the same time, epic genres have a poetic and prose form (in literature, the epic genre is represented only by prose works: a story, a story, a novel, etc.). Literary genres and folklore genres differ in composition. In Russian folklore, epic genres include epics, historical songs, fairy tales, legends, legends, tales, proverbs, sayings. Lyrical folklore genres are ritual, lullaby, family and love songs, lamentations, ditties. Dramatic genres include folk dramas. Many folklore genres have entered literature: song, fairy tale, legend (for example, Pushkin's fairy tales, Koltsov's songs, Gorky's legends).

Folklore genres each have their own content: epics depict the feats of arms of heroes, historical songs - events and heroes of the past, family songs describe the everyday side of life. Each genre has its own heroes: heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich act in epics, Ivan Tsarevich, Ivan the Fool, Vasilisa the Beautiful, Baba Yaga act in fairy tales, wife, husband, mother-in-law in family songs.

Folklore differs from literature in a special system of expressive means. For example, the composition (construction) of folklore works is characterized by the presence of such elements as the sing-along, the beginning, the saying, the slowing down of the action (retardation), the trinity of events; for style - constant epithets, tautologies (repetitions), parallelisms, hyperbole (exaggerations), etc.

The folklore of different peoples has much in common in terms of genres, artistic means, plots, types of heroes, etc. This is explained by the fact that folklore, as a form of folk art, reflects the general laws of the social development of peoples. Common features in the folklore of different peoples may arise due to the proximity of culture and life or long-term economic, political and cultural ties. A large role is also played by the similarity of historical development, geographical proximity, movement of peoples, etc.

Folklore as a special kind of art is a qualitatively unique component of fiction. It integrates the culture of the society of a certain ethnicity at a special stage in the historical development of society.

Folklore is ambiguous: it manifests both boundless folk wisdom, and folk conservatism, inertia. In any case, folklore embodies the highest spiritual forces of the people, reflects the elements of the national artistic consciousness.

The term "folklore" itself (from the English word folklore - folk wisdom) is a common name for folk art in international scientific terminology. The term was first introduced in 1846 by the English archaeologist W. J. Thomson. As an official scientific concept, it was first adopted by the English Folklore Society, founded in 1878. In 1800-1990, the term entered into scientific use in many countries of the world.

Folklore (English folklore - "folk wisdom") - folk art, most often it is oral; artistic collective creative activity of the people, reflecting their life, views, ideals; poetry created by the people and existing among the masses of the people (tradition, songs, ditties, anecdotes, fairy tales, epic), folk music (songs, instrumental tunes and plays), theater (dramas, satirical plays, puppet theater), dance, architecture, visual and arts and crafts.

Folklore is creativity that does not require any material and where the person himself is the means of embodying the artistic concept. Folklore has a clearly expressed didactic orientation. Much of it was created specifically for children and was dictated by the great people's concern for young people - their future. "Folklore" serves the child from his very birth.

Folk poetry reveals the most significant connections and patterns of life, leaving aside the individual, the special. Folklore gives them the most important and simple concepts about life and people. It reflects the general interest and the vital, what affects everyone and everyone: the work of a person, his relationship with nature, life in a team.

The value of folklore as an important part in education and development in the modern world is well known and generally recognized. Folklore always responds sensitively to people's requests, being a reflection of the collective mind, accumulated life experience.

The main features and properties of folklore:

1. Bifunctionality. Each folklore work is an organic part of human life and is conditioned by practical purpose. It is focused on a certain moment of people's life. For example, a lullaby - it is sung to soothe, lull a child to sleep. When the child falls asleep, the song stops - it is no longer needed. This is how the aesthetic, spiritual and practical function of the lullaby is manifested. Everything is interconnected in the work, beauty cannot be separated from benefit, benefit from beauty.

2.Polyelement. Folklore is polyelemental, since its internal diversity and numerous interconnections of an artistic, cultural-historical and socio-cultural nature are obvious.

Not every folklore work includes all artistic and figurative elements. There are also genres in which their minimum number. The performance of a folklore work is the integrity of a creative act. Among the many artistic and figurative elements of folklore, they are distinguished as the main verbal, musical, dance and mimic. Polyelementity is manifested during the event, for example, “Burn, burn clearly so that it does not go out!” or when studying a round dance - the game "Boyars", where row-by-row movements occur. In this game, all the main artistic and figurative elements interact. Verbal and musical are manifested in the musical and poetic genre of the song, performed simultaneously with the choreographic movement (dance element). This manifests the polyelement nature of folklore, its original synthesis, called syncretism. Syncretism characterizes the interconnection, integrity of the internal components and properties of folklore.

3. Collectivity. Absence of the author. Collectivity is manifested both in the process of creating a work and in the nature of the content, which always objectively reflects the psychology of many people. Asking who wrote a folk song is like asking who wrote the language we speak. Collectivity is due to the performance of folklore works. Lead some components of their forms, for example, the chorus, require the mandatory inclusion in the performance of all participants in the action.

4. Lack of writing. Orality in the transmission of folklore material is manifested in the absence of writing in the forms of transmission of folklore information. Artistic images and skills are transmitted from the performer, the artist to the listener and viewer, from the master to the student. Folklore is oral art. It lives only in the memory of people and is transmitted in a live performance "by word of mouth". Artistic images and skills are transmitted from the performer, the artist to the listener and viewer, from the master to the student.

5. Tradition. The variety of creative manifestations in folklore only outwardly seems spontaneous. Over a long period of time, objective ideals of creativity have evolved. These ideals became those practical and aesthetic standards, deviations from which would be inappropriate.

6.Variability. Variation of the network is one of the incentives for constant movement, "breathing" of a folklore work, and each folklore work is always, as it were, a variant of itself. The folklore text turns out to be unfinished, open to each subsequent performer. For example, in the round dance game "Boyars", children move "row by row", and the step may be different. In some places it is a regular step with an accent on the last syllable of the line, in others it is a step with a footstep on the last two syllables, in the third place it is a variable step. It is important to convey to the mind the idea that in a folklore work, creation-performance and performance-creation coexist. Variability can be considered as the variability of works of art, their uniqueness when performed or in another form of reproduction. Each author or performer supplemented traditional images or works with his own reading or vision.

7. Improvisation is a feature of folk art. Each new performance of the work is enriched with new elements (textual, methodical, rhythmic, dynamic, harmonic). brought by the performer. Any performer constantly introduces his own material into a well-known work, which contributes to the constant development, change of the work, during which the reference artistic image crystallizes. Thus, the folklore performance becomes the result of many years of collective creativity.

In modern literature, the broad interpretation of folklore as a combination of folk traditions, customs, views, beliefs, and arts is common.

In particular, the famous folklorist V.E. Gusev in the book "Aesthetics of Folklore" considers this concept as an artistic reflection of reality, carried out in verbal - musical, choreographic and dramatic forms of collective folk art, expressing the worldview of the working masses and inextricably linked with life and everyday life. Folklore is a complex, synthetic art. Often in his works elements of various types of arts are combined - verbal, musical, theatrical. It is studied by various sciences - history, psychology, sociology, ethnography. It is closely connected with folk life and rituals. It is no coincidence that the first Russian scholars took a broad approach to folklore, recording not only works of verbal art, but also recording various ethnographic details and the realities of peasant life.

The main aspects of the content of folk culture include: the worldview of the people, folk experience, housing, costume, work, leisure, crafts, family relations, folk holidays and rituals, knowledge and skills, artistic creativity. It should be noted that, like any other social phenomenon, folk culture has specific features, among which it is worth highlighting: an inextricable connection with nature, with the environment; openness, educational nature of the folk culture of Russia, the ability to contact with the culture of other peoples, dialogue, originality, integrity, situationality, the presence of a purposeful emotional charge, the preservation of elements of pagan and Orthodox culture.

Traditions and folklore are wealth developed by generations and conveying historical experience and cultural heritage in an emotionally figurative form. In the cultural and creative conscious activity of the broad masses, folk traditions, folklore and artistic modernity merge in a single channel.

The main functions of folklore include religious - mythological, ritual, ritual, artistic - aesthetic, pedagogical, communicative - informational, social - psychological.

Folklore is very diverse. There is traditional, modern, peasant and urban folklore.

Traditional folklore is those forms and mechanisms of artistic culture that are preserved, fixed and transmitted from generation to generation. They capture universal aesthetic values ​​that retain their significance outside of concrete - historical social changes.

Traditional folklore is divided into two groups - ritual and non-ritual.

Ritual folklore includes:

calendar folklore (carols, carnival songs, stoneflies);

family folklore (wedding, maternity, funeral rites, lullabies, etc.),

occasional folklore (charms, incantations, incantations).

Non-ritual folklore is divided into four groups:

Folklore of speech situations (proverbs, sayings, riddles, teasers, nicknames, curses);

Poetry (chastushkas, songs);

· folklore drama (Petrushka theatre, crib drama);

prose.

Folklore poetry includes: epic, historical song, spiritual verse, lyrical song, ballad, cruel romance, ditty, children's poetic songs (poetry parodies), sadistic rhymes. Folklore prose is again divided into two groups: fabulous and non-fabulous. Fairy tale prose includes: a fairy tale (which, in turn, is of four types: a fairy tale, a fairy tale about animals, a household fairy tale, a cumulative fairy tale) and an anecdote. Non-fairytale prose includes: tradition, legend, bylichka, mythological story, dream story. The folklore of speech situations includes: proverbs, sayings, good wishes, curses, nicknames, teasers, dialogue graffiti, riddles, tongue twisters and some others. There are also written forms of folklore, such as chain letters, graffiti, albums (for example, song books).

