3 secret committee the purpose of creating the composition of the reform. The secret committee of Alexander I

The secret committee

In the first half of the 19th century, the importance of the highest, imperial administration was significantly strengthened in public administration. To this end, the old ones were reorganized and new ones were created, more closely connected with local institutions.

So, on March 26, 1801, the Council at the highest court was abolished, which lost its high position even in the previous reign, ceased to function and influence the management system.

Having become emperor, in the first years of his reign, Alexander I relied on his close young associates: V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltseva, P.A. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, consulted with the "friends of youth", united them in a "secret committee". This committee did not have the official status of a state institution, however, it was he who had a huge impact on changes in the management of the empire. Until November 1803, almost all state measures and reform projects were discussed here, many of which were proposed by the members of this “intimate circle” Ignatov V. G. History of public administration in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002, p. 378.

It is worth saying that the secret committee played a rather significant role in the domestic political life of the country. The plans for its creation were extremely extensive: from the complete reorganization of state administration, to the gradual abolition of serfdom and the introduction of a constitution in Russia. Speaking of this, it should be noted that the members of the secret committee understood the constitution as the creation of a representative institution, the proclamation of democratic freedoms, and the limitation of autocratic power through the creation of new laws.

According to many historians, including S. F. Platonov, almost all transformations in the system of state institutions, changes in peasant legislation carried out by Alexander I in the first five years of his reign were directly or indirectly related precisely to the activities of this committee Dvornichenko A. Yu and others Russian history from ancient times to the present day. St. Petersburg; Lan, 2004. S. 196-197.

In particular, the active participation of the members of the "secret committee" in the preparation and implementation of the ministerial reform, the development of the system of ministries in Russia, the reform of the Senate, as well as a number of other major transformations in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century is quite obvious Starikov N. V. History of Russia from ancient times to XX century. M.; PRIOR, 2001, p. 291.

Establishment of a system of ministries

On September 8, 1802, the Committee of Ministers was established, which became a new and very important governing body. Its design is directly related to the creation of ministries. The manifesto establishing this body of power provided for the opportunity for ministers to gather together at the initiative and under the chairmanship of the emperor for meetings to discuss complex interdepartmental issues. The meetings of ministers took on the character of meetings of the absolute monarch with the heads of all central institutions. At the same time, the composition of the Committee was constantly expanding at the expense of senior officials appointed by the emperor and responsible to him.

Already in 1810, the chairman, secretary of state, heads of departments of the State Council, as well as other influential officials were introduced into its composition.

On March 20, 1812, at the suggestion of M. M. Speransky, the "establishment of the Committee of Ministers" legally formalized the limits of competence, functions, and the composition of the committee. According to him, no conclusion of the committee could be carried out until it was considered by the emperor and approved by him, and the ministers were introduced into the Senate Ivanovsky V. State law. News and scholarly notes of Kazan University. According to edition No. 5 of 1895 - No. 11 of 1896. / Allpravo.ru.

Under the direct leadership of the emperor, the committee also considered cases that related to the activities of several ministries, requiring new laws, concerted actions, as well as extremely complicated cases that could not be resolved within the framework of the activities of only one minister. In addition, under the leadership of the emperor, the materials of Senate audits, appointments, dismissals, awards, reprimands to local administrators, and even individual bills were also checked and discussed.

Unlike Western governments headed by independent chairmen (premiers) and representing an association, a cabinet of ministers, the Russian Committee of Ministers was not such a government, or the head of the executive vertical of government, despite the fact that these issues were repeatedly raised in the “tacit committee” and other instances . During the preparation of the establishment of ministries, it was proposed to study the experience of the English united cabinet (ministry) of His Royal Majesty, which included the head of the ministry and the heads of eight branch departments.

It is worth noting here that both Alexander I and Nicholas I were afraid of losing some of their own supreme functions, as well as the emergence of a relatively independent head of the central executive department. Thus, not English was taken as the basis, but the experience of the administrative system of Napoleonic France, where the ministers did not unite in one council, but were directly subordinate to Emperor Bonaparte, being members of the Senate with an advisory vote. At the same time, the Senate itself had the right to judge ministers if they violated the freedom of the press and personal freedom.