Ritual folklore is folklore genres performed within the framework of various rituals. The most successful, in my opinion, was the definition of the rite by D.M. Ugrinovich: “A rite is a certain way of transferring certain ideas, norms of behavior, values ​​and feelings to new generations. The rite is distinguished from other ways of such transmission by its symbolic nature. This is its specificity. Ritual actions always act as symbols that embody certain social ideas, ideas, images and evoke corresponding feelings. The works of calendar folklore are timed to coincide with the folk annual holidays, which had an agricultural character.

Calendar rituals were accompanied by special songs: carols, Shrovetide songs, stoneflies, Semitsky songs, etc.

Vesnyanki (spring calls) are ritual songs of an incantatory nature that accompany the Slavic rite of calling spring.

Carols are New Year's songs. They were performed during Christmas time (from December 24 to January 6), when caroling was going on. Caroling - walking around the yards with carol songs. For these songs, carolers were rewarded with gifts - a festive treat. The main meaning of the carol is magnificence. Carolers give an ideal description of the house of the magnified. It turns out that before us is not an ordinary peasant hut, but a tower, around which “there is an iron tyn”, “on each stamen there is a dome”, and on each dome “a golden crown”. Match this tower and the people living in it. Pictures of wealth are not reality, but the desired: carols perform to some extent the functions of a magic spell.

Maslenitsa is a folk holiday cycle that has been preserved among the Slavs since pagan times. The rite is associated with the farewell to winter and the meeting of spring, which lasts a whole week. The celebration was carried out according to a strict schedule, which was reflected in the names of the days of the Pancake week: Monday - "meeting", Tuesday - "flirty", Wednesday - "gourmet", Thursday - "revelry", Friday - "mother-in-law evening", Saturday - "sister-in-law gatherings ”, Sunday - “seeing off”, the end of the Maslenitsa fun.

Few Shrovetide songs have come down. By subject and purpose, they are divided into two groups: one is associated with the rite of meeting, the other - with the rite of farewell ("funeral") Maslenitsa. The songs of the first group are distinguished by a major, cheerful character. This is, first of all, a majestic song in honor of Maslenitsa. The songs accompanying the farewell to Maslenitsa have a minor key. The "funeral" of Maslenitsa meant seeing off winter and a spell, a greeting for the coming spring.

Family rituals are predetermined by the cycle of human life. They are divided into maternity, wedding, recruiting and funeral.

Birthing rites sought to protect the newborn from hostile mystical forces, and also assumed the well-being of the infant in life. A ritual washing of the newborn was performed, health was spoken of by various sentences.

Wedding ceremony. It is a kind of folk performance, where all the roles are painted and there are even directors - a matchmaker or a matchmaker. The special scale and significance of this rite should show the significance of the event, play the meaning of the ongoing change in a person's life.

The rite educates the behavior of the bride in the future married life and educates all the participants of the rite present. It shows the patriarchal nature of family life, its way of life.

Funeral rites. During the funeral, various rituals were performed, which were accompanied by special funeral lamentations. Funeral lamentations truthfully reflected life, everyday consciousness of the peasant, love for the deceased and fear of the future, the tragic situation of the family in harsh conditions.

Occasional folklore (from lat. occasionalis - random) - does not correspond to generally accepted use, is of an individual character.

A variety of occasional folklore are conspiracies.

SPELLS - a folk-poetic incantatory verbal formula to which magical power is attributed.

CHALLENGES - an appeal to the sun and other natural phenomena, as well as to animals and especially often to birds, which were considered messengers of spring. Moreover, the forces of nature were revered as living: they turn to spring with requests, wish it to come soon, complain about the winter, complain.

COUNTERS - a type of children's creativity, small poetic texts with a clear rhyme-rhythmic structure in a playful form.

Genres of non-ritual folklore evolved under the influence of syncretism.

It includes the folklore of speech situations: proverbs, fables, omens and sayings. They contain a person's judgments about the way of life, about work, about higher natural forces, statements about human affairs. This is a vast area of ​​moral assessments and judgments, how to live, how to raise children, how to honor ancestors, thoughts about the need to follow precepts and examples, these are everyday rules of behavior. In a word, their functionality covers almost all ideological areas.

MYSTERY - works with a hidden meaning. They have a rich fiction, wit, poetry, figurative structure of colloquial speech. The people themselves aptly defined the riddle: "Without a face in a disguise." The subject that is conceived, the “face”, is hidden under the “mask” - allegory or allusion, roundabout speech, bluff. No matter how many riddles are invented to test attention, ingenuity, quick wits. Some consist of a simple question, others look like puzzles. It is easy to solve riddles for those who have a good idea of ​​the objects and phenomena in question, and also know how to unravel the hidden meaning in words. If a child looks at the world around him with attentive, keen eyes, noticing its beauty and richness, then every tricky question and every allegory in a riddle will be solved.

PROVERB - as a genre, unlike a riddle, it is not an allegory. In it, a certain action or deed is given an expanded meaning. In their form, folk riddles adjoin proverbs: the same measured, folded speech, the same frequent use of rhyme and consonance of words. But the proverb and the riddle differ in that the riddle must be guessed, and the proverb is a lesson.

Unlike a proverb, a SAYING is not a complete judgment. This is a figurative expression used in an extended sense.

Sayings, like proverbs, remain living folklore genres: they are constantly found in our everyday speech. The prepositions contain a capacious playful definition of the inhabitants of a locality, city, living in the neighborhood or somewhere far away.

Folklore poetry is epic, historical song, spiritual verse, lyrical song, ballad, cruel romance, ditty, children's poetic songs.

BYLINA is a folklore epic song, a genre characteristic of the Russian tradition. Such epics as "Sadko", "Ilya Muromets and the Nightingale the Robber", "Volga and Mikula Selyaninovich" and others are known. The term "epic" was introduced into scientific use in the 40s of the 19th century. folklorist I.P. Sakharov. The basis of the epic plot is some heroic event, or a remarkable episode of Russian history (hence the popular name of the epic - "old", "old", implying that the action in question took place in the past).

FOLK SONGS are very diverse in their composition. In addition to songs that are part of the calendar, wedding and funeral rites. These are round dances. Game and dance songs. A large group of songs are lyrical non-ritual songs (love, family, Cossack, soldier, coachman, robber and others).

A special genre of songwriting is historical songs. Such songs tell about the famous events of Russian history. The heroes of historical songs are real personalities.

Round dance songs, like ritual ones, had a magical meaning. Round dance and game songs depicted scenes from the wedding ceremony and family life.

LYRICAL SONGS are folk songs that express the personal feelings and moods of the singers. Lyrical songs are original both in content and in artistic form. Their originality is determined by genre nature and specific conditions of origin and development. Here we are dealing with a lyrical kind of poetry, different from epic in terms of the principles of reflecting reality. ON THE. Dobrolyubov wrote that in folk lyrical songs "an inner feeling is expressed, excited by the phenomena of ordinary life", and N.A. Radishchev saw in them a reflection of the people's soul, spiritual grief.

Lyrical songs are a vivid example of the artistic creativity of the people. They introduced a special artistic language and samples of high poetry into the national culture, reflected the spiritual beauty, ideals and aspirations of the people, the moral foundations of peasant life.

Chastushki is one of the youngest folklore genres. These are small rhyming poems. The first ditties were excerpts from songs of a large size. Chastushka is a comic genre. It contains a sharp thought, apt observation. Topics are varied. Chastushki often ridiculed what seemed wild, ridiculous, nasty.

CHILDREN'S FOLKLORE is commonly referred to as works that are performed by adults for children, as well as those composed by the children themselves. Lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, tongue twisters and incantations, teasers, rhymes, absurdities, etc. belong to children's folklore. Modern children's folklore has been enriched with new genres. These are horror stories, mischievous rhymes and songs (funny alterations of famous songs and poems), anecdotes.

There are various connections between folklore and literature. First of all, literature is derived from folklore. The main genres of drama that developed in ancient Greece - tragedies and comedies - date back to religious rites. Medieval romances of chivalry, about journeys through fictional lands, about fights with monsters, and about the love of brave warriors, are based on the motifs of fairy tales. Literary lyric works originate from folk lyric songs. The genre of a small action-packed narrative - a short story - goes back to folk everyday tales.

Very often, writers deliberately turned to folklore traditions. Interest in oral folk art, fascination with folklore awakened in the pre-romantic and romantic eras.

The tales of A.S. Pushkin go back to the plots of Russian fairy tales. Imitation of Russian folk historical songs - "Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich ..." by M.Yu. Lermontov. N.A. Nekrasov recreated the style features of folk songs in his poems about the hard peasant lot.

Folklore not only influences literature, but is itself affected in the opposite way. Many author's poems have become folk songs. The most famous example is the poem by I.Z. Surikov “Steppe and steppe all around ..”

folklore drama. It includes: Petrushka theatre, religious drama, crib drama.

Nativity scene drama got its name from a nativity scene - a portable puppet theater that has the shape of a two-story wooden box, resembling a stage platform for the performance of medieval mysteries in architecture. In turn, the name, which came from the plot of the main play, in which the action developed in a cave - a nativity scene. The theater of this type was widespread in Western Europe, and it came to Russia with itinerant puppeteers from Ukraine and Belarus. The repertoire consisted of plays of religious themes and satirical skits - interludes, which had an improvisational character. The most popular play is King Herod.

PETRUSHKA THEATER – glove puppet theatre. The main character of the play is a resilient Petrushka with a big nose, protruding chin, with a cap on his head, with the participation of which a number of scenes are played out with various characters. The number of characters reached fifty, these are such characters as a soldier, a gentleman, a gypsy, a bride, a doctor and others. Such performances used the techniques of folk comic speech, lively dialogues with a play on words and contrasts, with elements of self-praise, with the use of action and gestures.

The Petrushki Theater was created not only under the influence of Russian, Slavic, Western European puppet traditions. It was a kind of folk theatrical culture, part of the extremely developed in Russia (spectacular folklore). Therefore, a lot of things unite it with folk drama, with performances of farce grandfathers-barkers, with sentences of friends at a wedding, with amusing popular prints, with jokes of raeshniks, etc.

The special atmosphere of the city's festive square explains, for example, Petrushka's familiarity, his unbridled gaiety and promiscuity as an object of ridicule and shame. After all, Petrushka beats not only class enemies, but everyone in a row - from his own bride to the quarter, often beats for no reason at all (Arapa, a beggar old woman, a German clown, etc.), in the end he hits him too: the dog is merciless pats him on the nose. The puppeteer, as well as other participants in the fair, square fun, is attracted by the very opportunity to ridicule, parody, bludgeon, and the more, louder, unexpected, sharper, the better. Elements of social protest, satire were very successfully and naturally superimposed on this ancient comic base.

Like all folklore amusements, "Petrushka" is stuffed with obscenities and curses. The primordial meaning of these elements has been studied quite fully, and how deeply they penetrated into the folk culture of laughter and what place swearing, verbal obscenity and degrading, cynical gestures occupied in it, is fully shown by M.M. Bakhtin.

Performances were shown several times a day in different conditions (at fairs, in front of the booth, on the streets of the city, in the suburbs). "Walking" Petrushka was the most common use of the doll.

A light screen, puppets, miniature backstage and a curtain were specially made for the mobile folklore theater. Petrushka ran around the stage, his gestures and movements created the appearance of a living person.

The comic effect of the episodes was achieved by techniques typical of folk culture of laughter: fights, beatings, obscenities, imaginary deafness of a partner, funny movements and gestures, mocking, fun funerals, etc.

There are conflicting opinions about the reasons for the extraordinary popularity of the theater: topicality, satirical and social orientation, comic character, a simple and understandable game for all segments of the population, the charm of the main character, acting improvisation, freedom of choice of material, the puppet's sharp language.

Parsley is a folk holiday fun.

Parsley is a manifestation of popular optimism, the mockery of the poor over the powerful and the rich.

Folklore prose. It is divided into two groups: fabulous (fairy tale, anecdote) and non-fairytale (legend, tradition, bylichka).

FAIRY TALE is the most famous genre of folklore. This is a kind of folklore prose, the hallmark of which is fiction. Plots, events and characters are fictional in fairy tales. The modern reader of folklore discovers fiction in other genres of oral folk art. Folk storytellers and listeners believed in the truth of the bylichki (the name comes from the word "truth" - "truth"); the word "epic" was invented by folklorists; the people called epics "old times". Russian peasants, who said and listened to epics, believing in their truth, believed that the events depicted in them took place a long time ago - in the time of mighty heroes and fire-breathing snakes. They did not believe in fairy tales, knowing that they tell about something that did not exist, does not exist, and cannot be.

It is customary to distinguish four types of fairy tales: fairy tales, household (otherwise - novelistic), cumulative (otherwise - "chain-like") and fairy tales about animals.

MAGIC FAIRY TALES differ from other fairy tales in a complex, detailed plot, which consists of a number of unchanging motifs that necessarily follow each other in a certain order. These are fantastic creatures (for example, Koschei the Immortal or Baba Yaga), and an animated, human-like character denoting winter (Morozko), and wonderful objects (self-assembled tablecloth, walking boots, flying carpet, etc.).

In fairy tales, the memory of performances and rituals that existed in deep, deep antiquity is preserved. They reflect the ancient relationships between people in a family or clan.

HOUSEHOLD TALES tell about people, about their family life, about the relationship between the owner and the farmhand, the master and the peasant, the peasant and the priest, the soldier and the priest. A commoner - a laborer, a peasant who has returned from the service of a soldier - is always smarter than a priest or a landowner, from whom, thanks to cunning, he takes away money, things, and sometimes his wife. Usually, in the center of the plots of everyday fairy tales, there is some unexpected event, an unforeseen turning point that occurs due to the cunning of the hero.

Household tales are often satirical. They ridicule the greed and stupidity of those in power. They do not tell about miraculous things and travels to the Far Far Away kingdom, but about things from peasant everyday life. But household tales are no more believable than fairy tales. Therefore, the description of wild, immoral, terrible acts in everyday fairy tales does not cause disgust or indignation, but cheerful laughter. After all, this is not life, but fiction.

Household fairy tales are a much younger genre than other varieties of fairy tales. In modern folklore, the heir to this genre is an anecdote (from gr.anekdotos - “unpublished”

CUMULATIVE TALES built on repeated repetition of the same actions or events. In cumulative (from Latin Cumulatio - accumulation) fairy tales, several plot principles are distinguished: the accumulation of characters in order to achieve the necessary goal; a heap of actions ending in disaster; a chain of human or animal bodies; forcing episodes, defiantly unjustified experiences of the characters.

The accumulation of heroes helping in some important action is evident in the fairy tale "Turnip".

Cumulative fairy tales are a very ancient kind of fairy tales. They have not been studied enough.

In TALES ABOUT ANIMALS, the memory of ancient ideas has been preserved, according to which people descended from ancestors - animals. Animals in these tales behave like people. Cunning and cunning animals deceive others - gullible and stupid, and this trickery is never condemned. The plots of fairy tales about animals are reminiscent of mythological stories about heroes - rogues and their tricks.

Non-fabulous prose is stories and incidents from life that tell about a person’s meeting with the characters of Russian demonology - sorcerers, witches, mermaids, etc. This also includes stories about saints, shrines and miracles - about the communication of a person who has accepted the Christian faith, with powers of a higher order.

BYLICHKA - a folklore genre, a story about a miraculous event that allegedly happened in reality - mainly about a meeting with spirits, "evil spirits".

LEGEND (from Latin legenda “reading”, “readable”) is one of the varieties of non-fairytale prose folklore. Written tradition about some historical events or personalities. Legend is an approximate synonym for the concept of myth; an epic story about what happened in time immemorial; the main characters of the story are usually heroes in the full sense of the word, often gods and other supernatural forces are directly involved in the events. The events in the legend are often exaggerated, a lot of fiction is added. Therefore, scientists do not consider the legends to be completely reliable historical evidence, without denying, however, that most of the legends are based on real events. In a figurative sense, legends refer to glorious, admirable events of the past, depicted in fairy tales, stories, etc. As a rule, they contain additional religious or social pathos.

The legends contain memories of the events of antiquity, an explanation of some phenomenon, name or custom.

The words of Odoevsky V.F. sound surprisingly relevant. remarkable Russian, thinker, musician: “We must not forget that from an unnatural life, that is, one where human needs are not satisfied, a painful state occurs ... in the same way, idiocy can occur from the inaction of thought ..., - a muscle is paralyzed from an abnormal state of the nerve, - in the same way, the lack of thinking distorts the artistic feeling, and the absence of an artistic feeling paralyzes thought. At Odoevsky V.F. one can find thoughts about the aesthetic education of children on the basis of folklore, consonant with what we would like to bring to life today in the field of children's education and upbringing: “... in the field of human spiritual activity, I will limit myself to the following remark: the soul expresses itself either through body movements, , colors, or through a series of sounds that form singing or playing a musical instrument "

Folklore in its nature, content and purpose is a deeply democratic, truly folk art. He is distinguished not only by ideological depth, but by high artistic qualities. Folk poetic creativity is distinguished by a peculiar artistic system of visual means and genres.

What are genres of Russian folklore?

One of the most ancient forms of creativity was labor songs with their simplest commands, cries, signals given in the course of work.

Calendar folklore primordially came from the urgent practical goals of people. It was associated with ideas about the annual agricultural cycle and with changing natural conditions. People sought to know the future, so they resorted to fortune-telling, talked about the future according to signs.

This also explained wedding folklore. It is imbued with the idea of ​​the safety of the family and clan, designed for the goodwill of the highest patrons.

Preserved from antiquity and individual elements children's folklore, which later changed under the influence of aesthetic and pedagogical functions.

Among the oldest genres - funeral lamentations. With the advent of universal military duty, there was a mourning for those who were taken to the service - recruiting accounts.

Genres non-ritual folklore also formed under the influence of syncretism. It includes small folklore genres ( proverbs): proverbs, fables, omens and sayings. They contained human judgments about the way of life, about work, about higher natural forces, statements about human affairs. "This is a vast area of ​​moral assessments and judgments, how to live, how to raise children, how to honor ancestors, thoughts about the need to follow precepts and examples, these are everyday rules of behavior ... In a word, the functionality of proverbs covers almost all worldview areas." 9

The genres of oral prose include legends, stories, bylichki, legends. These are stories and incidents from life that tell about a person’s meeting with the characters of Russian demonology - sorcerers, witches, mermaids, etc. This also includes stories about saints, shrines and miracles - about the communication of a person who has accepted the Christian faith with forces of a higher order .

Genres song epic: epics, historical songs, military songs, spiritual songs and poems.