The French experience greatly impressed Alexander I and Nicholas I, since it fully corresponded to their desire to keep the reins of government in their own hands. Thus, the right of the kings to personally manage the state was preserved, since it was they themselves who appointed, dismissed, controlled ministers, directed and united their actions, accepted their most subordinate individual reports, exercised supreme supervision over the activities of the state apparatus through the Committee of Ministers Ignatov V. G. History public administration in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002, pp. 379-380.

As mentioned above, the emergence of ministries is in close connection with the general administrative reform. The implementation, nature and necessity of this reform led to a number of reasons. First of all, among them it is worth mentioning the moral qualities of Emperor Alexander I and those around him, external influences, as well as the state of state and public life.

Of course, the implementation of such an important and complex reform as the reorganization of the entire higher state administration requires a very balanced and cautious approach, which means that a certain share of responsibility for its consequences lies not only with the emperor himself, but also with his associates.

Thus, the success of the transformation of the central organs under Alexander I also largely depended on the nature of the people around the emperor, on their mental and moral development, and on their political views. The persons closest to the emperor were members of the secret committee: Novosiltsev, Count Stroganov, Prince Kochubey, Prince Czartoryzhsky and Prince Golitsyn.

Speaking about the features of the character and views of Count V.P. Kochubey, it is worth emphasizing once again that he received an excellent education abroad, first in Geneva, and then in London, where he successfully studied political sciences. Like Novosiltsev, he lived in retirement during the reign of Paul, and only under Alexander, who had sincere friendship for him, was he again called to public affairs.

Due to the peculiarities of his own character, education and life path, many contemporaries were even inclined to accuse him of knowing England better than Russia, since he tried to remake a lot in the English manner. In general, he was an extremely intelligent man, gifted with an excellent memory and able to recognize people and use them.

When establishing the ministries, Alexander I, of course, could not do without numerous meetings with his employees. We know about the content of these meetings from the notes of its participants that have come down to us. Meetings on the organization of ministries took place within the framework of a "secret committee", which included persons closest to the emperor, and consisted in discussing projects submitted by members of the committee. Similar projects were presented by Chartorizhsky, Kochubey, Novosiltsev, as well as other people close to the sovereign.

The result of the meetings of the informal committee was, already mentioned earlier, the decree of September 8, 1802, which established the ministries. This decree was a surprise even for those who stood at the highest levels of the bureaucratic hierarchy, due to which many dissatisfied people appeared, reinterpreting the decree in an unfavorable sense for it. In fact, this decree was very far from perfect.

It does not clearly define the competence of the ministries, their composition, organization and record keeping. The general establishment of ministries, expressed in the said manifesto, is characterized by extreme uncertainty and is filled with numerous omissions Ivanovsky V. State law. News and scholarly notes of Kazan University. According to edition No. 5 of 1895 - No. 11 of 1896. / Allpravo.ru.

At its core, this manifesto contained a number of important provisions. It emphasized the continuity of the reform with the transformations of Peter I. The introduction of the ministerial system of state administration was motivated by the need to bring all parts of state administration into a stable structure, in accordance with the intentions of the emperor. It also expressed the hope that the ministries would help establish calmness, silence, justice, and the improvement of the empire in the country, as well as revive industry, trade, the entire economy as a whole, disseminate science and art, raise the general welfare, ensure the welfare of the peoples included in composition of the Russian Empire.

According to the establishment, state affairs were now to be managed by eight ministries: military ground forces; military maritime forces; foreign affairs; justice; internal affairs; finance; commerce; Public Education: “The Department of State Affairs is divided into 8 departments, of which each, containing all the parts that essentially belong to it, constitutes a special ministry and is under the direct control of the Minister, whom we appoint now, or henceforth appoint as we please State institutions in Russia. Ed. Pischulin N. P. Nizhny Novgorod; UNN, 1994, p. 54.

It was also assumed that in the division of state affairs, each ministry would be in charge of a certain part of them. At the same time, all ministries had to ensure natural communication and unity of management. The ministers themselves were to be appointed only by the emperor and be responsible to him, as well as directly manage all the parts entrusted to them. Through the Senate, ministers were required to submit annual written reports to the emperor. They had to justify the spending of funds by the structures of the ministry, reflect the successes in the activities of the ministry, as well as the state of current affairs and possible development prospects.