Gradually, folklore moves away from everyday functions and acquires elements of artistry. The role of the artistic principle increases in it. As a result of historical evolution, folklore became poetic in its main and fundamental qualities, reworking the traditions of all previous states of folklore. 10

Artistic creativity is embodied in all forms fairy tales: fairy tales about animals, fairy tales, household.

This type of creativity is also represented in riddles.

The early types of artistic creativity include ballads.

Lyric songs also have an artistic function. They are performed outside the rites. The content and form of lyrical songs are associated with the expression of the experiences and feelings of the performers.

Modern researchers refer to the artistic song folklore of the latest formation romances And ditties.

Children's folklore has its own system of genres, correlated with the age characteristics of children. It has artistic and pedagogical functions. It is dominated by game beginnings.

The artistic spectacular theatrical basis contains folklore spectacles and folklore theater. It is presented in all variety of genres and types ( games, disguise, nativity scene, rayek, puppet shows, etc.).

A separate genus of artistic representations forms the so-called fair folklore. It arose from fair performances, cries of merchants, farcical barkers, joke speech, jokes and folk rhymes.

The genre of joke.

A detailed account of individual folklore genres will be undertaken in subsequent sections of the manual.

Genres of Russian folklore

Fairy tales, songs, epics, street performances - all these are different genres of folklore, folk oral and poetic creativity. You can't confuse them, they differ in their specific features, their role in folk life is different, they live differently in modern times. At the same time, all genres of verbal folklore have common features: they are all works of the art of the word, in their origins are associated with archaic forms of art, exist mainly in oral transmission, and are constantly changing. This determines the interaction in them of the collective and individual principles, a peculiar combination of traditions and innovation. Thus, the folklore genre is a historically emerging type of oral poetic work. Anikin V.P. gave his characteristics to folklore. Childbirth: epic, lyrics, drama

Types: song, fairy tale, non-fairy prose, etc.

Genres: epic, lyrical, historical song, legend, etc.

Genre is the basic unit of study of folklore. In folklore, genre is a form of exploration of reality. Over time, depending on changes in everyday life, the social life of the people, the system of genres developed.

There are several classifications of folklore genres:

Historical classification Zueva Tatyana Vasilievna, Kirdan Boris Petrovich	Classification by functionality Vladimir Prokopevich Anikin
Early traditional folklore * Labor songs, * Divination, conspiracies. classical folklore * Rites and ritual folklore: calendar, wedding, lamentations. * Small genres of folklore: proverbs, sayings, riddles. * Fairy tale prose: legends, byvalschiny, bylichki, legends. * Song epic: epics, historical songs, spiritual songs and poems, lyrical songs. * Folk theater. * Children's folklore. Folklore for children. Late traditional folklore * Chastushki * Folklore of workers * Folklore of the WWII period	Household ritual folklore 1. Labor songs 2. Conspiracies 3. Calendar folklore 4. Wedding folklore 5. Lamentations worldview non-ritual folklore 1. Paremias 2. Oral prose: legends, byvalschiny, bylichki, legends. 3. Song epic: epics, historical songs, military songs, spiritual songs and poems. artistic folklore 2. Riddles 3. Ballads 4. Lyric songs 5. Children's folklore 6. Spectacles and folk theater 7. Romance songs 8. Ditties 9. Jokes

Starting to analyze each genre of folklore, let's start with fairy tales.

Fairy tales are the oldest genre of oral folk art. She teaches a person to live, instills optimism in him, affirms faith in the triumph of goodness and justice.

A fairy tale is of great social value, consisting in its cognitive, ideological, educational and aesthetic values, which are inextricably linked. Like other peoples (the Russians, perhaps brighter), a fairy tale is an objectified contemplation of the heart of the people, a symbol of his suffering and dreams, the hieroglyphs of his soul. All art is generated by reality. This is one of the foundations of materialistic aesthetics. This is the case, for example, with a fairy tale, the plots of which are caused by reality, i.e. era, social and economic relations, forms of thinking and artistic creativity, psychology. It, as well as all folklore in general, reflected the life of the people, their worldview, moral, ethical, socio-historical, political, philosophical, artistic and aesthetic views. It is closely connected with folk life and rituals. Traditional Russian fairy tales were created and circulated mainly among the peasantry. Their creators and performers were usually people with great life experience, who traveled a lot in Rus', who had seen a lot. The lower the level of education of people, the more they talk about the phenomena of social life at the level of everyday consciousness. Maybe that's why the world reflected in fairy tales is formed at the level of everyday consciousness, on people's everyday ideas about beauty. Each new era brings tales of a new type, new content and new form. The folktale changes along with the historical life of the people; its changes are conditioned by the changes in the very life of the people, because it is the product of the history of the people; it reflects the events of history and features of folk life. Illumination and understanding of the history and life of the people in folklore change along with changes in people's ideas, views and psychology. In fairy tales, traces of several eras can be found. In the era of feudalism, social themes occupied an increasing place, especially in connection with the peasant movement: anti-serfdom sentiments were expressed in fairy tales. The XVI-XYII centuries are characterized by the rich development of fairy tales. It reflects both historical motifs (tales about Ivan the Terrible), social (tales about judges and priests) and everyday tales (tales about a peasant and a wife). In the fairy tale genre, satirical motifs are greatly enhanced.

XYIII - the first half of the XIX century. - The last stage of the existence of feudal-serf society. This time is characterized by the development of capitalist relations and the disintegration of the feudal system. The tale acquires an even more vivid social aspect. It includes new characters, primarily a smart and cunning soldier. In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, during which the ever more rapid and widespread development of capitalism in Russia falls, great changes take place in folklore. The satirical motives and the critical orientation of the tale are intensifying; the basis for this was the aggravation of social contradictions; the purpose of satire is increasingly becoming the denunciation of the power of money and the arbitrariness of the authorities. A greater place was occupied by autobiography, especially in fairy tales about going to the city to earn money. The Russian fairy tale becomes more realistic, acquires a closer connection with modernity. The coverage of reality, the ideological essence of works, also become different.

The cognitive significance of the fairy tale is manifested, first of all, in the fact that it reflects the features of the phenomena of real life and gives extensive knowledge about the history of social relations, work and life, as well as an idea of ​​the worldview and psychology of the people, about the nature of the country. The ideological and educational significance of the tale is that it is inspired by the desire for good, the protection of the weak, the victory over evil. In addition, a fairy tale develops an aesthetic sense, i.e. sense of beauty .

It is characterized by the disclosure of beauty in nature and man, the unity of aesthetic and moral principles, the combination of real and fiction, vivid depiction and expressiveness.

A fairy tale is a very popular genre of oral folk art, an epic, plot genre. From other prose genres (traditions and legends), the fairy tale differs in a more developed aesthetic side, which is manifested in the installation of attractiveness. The aesthetic beginning, in addition, is manifested in the idealization of goodies, a vivid image of the "fantastic world", amazing creatures and objects, miraculous phenomena, and romantic coloring of events. M. Gorky drew attention to the expressions in fairy tales of folk dreams of a better life: “Already in ancient times, people dreamed of the opportunity to fly through the air - this is what the fairy tale says, about the magic carpet. They dreamed of accelerating the movement on the ground - a fairy tale about boots-walkers ... ".

In science, it is generally accepted to divide fairy tale texts into three categories: fairy tales, short stories (household) tales and fairy tales about animals.

Fairy tales were very popular among the people. Fiction in fairy tales has the character of fantasy. The beginning of the magical contains the so-called remnant moments and, above all, the religious and mythological view of primitive man, his spiritualization of things and natural phenomena, the attribution of magical properties to these things and phenomena, various religious cults, customs, rituals. Fairy tales are full of motifs containing belief in the existence of the other world and the possibility of returning from there, the idea of ​​death enclosed in some material object (egg, flower), of a miraculous birth (from drunk water), of the transformation of people into animals, birds. The fantastic beginning of the tale, on the other hand, grows on a spontaneous materialistic basis, remarkably correctly captures the patterns of development of objective reality.

This is what M. Gorky called "instructive fiction - the amazing ability of human thought to look ahead of the fact." The origin of fantasy has its roots in the peculiarities of the way of life and in people's dream of dominating nature. All these are just traces of mythological ideas, since the formation of the classical form of a fairy tale ended far beyond the historical boundaries of primitive communal society, in a much more developed society. The mythological worldview only provided the basis for the poetic form of the fairy tale.

The important point is that the plots of fairy tales, the miracles of which they speak, have a vital basis. This is, firstly, a reflection of the peculiarities of the work and life of people of the tribal system, their relationship to nature, often their powerlessness in front of it. Secondly, a reflection of the feudal system, especially early feudalism (the king is the enemy of the hero, the struggle for inheritance).

The character of fairy tales is always the bearer of certain moral qualities. The hero of the most popular fairy tales is Ivan Tsarevich. He helps animals and birds, who are grateful to him for this and, in turn, help him. He is presented in fairy tales as a folk hero, the embodiment of the highest moral qualities - courage, honesty, kindness. He is young, handsome, smart and strong. This is a type of bold and strong hero.

A significant place in fairy tales is occupied by female heroines, who embody the folk ideal of beauty, intelligence, kindness, and courage. The image of Vasilisa the Wise reflects the remarkable features of a Russian woman - beauty, majestic simplicity, soft pride in herself, a remarkable mind and a deep heart full of inexhaustible love. The consciousness of the Russian people was just such a female beauty.

The serious meaning of some fairy tales gave grounds for judgments on the most important issues of life. So, in some fairy tales, the freedom-loving aspiration and struggle of the Russian people against arbitrariness and oppressors is embodied. The composition of a fairy tale determines the presence in them of characters hostile to positive characters. The hero's victory over hostile forces is the triumph of goodness and justice. Many researchers have noted the heroic side of the fairy tale, its social optimism. A.M. Gorky said: “It is very important to note that pessimism is completely alien to folklore, despite the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard, their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal life was powerless and defenseless. But with all this, the collective, as it were, is characterized by the consciousness of its immortality and confidence in victory over all forces hostile to it. Fairy tales in which social and domestic relations are at the center of the action are called social and domestic. In this type of fairy tales, the comedy of actions and verbal comedy is well developed, which is determined by their satirical, ironic, humorous nature. The theme of one group of tales is social injustice, the theme of another is human vices, they ridicule the lazy, stupid, stubborn. Depending on this, two varieties are distinguished in social and everyday fairy tales. According to researchers, social fairy tales arose in two stages: everyday - early, with the formation of a family and family life during the decomposition of the tribal system, and social - with the emergence of a class society and the aggravation of social contradictions in the period of early feudalism, especially during the decomposition of the serfdom and during the period of capitalism. The growing lack of rights and poverty of the masses caused discontent and protest, were the ground for social criticism. The positive hero of social fairy tales is a socially active, critical person. Hard work, poverty, darkness, marriage often unequal in age and property status caused complications in family relations and determined the appearance of plots about an evil wife and a stupid and lazy husband. Socially everyday fairy tales are distinguished by a sharp ideological orientation. This is reflected, first of all, in the fact that the stories mainly have two important social themes: social injustice and social punishment. The first theme is realized in plots where a master, a merchant or a priest rob and oppress a peasant, humiliate his personality. The second theme is realized in plots where a smart and quick-witted peasant finds a way to punish his oppressors for centuries of lack of rights, makes them look ridiculous. In social and everyday fairy tales, the aspirations and expectations of the people, the dream of a socially just, happy and peaceful life are much more clearly expressed. “In these tales, one can see the life of the people, their domestic life, their moral concepts and this crafty Russian mind, so inclined towards irony, so simple-hearted in its cunning.”

In fairy tales, as well as in some other genres of folklore prose, reflecting the strengths and weaknesses of the peasant psychology, the centuries-old dream of a happy life, of a kind of "peasant kingdom" was expressed. The search for "another kingdom" in fairy tales is a characteristic motif. A fabulous social utopia depicts people's material well-being, well-fed contentment; the peasant eats and drinks to his heart's content, and makes a "feast for the whole world." N. G. Chernyshevsky noted: “The poverty of real life is the source of life in fantasy.” The peasant judges a “happy” life for himself by the model of those material goods that tsars and landlords own. The peasants had a very strong faith in the "good king", and the fairy-tale hero becomes just such a king in many fairy tales. At the same time, the fairy-tale king in his behavior, way of life, and habits is likened to a simple peasant. The royal palace is sometimes depicted as a rich peasant household with all the attributes of a peasant economy.

Animal tales are one of the oldest types of folklore. Going back to the ancient forms of reflection of reality in the early stages of human consciousness, fairy tales about animals expressed a certain degree of knowledge of the world.

The truth of fairy tales is that although they talk about animals, similar human situations are reproduced. The actions of animals more openly reveal the inhumane aspirations, thoughts, and causes of acts committed by people. Animal stories are all stories in which there is a place not only for fun, but also for expressing a serious meaning. In fairy tales about animals, birds and fish, animals and plants also act. Each of these stories has meaning. For example, in the fairy tale about the turnip, the meaning turned out to be that no, even the smallest force in the matter is not superfluous, and it happens that it is not enough to achieve a result. With the development of human ideas about nature, with the accumulation of observations, fairy tales include stories about the victory of man over animals and about domestic animals, which was the result of their instructions. The identification of similar features in animals and humans (speech - cry, behavior - habit) served as the basis for combining their qualities in the images of animals with the qualities of a person, animals speak and behave like people. This combination led to the typification of the characters of animals, which became the embodiment of certain qualities (fox - cunning, etc.). So fairy tales acquired an allegorical meaning. Under the animals began to understand people of certain characters. Animal images have become a means of moral teaching. In fairy tales about animals, not only negative qualities (stupidity, laziness, talkativeness) are ridiculed, but oppression of the weak, greed, and deceit for profit are also condemned. The main semantic aspect of fairy tales about animals is moral. Tales about animals are characterized by bright optimism, the weak always get out of difficult situations. The connection of the tale with the ancient period of her life is found in the motives of the fear of the beast, in overcoming fear of him. The beast has strength, cunning, but no human mind. The images of animals at a later stage in the life of a fairy tale acquire the significance of social types. In such variants, in the image of a cunning fox, wolf and others, one can see human characters that arose in the conditions of a class society. Behind the image of the animal in them one can guess the social relations of people. For example, in the fairy tale "About Ersh Ershovich and his son Shchetinnikov" a complete and true picture of the ancient Russian legal proceedings is given. In the tales of every nation, universal themes receive a kind of national incarnation. In Russian folk tales, certain social relations are revealed, the life of the people, their domestic life, their moral concepts, the Russian look, the Russian mind are shown - everything that makes the tale nationally original and unique. The ideological orientation of Russian fairy tales is manifested in the reflection of the struggle of the people for a beautiful future. Thus, we saw that the Russian fairy tale is a generalized, evaluative and purposeful reflection of reality, which expresses the consciousness of a person, and in particular the consciousness of the Russian people. The old name of the tale - fable - indicates the narrative nature of the genre. In our time, the name "fairy tale" and the term "fairy tale", which began to come into circulation from the 17th century, are used among the people and in scientific literature. A fairy tale is a very popular genre of oral folk art, a genre of epic, prose, plot. It is not sung like a song, but is told. The tale is distinguished by its strict form, the obligatory nature of certain moments. Fairy tales have been known in Rus' since ancient times. In ancient writing there are plots, motifs and images reminiscent of fairy tales. Telling fairy tales is an old Russian custom. In the manuscripts of the XVI - XVII centuries. records of the fairy tales "About Ivan Ponamarevich" and "About the Princess and Ivashka the White Shirt" have been preserved. In the XVIII century. in addition to handwritten collections of fairy tales, printed editions began to appear. Several collections of fairy tales appeared, which included works with characteristic compositional and stylistic fairy-tale features: "The Tale of the Thief Timoshka" and "The Tale of the Gypsy" in V. Levshin's collection "Russian Tales" (1780-1783), "The Tale of Ivan the Bogatyr , a peasant's son "in the collection of P. Timofeev" Russian fairy tales "(1787). In the 60s of the XIX century. A.N. Afanasiev published a collection of "Treasured Tales", which included satirical tales about bars and priests. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. a number of important, well-prepared collections of fairy tales appear. They gave an idea about the distribution of works of this genre, about its state, put forward new principles for collecting and publishing. After the October Revolution, the collection of fairy tales, as well as the collection of works of folklore in general, took on organized forms.

Mikhailova O. S. Considered: fairy tales about animals. Historical roots of the fairy tale about animals (animistic, anthropomorphic, totemic ideas, folk beliefs). The evolution of the genre. Heroes of fairy tales about animals. Style. Absence of abstract fable allegorism. The satirical function of parables. Irony. Plot paradox. Dialogical. compositional features. Cumulative tales. Magic tales. Miracle, magic as a fabulous plot basis of fairy tales. Historical roots of fairy tales (mythological representations, folk demonology, folk rituals, everyday taboos, magic, etc.). Poetic convention of fairy tales. The main ideas of fairy tales. compositional features. Features of the author's word. Dialogical. Fairy stories. Heroes and their functions. Fairy tale chronotope. household tales. The proximity of everyday fairy tale to the short story. Ways of the formation of the genre of the novelistic fairy tale. Typology of everyday fairy tales (family and household, about masters and servants, about the clergy, etc.). Poetics and style (everyday "grounding", entertaining plot, hyperbolization in the depiction of characters, etc.).

One cannot but agree with the opinion of V.P. Anikin that fairy tales seem to have subjugated time, and this applies not only to fairy tales. In each era, they live their own special life. Where does the fairy tale have such power over time? Let us think about the essence of the similarity that fairy tales have with equally stable, as it were, “timeless” truths expressed by proverbs. The fairy tale and the proverb are brought together by the extraordinary breadth of the artistic generalization contained in them. Perhaps this property is most clearly revealed in allegorical tales.

The next genre is epic. The word "epic" is raised to the word "reality"; it means a story about what once happened, happened, what was believed in the reality. The word "epic" as a term denoting folk songs with a certain content and a specific artistic form. The epic is the fruit of fiction and the poetic rise of fantasy. But fiction and fantasy are not a distortion of reality. Epics always contain deep artistic and life truth. The content of the epic is extremely diverse. Basically - this is the song of the "epic", i.e. narrative nature. The main core of the epic are songs of heroic content. The heroes of these songs are not looking for personal happiness, they perform feats in the name of the interests of the Russian land. The main characters of the Russian epic are warriors. But the type of heroic epic is not the only one, although it is the most characteristic of the Russian epic. Along with the heroic, there are epics of a fabulously heroic or purely fabulous character. Such, for example, are epics about Sadko and his stay in the underwater kingdom. Epic narration can also have a social or family character (novelistic epics). Some of these epics can be singled out as a special group of ballad songs. It is not always possible to draw a line between epic and ballad songs.