Among other things, the Senate had to consider and analyze the activities of the ministers, submit reports to the emperor with relevant conclusions, as well as an opinion on the state of administration of each of the ministers. The ministers, on the other hand, were supposed to manage the local structures entrusted to him and receive weekly memorials about all their current affairs, and have constant contacts with them.

According to the manifesto, the post of "comrade minister" was also established, who was supposed to help the minister in his activities. The positions of the Minister of Justice and the Prosecutor General of the Senate were also combined, as well as the functional areas, subjects and parameters of the activity of each of the ministers, the preserved state colleges subordinate to him http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/archive/istorija_gosudarstvennogo_upravlenija_rossii/08.aspx - _ftn3 and other institutions. Thus, the continuity of management and the evolutionary nature of the transformation of its apparatus were ensured during the transition to a qualitatively new level of unity of command, responsibility, diligence and the formation of departmentality Ignatov VG History of public administration in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002, p. 410.

M. A. Prikhodko

TASK COMMITTEE AND DEVELOPMENT

OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM IN RUSSIA IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 19TH CENTURY

Administrative transformations in the domestic policy of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century. are quite distinctly subdivided into the establishment of the Permanent Council, Senate reform and ministerial reform. To one degree or another, all of them were discussed in the Unofficial Committee (1801-1803) - a special secret body under Emperor Alexander I (composed of V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Czartorysky and under the chairmanship of Emperor Alexander I).

Until now, to study the administrative reforms in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the XIX century. and the role of the Unspoken Committee in them, the works of famous Soviet historians S. B. Okun and A. V. Predtechensky1 remain fundamental. The main source that allows reconstructing the course of development and implementation of administrative reforms are the so-called protocols of the Private Committee, which were kept by P. A. Stroganov. At the same time, researchers usually refer to the edition of this source, prepared by led. book. Nikolai Mikhailovich more than 100 years ago2. This work is intended to systematize information about the stages of preparation of administrative reforms, starting from the original manuscripts of P. A. Stroganov.

As is known, the Permanent Council was established on March 30, 18013, much earlier than the beginning of the sessions of the Unspoken Committee. In fact, the Unspoken Committee was discussing its possible further transformation - at 7 meetings: November 18, 21, 25, December 23, 1801, then February 10, April 11 and 12, 18024.

At a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on November 18, 1801, S. R. Vorontsov's proposal to consider all state affairs in the Permanent Council was discussed. N. N. Novosiltsev read out his note on this issue. The author of the note highlighted the disadvantages of this proposal - the lack of unity of opinion among the members of the Permanent Council and the violation of secrecy in the discussion of the most important

1 Predtechensky A. V. Essays on the socio-political history of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. M.; L., 1957; Okun S. B. 1) Essays on the history of the USSR: The end of the 18th - the first quarter of the 19th century. L., 1956; 2) History of the USSR: (Lectures). Part I. Late 18th - early 19th century. L., 1974.

2 Nikolai Mikhailovich, led. book. Count Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov (1774-1817). SPb., 1903 T. 1-3.

3 Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Assembly 1st (hereinafter - PSZ4). T. XXVI. SPb., 1830. No. 19806. S. 598.

4 Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (hereinafter referred to as RGADA). F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs. D. 10. L. 64-98 about, 125-140 about; D. 11. L. 37-44 about; D. 12. L. 11-38v.

© M. A. Prikhodko, 2013

government issues. These minuses in the opinion of the members of the Unspoken Committee outweighed the expediency of expanding the powers of the Permanent Council.

At the same time, Alexander I proposed to draw up a complete list of cases submitted for discussion to the Permanent Council5. At a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on November 21, 1801, its members tried to determine this list. Alexander I objected to the inclusion of foreign affairs there, which required secrecy in the discussion.

In addition, the note by F. C. La Harpe on the Indispensable Council was discussed at this meeting. La Harpe's main proposal was to establish the position of vice-president (deputy chairman) of the Permanent Council, which, in the absence of the emperor, would preside over the Permanent Council. Further, F. C. La Harpe proposed to introduce future ministers into the Permanent Council, but only with an advisory vote. The result of the discussion was the instruction of Alexander I to V.P. Kochubey to draw up a preamble (introductory part) to the “decree” on the Permanent Council6.