In folklore collections, epics of a heroic, fairy-tale, and short story nature are usually placed side by side. Such an association gives a correct idea of ​​the breadth and scope of Russian epic creativity. Together, all this material makes up a single whole - the Russian folk epic. At present, we have a huge amount of epic material, and the epic can be well studied. From the end of the seventeenth century epic stories (“Ilya and the Nightingale the Robber”, “Mikhailo Potyk”, etc.) penetrate the handwritten story and are presented under the title “History”, “Word” or “Tale” as entertaining reading material [9]. Some of these stories are very close to the epic and can be divided into verses, others are the result of complex literary processing under the influence of ancient worldly literature, fairy tales, Russian and Western European adventure novels. Such "histories" were very popular, especially in cities where the original epic in the XVII - XVIII centuries. was little known. The first collection containing epics in the proper sense is the “Collection of Kirsha Danilov”, first published by A.F. Yakubovich in 1804 under the title “Ancient Russian Poems”. It was created, most likely, in Western Siberia. The manuscript contains 71 songs, notes are given for each text. There are about 25 epics here. Most of the songs were recorded from the voice, the recordings are very accurate, many features of the singers' language are preserved, the texts are of great artistic value. Traditionally, Kirsha Danilov is considered the creator of the collection, but who he is and what his role is in compiling this first collection of epics and historical songs in Russia is unknown. The first collector of epics was Peter Vasilyevich Kireevsky (1808 - 1856). Kireevsky collected songs not only himself, but encouraged his friends and relatives to this work. Among the employees and correspondents of Kireevsky was the poet Yazykov (his main assistant), Pushkin, Gogol, Koltsov, Dal, scientists of that time. Epics were published as part of ten issues of "Songs collected by P.V. Kireevsky (1860 - 1874). The first five issues contain epics and ballads, the second half is devoted mainly to historical songs. The collection contains records of epics made in the Volga region, in some central provinces of Russia, in the North and in the Urals; These records are especially interesting in that many of them were made in places where epics soon disappeared and were no longer recorded. One of the most remarkable collections of epics is a collection published by Pavel Nikolaevich Rybnikov (1832 - 1885). Being exiled to Petrozavodsk, traveling around the province as secretary of the statistical committee, Rybnikov began to write down the epics of the Olonets region. He wrote down about 220 texts of epics. The collection was published under the editorship of Bessonov in four volumes "Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov" in 1861 - 1867. In addition to epics, this collection contains a number of wedding songs, lamentations, fairy tales, etc. The appearance of Rybnikov's collection was a great event in social and literary life. Together with the Kireevsky collection, it opened up a new field of science. Ten years after the appearance of Rybnikov's collection, Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding went to the same places specifically for the purpose of recording epics. He managed to write down more than 300 texts in two months. Some epics were recorded by him later, from singers who came to St. Petersburg. Collected songs entitled "Onega epics, recorded by Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding in the summer of 1871" were published in one volume. There are 318 texts in total. Songs are arranged by regions, villages and performers. The texts are written down with all possible care and accuracy for the collector. From now on, the arrangement of material by performers entered the practice of publishing epics and fairy tales and is still holding on. The sixties were years of special attention to the poetry of the peasants. During these years, “Russian Folk Tales” by A.N. Afanasyev (1855 - 1864), “Great Russian Tales” by I.A. Khudyakov (1863), “Proverbs of the Russian people” by V.I. Dahl (1861) were published. With the onset of reaction in the 1980s, interest in folk poetry fell for some time. Only in 1901, A.V. Markov published a small collection of "Belomorskie epics". Markov moved to the extreme north and visited the eastern shore of the White Sea. In total, the collection contains 116 epics. The plot, style and form of existence of epics turned out to be significantly different here than in the Onega region. Several new stories have been found. In all respects, Markov's collection significantly expanded the ideas about the epic that were available in science. One of the largest and most significant expeditions was the expedition of A.D. Grigoriev to the Arkhangelsk province, which lasted three years. For three years of collecting work, he recorded 424 texts, which were subsequently published in three volumes under the title "Arkhangelsk epics and historical songs" (1904 - 1910). As a result, Grigoriev's collection became the largest and one of the most interesting in Russian folklore. Recordings are highly accurate. For the first time, the recording of epic tunes on a phonograph was widely used. A note book is included with each volume. A detailed map of the North is attached to the entire publication, indicating the places where the epics were recorded. In 40 - 60 years. 19th century in Altai, the remarkable ethnographer Stepan Ivanovich Gulyaev wrote down epics. Siberian records are of great importance, as they often retain a more archaic form of plot than in the North, where epics have changed more. Gulyaev recorded up to 50 epics and other epic songs. His entire collection was published only in Soviet times. During the summer months of 1908 - 1909. brothers Boris and Yuri Sokolov made a folklore expedition to the Belozersky region of the Novgorod province. It was a well organized scientific expedition. Its purpose was to cover the entire folklore of the given region with records. Fairy tale and song turned out to be the predominant genres, but epics were also unexpectedly found. 28 texts were recorded. Epics were collected not only in the North, in Siberia and the Volga region. Their existence in the XIX - XX centuries. was found in the places of Cossack settlements - on the Don, on the Terek, among the Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg Cossacks.

The largest collector of Don Cossack songs was A.M. Listopadov, who devoted fifty years of his life to this work (starting from 1892 - 1894). As a result of repeated trips to the Cossack villages, Listopadov recorded a huge number of songs, including more than 60 epics; his notes give an exhaustive idea of ​​the Don epic in its form in which it was preserved by the beginning of the 20th century. The value of Listopadov's materials is especially enhanced by the fact that not only texts, but also tunes are recorded.

As a result of the collecting work, it became possible to determine the features of the content and form of the Cossack epic, its plot structure, the manner of execution, to present the fate of the Russian epic in the Cossack regions. The merit of Russian scientists in the field of collecting epics is extremely great. Their labors saved one of the best assets of Russian national culture from oblivion. The work of collecting epics was entirely carried out by individual enthusiasts who, sometimes overcoming various and very difficult obstacles, selflessly worked on recording and publishing monuments of folk poetry.

After the October Revolution, the work of collecting epics took on a different character. Now it is beginning to be carried out systematically and systematically by the forces of research institutions. In 1926-1928. The State Academy of Artistic Sciences in Moscow organized an expedition under the slogan "In the footsteps of Rybnikov and Hilferding." The epics of the Onega region belong to the best, and the Onega region - to the richest in the epic tradition. As a result of planned and systematic work, 376 texts were recorded, many of them in excellent preservation.

Long-term and systematic work was carried out by Leningrad scientific institutions. In 1926 -1929. The State Institute of Art History equipped complex art history expeditions to the North, which included folklorists. In 1931 - 1933 work on the creation of folklore was carried out by the folklore commission of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences in Petrozavodsk. A total of 224 texts were published in the collection. The publication is distinguished by a high scientific level. For each of the epics, salts are given for all variants known in science. In subsequent years, expeditions were also organized to study the epic genre. Intensive and fruitful was the collecting work of Russian scientists both in pre-revolutionary and Soviet times. Much is stored in the archives and is still waiting for its publication. The number of published epics can be determined at approximately 2500 song units.

The concept of epics was also considered by V. V. Shuklin.

Epics and myths, the ancient epic genre of epics (Northern Russian people called them old men) took shape in the 10th century. The word epic, i.e. "reality". "act". Occurs in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. Its author begins his song "according to the epics of this time, and not according to Boyan's reflection." The appearance of epics under Prince Vladimir is not accidental. His warriors performed their feats not in distant campaigns, but in the fight against nomads, i.e. in plain sight, so they became available for epic chanting.

More Anikin V.P. said that among the oral works there are those by which, first of all, the significance of folklore in folk life is judged. For the Russian people, these are epics. Only fairy tales and songs stand side by side with them, but if we remember that ballads were both said and sung at the same time, then their predominance over other types of folklore becomes clear. Epics differ from songs by their solemnity, and from fairy tales by the grandiosity of the plot action. Bylina is both a story and a stately song speech. The combination of such properties became possible because epics arose in ancient times, when storytelling and singing were not yet separated as decisively as it happened later. Singing gave solemnity to storytelling, and storytelling to singing - a resemblance to the intonations of human speech. The solemnity of the tone corresponded to the glorification in the epics of a heroic deed, and the singing put the story into measured lines so that not a single detail would disappear from people's memory. Such is the epic, the song story.

It is also worth noting one of the genres of folklore "legends" about which Zueva T.V. and Kirdant B.P. spoke.

Legends are prose works in which fantastic interpretations of events associated with the phenomena of inanimate nature, with the world of plants, animals, as well as people (planet, people, individuals); with supernatural beings (God, saints, angels, unclean spirits). The main functions of legends are explanatory and moralizing. The legends are associated with Christian ideas, but they also have a pagan basis. In legends, a person turns out to be immeasurably higher than evil spirits.

Legends existed both in oral and written form. The term "legend" itself came from medieval writing and translated from Latin means "what should be read".

The following genres can be combined into one whole. Since they have a lot in common, these are proverbs and sayings. Kravtsov N. I. and Lazutin S. G. said that the proverb is a small non-lyrical genre of oral creativity; a form of saying that has entered into speech circulation, fits into one grammatically and logically complete sentence, often rhythmized and supported by rhyme. It is characterized by extreme brevity and simplicity.

Sayings are closely related to proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings belong to small genres of folklore. In most cases, they are even shorter than proverbs. Like proverbs, sayings are not specially performed (they are not sung or told), but are used in live colloquial speech. At the same time, sayings differ significantly from proverbs both in terms of the nature of the content, and in form, and in terms of the functions performed in speech.

The collection and study of proverbs went simultaneously with the collection and study of proverbs. N. P. Kolpakova, M. Ya. Melts and G. G. Shapovalova believed that the term "proverb" began to be used to denote the type of folk poetry only from the end of the 17th century. Earlier proverbs were called "parables". However, the existence of proverbs as special sayings expressing people's judgments in a figurative form can be noted in very remote times. folklore fairy tale epic riddle

Many specific historical events of ancient Rus' found echoes in proverbs. However, the historical value of the proverb is not only in this, but mainly in the fact that it has preserved many historically developed views of the people, for example, ideas about the unity of the army and the people: “The world stands before the army, and the army stands before the world”; about the strength of the community: “The world will stand up for itself”, “The world cannot be pulled over”, etc. . It is impossible not to emphasize the opinion of N. S. Ashukin and M. G. Ashukina. deep respect for work, skill, skill, intelligence, courage, truth, honesty. Many proverbs have been created on these topics: “Without labor you can’t catch a fish from a pond”, “On arable land and brushy”, “The craft is not without craft”, “Cause is time, fun is an hour”, “Unfit in face and good in mind”, “Learning is better than wealth”, “Truth is more precious than gold”, “Poverty and honesty are better than profit and shame.” And, on the contrary, the proverb denounces laziness, deceit, drunkenness and other vices: “Laziness does not do good, dine without salt”, “Give him a flaky testicle”, “Spreads like a leaf, but aims to bite” (about duplicity), “Drunk on honey , drunk with tears ", etc. .

IN AND. Dahl also gave his own definition of the proverb. A proverb is a roundabout expression, figurative speech, a simple allegory, a bluff, a way of expression, but without a parable, without judgment, conclusion, application; this is one first half of the proverb.

Another major genre of folklore is the "mystery". The object of the folk riddle is the diverse world of objects and phenomena surrounding a person.

The folk riddle also draws images from the world of everyday objects and phenomena surrounding a person that the worker encountered in the course of his activity.

The usual form of a riddle is a short description or short story. Each riddle includes a hidden question: who is it? What is this? etc. In a number of cases, the riddle is expressed in a dialogic form: “Crookedly crafty, where did you run? - Green, curly, guard you” (fence).

The riddle is characterized by a two-part structure, it always involves a guess.

Many of the riddles have rhyming endings; in some the first part rhymes, while the second part retains the meter. Some riddles are built on the rhyming of words alone; the riddle rhymes with the answer: “What is the matchmaker in the hut?” (grip); "What's in the hut for Samson?" (barrier).

The riddle is still preserved among the people not only as a means of entertainment, but also as a means of education, development of children's ingenuity, resourcefulness. The riddle answers the child's questions: what comes from? what is made of what? what do they do? what is good for what?

The systematic collection of Russian folk riddles began only in the second half of the 19th century. By the 17th century include only records made by amateur collectors.

Proverbs and sayings

The collection and publication of proverbs began as early as the 17th century. However, in the oldest collections, along with folk proverbs, proverbs of book origin were also included. Folk proverbs, hostile to religion and authorities, were rejected by the compilers. The most democratic tendencies in the selection and publication of folk proverbs were manifested in N. Kurganov's Letter Book (1769), where the compiler included 908 proverbs.

In 1848, I. M. Snegirev published Russian Folk Proverbs and Parables. Genuine folk proverbs prevailed in his collection. Following Snegirev, in 1854. F. I. Buslaev published proverbs. In a special article "Russian Life and Proverbs" he commented on them from the point of view of mythological theory. In 1861 V. I. Dahl’s great work “Proverbs of the Russian people” was published, which included about 30,000 proverbs, sayings and other small genres of folk poetry. The most important collections of proverbs of the second half of the 19th century. and the beginning of the 20th century. there were collections: “Winged words” by S. V. Maksimov (1890), “Accurate and walking words” by M. I. Mikhelson (1894), “The life of the Russian people in its proverbs and sayings” by I. I. Illustrov (1915). Kravtsov N. I., Lazutin S. G. They believed that both proverbs and sayings and riddles belong to small (aphoristic) genres of folklore.

Riddles have much in common with proverbs and sayings in content and in artistic form. However, they also have specific features and represent an independent genre of folklore.

The term "mystery" is of ancient origin. In the Old Russian language, the word "guess" meant "think", "think". This is where the word "mystery" comes from. In a riddle, a subject description of some phenomenon is given, the recognition of which requires considerable thought. Most often, riddles are allegorical in nature. Anikin V.P. said that the riddle emphasizes the variety of forms, the brightness of the colors of the world around the peasant: “Red, round, oblong leaves” (rowan). Some riddles create a sound image: “I listen, I will listen: sigh after sigh, but not a soul in the hut,” says the riddle about the dough, which makes a sound like a sigh during fermentation. Especially often, sound images arose in riddles about peasant work.

The world around a person is presented in a riddle in constant motion: “Grayish, toothy, prowling around the field, looking for calves, looking for guys” (wolf); “The little, hunchbacked one crossed the whole field, read all the pens” (reap); “Five lambs eat up a stack, five lambs run away” (hands and tows).

I would like to say a little about “tradition.” Folklorists have not yet given a sufficient, satisfactory and substantiated definition of legends. Quite often in the scientific literature, traditions and legends are mixed, although these are different genres. This is due to the proximity, as well as the presence of transitional forms, some of which are closer to legends, while others are closer to legends.

Traditions are popularly called "byly" and "byly". They have historical themes. The legends are close to historical songs, but they have a prose form, not a poetic one.

Legends - epic, i.e. narrative genre. The collection of Russian folk traditions was not carried out systematically.

It is also impossible to miss such a genre of folklore as "chastushki". Zueva T.V. and Kirdant B.P. emphasize that the most developed genre of late traditional folklore is ditties.

Chastushki are short rhymed lyrical songs that were created and performed as a lively response to various life phenomena, expressing a clear positive or negative assessment. In many ditties there is a joke or irony. The earliest ditties had six lines. The main type - four-line - was formed in the second half of the 19th century, it was performed to the dance and without it. Four-line ditties are also proper dance ditties, which are performed only to the dance (for example, to the quadrille).

In addition, there are two-line ditties: “suffering” and “Semenovna”.

Chastushkas have varied, but repetitive, steady tunes, both drawn out and fast. The performance of many texts on one tune is characteristic. In living life, ditties are sometimes characterized by recitativity.

Chastushki finally took shape in the last quarter of the 19th century. Simultaneously in different parts of Russia: in the center, middle and lower Volga region, in the northern, eastern and southern provinces.

Chastushki is the main genre of peasant lyrics in later traditional folklore. And finally, I would like to consider a few more genres of folklore, these are all varieties of “songs”. Which are described in detail by S.V. Alpatov, V.P. Anikin, T.B. Dianova, A.A. Ivanova, A.V. Kulagin. The definition of the genre and the issue of limiting the term "historical song". The difference between a historical song and an epic. Continuity links between historical songs and epics. Historical song as a stage in the development of epic creativity. Principles of selective interested depiction of events and persons in historical songs. Historical song as a work relevant for its time and the question of the subsequent transformation of its meaning and images. Early samples of historical songs: a song about Avdotya Ryazanochka, about the murder of Shchelkan Dudentevich, Polonyanka (“Mother meets her daughter in Tatar captivity”, etc.). Differences in style of early historical songs and the question of later changes in them. A cycle of songs about Ivan the Terrible and the events of his reign (“The Capture of Kazan”, “Temryuk-Mastryuk”, “Ivan the Terrible's Wrath on his Son”, “The Raid of the Crimean Khan”, etc.), about Yermak (“Ermak in the Cossack Circle”, etc. .), about the Time of Troubles (“Grishka Otrepiev”, “Lament of Ksenia Godunova”, “Skopin-Shuisky”, “Minin and Pozharsky”), etc. People's view of historical figures and understanding of the meaning of their activities. Cossack historical songs about Stepan Razin (“Razin and the Cossack circle.” “Razin's Campaign to Yaik”, “Sonny”, “Razin near Astrakhan”, “Song of Razin”. “Esaul reports the execution of Razin”). Poetization of Razin as the leader of the Cossack freemen. Condemnation of Razin by the Cossack circle. The lyrical beginning as a factor transforming the epic narrative. Special lyrical-epic song structure. Historical songs about Peter the Great and the events of his reign (“The Tsar judges the archers.” “On the beginning of the Northern War”, “Well done is going to Poltava”, “Tsar Peter on the ship”, etc.). Historical songs about the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 (“Napoleon writes a letter to Alexander”, “Kutuzov calls to defeat the French”, “Napoleon in Moscow”, “Cossack Platov”, etc.). Question about songwriters. Reflection in songs of thoughts and feelings of soldiers. The idea of ​​defending the fatherland. New themes in the soldiers' and Cossacks' historical songs in comparison with the songs of other cycles. Types of characters in historical songs: folk hero, king, commander. The image of the people. Poetics and style of historical songs. Genre varieties: epic songs (with a detailed plot, one-episode songs), lyrical-epic songs. Collections of historical songs of the XIII - XIX centuries. four books published in the series “Monuments of Russian Folklore”, Institute of Russian Literature Ak. Sciences, 19601973 . Ballad songs. The term "ballad" and its history (Provencal dance songs of the 11th-17th centuries; Anglo-Scottish ballads; literary romantic ballads). Folk Russian names of ballad songs: “verse”, “song”. Definition of the genre, its features. The most important properties of ballad songs: epic, family themes, psychological drama, the art of the tragic. Origin of ballad songs. The question of the time of their occurrence is debatable: a look at the appearance of ballads in the era of decomposition of ancient syncretism (A. N. Veselovsky), in the early period of written history (N. P. Andreev), in the Middle Ages (V. M. Zhirmunsky, D. M. Balashov, B. N. Putilov, V. P. Anikin). Ballad songs about the Tatar (later Turkish) captivity: “The girl was taken prisoner by the Tatars”, “The Russian girl in the captivity of the Tatars”, “The red girl runs from the captivity”, “Rescue of the Polonyanka”, “Prince Roman and Marya Yurievna”, “Two slaves ”, “Escape of slaves from captivity”. Later adaptations of ballads about polonyanka: “Young khancha”, “Pan brings a Russian polonyanka to his wife”. Plots of ballad songs of the 14th-16th centuries: “Vasily and Sophia”, “Dmitry and Domna”, “Ryabinka”, “Prince Mikhailo”, “Children of the Widow”, etc. Love ballads: “Dmitry and Domna”, “Cossack and Shinkarka ”, “The abduction of a girl”, “A girl defends her honor”, ​​“A nun drowns a child”. Family-everyday ballads: “Prince Roman lost his wife”, “Husband ruined his wife”, “Ryabinka”; “Fyodor Kolyshatoy”, “Alyosha and the sister of two brothers”, “Brother, sister and lover”, “Poisoning sister”, “Daughter of the thousandth”, “Forcible tonsure”. The theme of incest: “The hunter and his sister”, “Brother married his sister”, “Ivan Dorodorovich and Sofya-tsarevna” and others. and sister”, “Robber's wife”, etc. The crisis of the traditional ballad genre. Appearance at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. new ballads. Ballads: about social inequality: “Well done and the princess”, “Prince Volkonsky and Vanya the key-keeper”, “Princess and the lackey”, “A girl dies from the love of the voivodship son”; about poverty and grief: “Woe”, “Well done and grief”, “Well done and the Smorodina River”, etc. Features of the composition and plot of ballads: an open course of action, a predicted fatal outcome, tragic recognition. The role of monologues and dialogues. Drama. Single conflict. The dynamics of the development of action. Characteristics of the characters: the destroyer, the victim. Fantastic motifs: metamorphosis, werewolf, talking animals and birds, magical (living and dead water as a means of healing). The art of psychological imaging. Poetic language, allegory. Connections of ballads with epics, historical songs, spiritual poems, lyrical songs). New ballads, their connections with the old ones (plot-thematic commonality and differences). History of collecting ballads. Collection of N. P. Andreev and V. I. Chernyshev, collection of D. M. Balashov.