At a meeting on November 25, 1801, V.P. Kochubey read out the preamble to the "decree" on the Permanent Council. However, its content is not reflected in the protocols of the Secret Committee7.

At a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on December 23, 1801, N. N. Novosiltsev reported on his conversation with A. R. Vorontsov on the issue of the “regulations” of the Permanent Council. Judging by his words, Vorontsov approved the idea of ​​establishing the post of vice-president of the Permanent Council, which would maintain order during its meetings8.

At a meeting on February 10, 1802, a note by A. A. Czartory-sky “on the form of government” was considered. One of the measures proposed by him was the establishment of the Council under the emperor, in the form of a common coordinating body. This measure is directly related to the subject of our article, since it is correlated with both the Permanent Council and the future Committee of Ministers.

Alexander I wanted to know how the Council under the emperor would be arranged. The members of the Private Committee replied that it would consist of ministers only9.

At a meeting on April 11, 1802, the attention of the Secret Committee was drawn to the procedure for resolving issues that exceeded the power of the ministers. N. N. Novosiltsev, in his project for the establishment of ministries, proposed the following. Each minister will have an instruction that will precisely define the scope of his powers. All questions exceeding ministerial authority must be resolved by the emperor on the basis of a ministerial report and the opinion of the Permanent Council on this issue. The draft decree approved by the emperor, sealed with the signature of the minister, was made public in the usual manner.

The issue of submitting decrees for preliminary consideration by the Permanent Council caused a discussion. Since it was supposed to significantly improve Novosiltsev's project, the solution of this issue was postponed10. Its discussion was continued at the next meeting of the Private Committee on April 21, 1802.

5 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 10. L. 78-82v.

6 Ibid. L. 85-88.

7 Ibid. L. 98-98v.

8 Ibid. L. 127 ob-128.

9 Ibid. D. 11. L. 39-39v, 42-43v.

10 Ibid. D. 12. L. 16-17v.

The members of the Unspoken Committee came to the general opinion that ordinary matters would be considered by the ministers themselves, but the most important of them would be discussed in the Permanent Council, at meetings specially convened for this purpose. Future events in the field of higher state administration will show that it was precisely this formulation of N. N. Novosiltsev's project that laid the foundation for the highest administrative body of the Russian Empire - the Committee of Ministers. It is obvious that the members of the Unspoken Committee did not realize that they were creating a new supreme state body, since at the meeting on April 21, 1802, it was only about the transformation of the Permanent Council, in the form of dividing it into two compositions - narrow, from one ministers, and wide, including ministers and other members of the Permanent Council. Only the practical implementation of the Manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries" of September 8, 1802 gave impetus to the creation of a special Committee of Ministers, independent of the Permanent Council.

The emperor suggested that all matters could be submitted to the Permanent Council. The "young friends" convinced that it depended only on his will, but that the submission of all issues to the Permanent Council would complicate the administration and the activities of the ministers, who already bear great responsibility. The emperor agreed with this opinion.

Then an article was approved, which established that all ministers were members of the Permanent Council. Management issues are discussed in the Permanent Council, with the participation of the minister whose competence includes this issue and with the obligatory participation of the ministers of justice, internal affairs and finance. As regards the order of meetings, it was decided that the Permanent Council would meet only on official notice sent personally to each of the members. Alexander I noted that there are already special days for meetings of the Permanent Council, and if there is no matter requiring urgent convocation, then it will be possible simply to notify the members of the Permanent Council about the cancellation of the next meeting. This comment was taken into account. With this, the discussion in the Unspoken Committee of the question of the transformation of the Permanent Council was completed.

14 meetings of the Private Committee were devoted to the discussion of the Senate reform: June 24, August 5, 13, September 11, December 2, 9, 30, 1801; January 3, 6, March 17, 24, April 21, May 5, 1802 and March 16, 180312

If we single out the main thing in these discussions, then it was the problem of transforming the Governing Senate into a representative institution, as well as the question of the limits of its competence: whether it should be the “center” of all authorities or only the highest judicial institution and the “custodian of laws”.