Lyric songs. Determination of the genre features of non-ritual songs as a type of folk lyrics: their freedom from ritual, relative untimedness at the time of performance, the predominance of poetic functions over pragmatic ones, the use of a kind of metaphorical and symbolic language for versatile life content and disclosure of the inner world of a person. The possibility of the inclusion of lyrical non-ritual songs into the composition of rituals and labor cycles and the diversity of folk terminology explained by this. Genetic connection of non-ritual songs with ritual lyrics (spells, lamentations, lamentations, play songs) and ballads. Continuity and processing of artistic traditions in the process of style formation. Problems of classification of non-ritual lyrical songs. A variety of systematization principles: by subject (love, family, recruiting, remote), by the social environment of creation and existence (soldiers, barges, coachmen, Cossacks, etc.), by the predominant composition of performers (male and female), by forms of melody and intrasyllabic chanting (frequent and lingering), in connection with the movement (stepping, marching, dancing), according to the emotional dominant (comic, satirical). The combination of several principles in the creation of scientific classifications (V. Ya. Propp, N. P. Kolpakova, T. M. Akimova, V. I. Eremina). The system of artistic images of non-ritual lyrics. The variety of folk characters and social types in the songs, the image of versatile relationships between people. Images of nature, life, social phenomena. The place of conditionally generalized images of love, longing, grief, will, separation, death and others in the artistic system of folk lyrics. Characteristic features of the connection of diverse images in the creation of symbolic paintings that form the subject-content basis of non-ritual songs. Techniques for depicting characters: idealization, humor, satire. Features of the composition of non-ritual songs. Their structure by belonging to the lyrical family. Figurative-symbolic parallelism and its forms (A. N. Veselovsky), the method of stepwise narrowing of images (B. M. Sokolov), the principle of chain-associative connection (S. G. Lazutin), the juxtaposition of autonomous thematic-style formulas (G. I. . Maltsev). N. P. Kolpakova, N. I. Kravtsov about the main types and forms of composition. Poetic language of non-ritual lyrics: functions of constant epithets, comparisons, metaphors, antitheses. Stereotypical stable verbal complexes in songs. The peculiarity of the rhythmic-syntactic structure of the folk song verse (the system of repetitions, syllabic breaks, intra-syllable chants, stanza, meter). The use of lexical and phonetic expressiveness of oral speech in lyrics. Collection of folk songs. Activities of P. V. Kireevsky. Folk lyrics as part of the collection of P. V. Shein, a collection of folk songs by A. I. Sobolevsky “Great Russian Folk Songs”. Types of editions of songs of local traditions.

Spiritual verses. The definition of spiritual poetry as a complex of epic, lyrical-epic and lyrical works, the unifying beginning of which is the concept of "spiritual", religious-Christian, opposed to worldly, secular. Folk names of the genre: “poems”, “old times”, “psalms”, “kants”. The origin of spiritual verses and sources: the books of Holy Scripture (Old and New Testament), Christian canonical and apocryphal literature, which penetrated into Rus' after Baptism from the end of the 10th century. (lives, biblical stories, moralizing stories, etc.), church sermons and liturgy. Senior spiritual verses (epic) and junior (lyric). The creators and performers of spiritual verses Kaliki (cripples) are passers-by, pilgrims to holy places. Folk rethinking of biblical and gospel themes, lives, apocrypha. “Spiritual verses are the result of the people's aesthetic assimilation of the ideas of Christian dogma” (F. M. Selivanov). The main idea of ​​spiritual verses: assertion of the superiority of the spiritual over the material, bodily, glorification of asceticism, martyrdom for the faith, denunciation of sinfulness, non-observance of God's commandments. Reflection in the older spiritual verses of cosmogonic ideas. Main themes and plots: poems about the universe (“Pigeon Book”); on biblical Old Testament stories (“Osip the Beautiful”, “Lament of Adam”); gospel (“Nativity of Christ”, “Massacre of the Innocents”, “Dream of the Virgin”, “Crucifixion of Christ”, “Ascension”); about snake-fighting heroes (“Fyodor Tiron”, “Egoriy and the Serpent”), martyrs (“Egoriy and Demyanishche”, “Kirik and Ulita”, “Galaktion and Epistimia”, “On the Great Martyr Barbara”), ascetics (“Josaf and Varlaam ”, “Alexei is a man of God”); miracle workers (“Mykola”, “Dmitry of Thessalonica”); the righteous and sinners (“Two Lazarus”, “About Mary of Egypt”, “About the Prodigal Son”, “Anika the Warrior); about the end of the world and the Last Judgment (“Mikhailo the archangel the terrible judge”, “Archangels Mikhailo and Gabriel - carriers across the fiery river”). Echoes of pagan beliefs in verses about mother damp earth (“Cry of the earth”, “Unforgivable sin”, “Rite of farewell to the earth before confession”). Edifying verses about worldly temptations and salvation in the wilderness, the need for repentance (“Friday and the Hermit”, “A Poem about Laziness”, “Basil of Caesarea”). Poems based on plots from ancient Russian history (“Boris and Gleb”, “Alexander Nevsky”, “Mikhail and Fedor of Chernigov”, “Dmitry Donskoy”). Junior spiritual verses (psalms, cants) on themes from the Old Believer history (XVIIХ1Х centuries): “About Nikon”, “A Verse about the Antichrist”, “Mount Athos” and songs of sectarian mystics (eunuchs, whips). Poetics. General folklore properties of spiritual poems, allowing them to be correlated with epics, ballads, historical and lyrical songs. The influence of literary Christian style, the widespread use of Church Slavonicisms. Spatio-temporal characteristics of the artistic world of spiritual poetry. The specifics of the miraculous, connected in them with Christ and the saints (healing of the sick, invulnerability under torture, resurrection from the dead, etc.). Composition (a chain of episodes of an event or character's life). Monologue verses (“Lament of Joseph the Beautiful”), the role of dialogues (“Dream of the Virgin”). Poetic language (epithets, parallelisms, comparisons). The image of the earth after the Last Judgment. Description of the parting of the soul with the body, crossing the fiery river, etc. The history of the gathering (P. V. Kireevsky, V. G. Varentsov, T. S. Rozhdestvensky and M. I. Uspensky). The study of spiritual verses. Mythological direction (F. I. Buslaev, A. N. Afanasiev, O. F. Miller); cultural and historical direction (research by A. N. Veselovsky, A. I. Kirpichnikov, V. P. Adrianova); historical and domestic (“Materials on the history of the study of Russian sectarianism and schism (Old Believers)”, edited by V. D. Bonch-Bruevich (St. Petersburg, 1908-1911), four issues). Resumption of research in the early 70s of the twentieth century. : articles by Yu. A. Novikov, S. E. Nikitina, F. M. Selivanov and others.