Already at the first meeting of the Unspoken Committee on June 24, 1801, Alexander I recalled the need to elect senators “only among people who can honorably cope with this function” and proposed a possible procedure for their election - “appoint two candidates from all provinces and choose senators already from the compiled list.

In addition, Alexander I approved the proposal of the members of the Unspoken Committee to commission Senator P.V. Zavadovsky to draw up a report on the rights and benefits of the Senate14.

11 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 10. L. 30v.-36.

12 Ibid. L. 1-4 rev., 29-44, 49-53, 99-118, 141-150 rev.; D. 11. L. 1-8v., 59-103v.; D. 12. L. 23-47v.

13 Ibid. L. 4.

14 Ibid. L. 3v.-4.

At the end of July 1801, the report of the Senate on the project of P. V. Zavadovsky was received by Alexander I and was submitted by him for consideration by his “young friends”15.

At a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on August 5, 1801, N. N. Novosiltsev read out a note about the Senate on behalf of the “young friends”. In it, he opposed the transformation of the Senate into a legislative institution and spoke in favor of "transferring only legal (that is, judicial) power into the hands of the Senate"16. It was decided to entrust the drafting of the Decree to the Senate D.P. Troshchinsky and wait for the drafting of the reform of the Senate by G.R. Derzhavin17.

At the next meeting of the Unspoken Committee on August 13, 1801, Alexander I announced that he had ordered the drafting of the Decree to the Senate18. At the same time, the emperor instructed G. R. Derzhavin, through the intermediary of P. A. Zubov, to draw up another draft of the structure of the Senate19. The purpose of these orders was, obviously, the acquisition of another model of Senate reform, independent of the opinion of "young friends".

In the future, the discussion on the transformation of the Senate into a representative institution will mainly be connected with the Senate projects of G. R. Derzhavin and P. A. Zubov. As M. M. Safonov established, these drafts were editions of the same document, differing from each other in the degree of radicalism of the proposed measures20. According to the project of G. R. Derzhavin, the Senate was a meeting of the first state officials, in which the emperor represented the face of the president.

In functional terms, the Senate was designed as the highest and all-encompassing body, which was entrusted with legislative, executive, judicial and protective (that is, supervisory in relation to the execution of laws) powers. Each power was headed by a separate minister, who was in charge of the Chancellery and carried out communication with the emperor. These proposals significantly corrected the ministerial reform, turning the ministers not into heads of central state institutions, but into heads of the authorities (departments) of the Senate, with the likely continuation of the functioning of colleges and collegiate institutions21 and the preservation of the collegiate management system as a whole.

As conceived by G. R. Derzhavin, the elections to the Senate were carried out as follows. The meeting of the most distinguished state officials and officials of the first 5 classes of all government offices in St. Petersburg and Moscow chose three candidates for each place from the first 4 classes. Of these, the emperor claimed one22. That is, G. R. Derzhavin conceived the Senate as a representative body of the nobility23.

The project of P. A. Zubov differed from the project of G. R. Derzhavin in the absence of a chapter on the structure of the legislature and separate articles relating to the

15 Safonov M. M. The problem of reforms in Russian government policy at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L., 1988. S. 155.

16 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs. D. 10. L. 29v., 30v. - 31.

17 Ibid. L. 31 about. - 32.

18 Ibid. L. 41.

19 Works of Derzhavin. T. 6. St. Petersburg, 1871. S. 762.

20 Safonov M. M. The constitutional project of P. A. Zubov - G. R. Derzhavin // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1978. T. X. S. 235.

21 Since in the project of G. R. Derzhavin they were subordinate to the 2nd department of the Imperial supreme government or executive power (Collection of the Archaeological Institute. Book 1. Dep. 2. St. Petersburg, 1878. P. 138, 142).

22 Ibid. pp. 137-139.

23 In contrast to the earlier and radical "Notes" to the Decree of June 5, 1801, in which the clergy and merchants were involved in the formation of the Senate.

dative activity of the Senate. That is, the Senate in the project of P. A. Zubov was not a legislative (legislative) body24.

The projects of G. R. Derzhavin and P. A. Zubov were considered at the Moscow meeting of the Secret Committee on September 11, 1801. The subject of discussion was the separation of powers within the Senate. Moreover, the emperor valued the project of P. A. Zubov so much that the “young friends” were forced to praise him and choose something from him for further work25. At the end of this meeting, Alexander I ordered the members of the Private Committee to also draw up a draft on this issue.

The issue of reforming the Senate was revisited at a meeting of the Private Committee on December 2, 1801, at the end of which Alexander I told his “young friends” that it was time to finally resolve this issue and consider it at the next meeting27. At the meeting on December 9, 1801, P. A. Stroganov read out his note on the Senate. In it, he tried to harmonize the provisions of the July report of the Senate with the provisions of the draft of P. A. Zubov, if possible, removing from it all articles that contradicted the report of the Senate28.

As the preparatory materials of P. A. Stroganov’s work with P. A. Zubov’s project show, he completely abandoned the articles containing provisions on the separation of powers in the Senate and on the election of senators29. Thus, P. A. Stroganov sought to remove from the Senate project any mention of the representative nature of the formation of the Senate and the union of all authorities in it. And Stroganov succeeded in this, because at the next meetings of the Private Committee devoted to the discussion of the Senate reform - December 30, 1801 and January 3, 1802, the issue of the election of senators and the transformation of the Senate into a representative institution was not raised.

However, at a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on January 6, 1802, unexpectedly for the "young friends", the emperor himself returned to the method of electing senators. He suggested developing new rules for their election and read out articles from G. R. Derzhavin's project, which provided for a two-stage electoral system: 1) the landlords of each district elect electors from among the first 8 classes; 2) electors elect candidates from the first 4 classes and present them to the emperor, who appoints senators from the general list of candidates30.

Members of the Unspoken Committee told Alexander I that the inhabitants of the provinces did not know the officials of the first 4 classes well and therefore would not be able to make their choice competently. Based on this thesis, they managed to convince the emperor31. With this, the question of the election of senators and the transformation of the Senate into a representative body in the Unofficial Committee was closed.

The meeting of the Unspoken Committee on March 17, 1802 was devoted, along with other issues, to the discussion of the projects of A. R. Vorontsov, the purpose of which was to reform the Chancellery of the Senate and Heraldry32.

24 Safonov M. M. The constitutional project of P. A. Zubov - G. R. Derzhavin ... S. 235.

25 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs. D. 10. L. 50 about. - 51.

26 Ibid. L. 53.

27 Ibid. L. 109 about. - 110.

28 Ibid. L. 112 about. - 124rev.

29 Ibid. D. 13. L. 20-20v., 21, 23.

30 Ibid. D. 11. L. 7v.- 8v.

31 Ibid. L. 7 about. - 8 about.

32 Ibid. L. 70-72v.

The meetings of the Private Committee on March 24, April 21 and May 5, 1802 were devoted to the discussion of specific issues of Senate reform. The proposal to address the decrees of the emperor first to the Senate, which will send them to the ministers in accordance with their competence33, the issue of the responsibility of ministers to the Senate34, several opinions of the members of the Permanent Council regarding the draft Decree to the Senate35 were discussed.

Despite the fact that the official text of the Decree "On the Rights and Duties of the Senate" dated September 8, 1802, characterized the Governing Senate as "the supreme seat in the empire", from the new powers entrusted to it, only the right to submit to the emperor on decrees that contradicted previously published regulations and the responsibility of ministers to the Senate36, which in practice turned out to be a fiction.

The meeting of the Unspoken Committee on March 16, 1803 was devoted to the preparation of a draft Decree to the Senate37, approved on March 21, 1803,38 and effectively eliminating the right to submit the Senate to the emperor for decrees that contradict previously issued laws, established by the Decree of September 8, 1802.39 This discussion in The silent committee for Senate reform was over.

9 meetings of the Unspoken Committee were devoted to the development of the ministerial reform: February 10, March 10, 17, 24, April 11, 21, May 5, 12, 1802 and March 16, 180340

At a meeting on February 10, 1802, Prince Adam Czartoryski presented a note to the Secret Committee on the "form of government." He first outlined a general picture of the state of public administration, which, in his opinion, represented the "greatest mess". The object of criticism was the struggle between the Senate and its office, headed by the Prosecutor General, complicated by clashes between the Council at the Imperial Court and the Senate, the irresponsibility of senior officials at the head of central state institutions, the fictitiousness of prosecutorial supervision.

In this regard, Czartoryski proposed a complete reorganization of state administration: “to distribute administrative powers” ​​among several ministers who would hold in their hands all the threads of government, such as public education, internal affairs, finance, justice, the military department, the navy, etc. e. Under these ministers, a council should be formed, having only an advisory vote and consisting of chief officials. The second part of the plan was devoted to the court, which is divided into civil, criminal and police; in the first two divisions, only two instances and a court of cassation were offered. The third part of the plan dealt with the Senate, which, according to the author, was supposed to exercise constant control over the correctness of the actions of officials. Each year, the ministers present their reports to this assembly41. The emperor and the members of the Unspoken Committee generally approved Czartoryski's proposals42.

33 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 11. L. 90.

34 Ibid. D. 12. L. 32-34.

35 Ibid. L. 46-47.

36 PSZ-! T. 27. No. 20 405. S. 241-248.

37 Dated according to the manuscript of the document (RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 11. L. 59).

38 PSZ-! T. 27. No. 20 676. S. 505-506.

39 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs. D. 11. L. 59-62.

40 Ibid. L. 37-103v.; D. 12. L. 11-66v.

41 Ibid. D. 11. L. 37-40v.

42 Ibid. L. 40 about. - 41 about.

At a meeting of the Unspoken Committee on March 10, 1802, N. N. Novosiltsev told the committee that the young Count L. K. Plater had submitted to him a draft version of his project for the establishment of ministries. This project became the subject of further discussion. Platera's project provided for the creation of nine ministries: 1) justice, 2) internal affairs, 3) foreign affairs, 4) public education, 5) military, 6) maritime, 7) finance, 8) treasury and 9) police. The composition of the ministries proposed by L.K. Plater, almost completely, with the exception of the Ministry of Public Education, repeated the composition of the French ministries, so we can talk about the strong French influence present in this project. Detailed tables of the structural subdivisions of each of the ministries were attached to Plater's draft.

According to P. A. Stroganov, the emperor “studied these tables with great satisfaction,” but he did not like the structure of the Ministry of Justice, which, as it seemed to Alexander, I had units formed arbitrarily. In addition, the emperor noted the excessive number of ministerial divisions.

V.P. Kochubey had with him the “French National Almanac”, containing a description of the organizational structure of the ministries of France43. He compared the structure of the French ministries according to the "French National Almanac" with the tables of the Plater project. But it turned out that the French also had a lot of units. This concludes the discussion of the ministerial draft

At a meeting on March 17, 1802, N. N. Novosiltsev informed the Private Committee about the conversation he and A. Czartorysky had with F. Ts. Laharpe, in which La Harpe approved the plan for establishing ministries. Novosiltsev added that A. R. Vorontsov also expressed his approval of the idea of ​​the ministries and the plan of division of affairs between them45.

At a meeting on March 24, 1802, V.P. Kochubey read out his draft introduction to the Decree on the establishment of ministries (a draft "to motivate the decree, which would entail the creation of a ministry"). It outlined the reasons for this measure, listed the duties and candidatures of ministers, proclaimed the goal of establishing ministries - the ever-increasing welfare of all citizens.

One of the articles of the draft introduction of V.P. Kochubey provided for the abolition of collegiums, with their replacement by the offices of ministers. The emperor opposed such a drastic measure and proposed that the colleges be subordinated to the ministers, and only later, gradually replace them. The opinion of Alexander I was supported by A. Czartoryski. V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev and P. A. Stroganov believed that it would be difficult to preserve the old institutions, since the forms of office work of these institutions would greatly constrain the activities of the ministers, and in the event that the boards were subordinate to the ministers, they would have to change the forms of office work of the boards, which is very labor intensive. Discussion of this issue in the Private Committee did not lead to a definite decision. But the opinion expressed by the emperor remained unchanged and, in the end, determined the half-hearted

43 Almanach national de France. Paris. 1801. R. 67, 89-127.

44 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs. D. 11. L. 54-56.

45 Ibid. L. 75 about. - 76.

The essence of the Manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries" of September 8, 1802 and the entire initial period of the ministerial reform as a whole.

Regarding the article in which V.P. Kochubey outlined the general composition of ministers, the emperor asked if any coordination of all ministers was planned and whether there was a need for a separate minister of commerce. The members of the committee replied to Alexander I that before A. N. Olenin collected information about the relationship between the various branches of government and government bodies, they could not answer this question; it is not yet clear to them what to do with the united ministry, since control over all branches of economic management is entrusted to the minister of finance.

Alexander I remarked that it would be very useful to have a minister of commerce; in support of his position, he cited the opinion of La Harpe. Further discussion of this issue did not lead to a concrete result46.

At a meeting on April 11, 1802, the so-called preliminary draft of N. N. Novosiltsev "on the division of ministries and on the distribution of powers" was heard. In this project, the entire government administration (ministry) was divided into separate parts, headed by ministers: justice, internal affairs, finance, state treasury, foreign affairs, military, maritime, public education. Novosiltsev did not include the Ministry of Commerce in his project, but he specifically stipulated this fact at the meeting, saying that if the emperor pleased, it would be possible to transfer the Commerce Collegium and Customs from the Ministry of Finance to the Minister of Commerce, which would be a separate subject of this ministry. . Thus, the total number of ministries in the Novosiltsev project was 9. Eight were determined, and the ninth could be added at the request of the emperor. To help each of the ministers, it was supposed to appoint deputies - "lieutenant ministers".

Alexander I generally approved of Novosiltsev's project, but again wanted to consult with La Harpe. N. N. Novosiltsev replied that he was just about to do this and, in addition, asked the emperor's permission to discuss the details of the project with people who had experience in everyday administrative work. The Emperor agreed to this.

Then the members of the Unofficial Committee discussed La Harpe's project on the organization of the Ministry of Public Education and the project of General F. I. Klinger, on the organization of public schools. After a brief debate, the implementation of these projects was postponed until the establishment of ministries47.

At a meeting on April 21, 1802, N. N. Novosiltsev presented his complete project for the establishment of ministries. He expressed confidence that the ministries could begin their activities, guided by the provisions of the "General Regulations ..." of Peter I on the management of collegiums. Subsequently, it will need to be adjusted in accordance with the information collected on the management of La Harpe in France and his confidant in Prussia, "since our rules are no longer suitable for either courts or offices." All this, according to Novosiltsev, will be the government's top priority.

46 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 11. L. 86-92v.

47 Ibid. D. 12. L. 11-22v.

Alexander I noted that the procedure for the activities of judicial and administrative institutions should differ.

Novosiltsev began by outlining the procedure for compiling ministerial reports submitted to the emperor in the absence of the necessary laws. Each such report had to contain the essence of the issue requiring the emperor's order, the rationale for the reasons requiring this order, and the benefits that it would bring. These reports were supposed to be preliminarily reviewed by a committee of ministers. If this order was not observed, each minister was entitled to make his own presentation to the emperor on the topic of the report.

Alexander I expressed doubts about the need for such an order of the emperor's orders. The members of the Unspoken Committee convinced him that all branches of government were connected in a single chain, so all orders must be coordinated with each other, in addition, a preliminary discussion prevents cases of misleading the emperor and forces the ministers to adhere to the boundaries of their official duty.

The emperor expressed the opinion that the ministers should immediately start working, because if they are appointed, but do not take control within 1-2 months, then the current officials, knowing about their imminent resignation, will perform their duties poorly and cause irritation with his complaints, etc. Alexander I added that at first the new ministers would create their offices on the basis of the old officials, even if things did not go particularly well. The ministers will receive a conditional idea of ​​their offices, which within 6 weeks must be completed and brought to at least approximately the state that they should have according to the reform plan.

According to Novosiltsev's project, each minister submitted an annual report to the emperor. This report was preliminary considered by the Senate and together with the Senate conclusion in the form of a report was presented to the emperor. In addition, the Senate was given the right to demand explanations from ministers throughout the year. The emperor objected that "the Senate is given a right that it never possessed", that if they want to make it look like a court, then one of its functions will contradict the other. N.N. Novosiltsev noted that His Majesty approved the idea of ​​bringing the court and the persons under jurisdiction even closer by distributing the departments of the Senate among the provinces of the empire, then the 1st Department would remain in St. Petersburg and it could not be separated from its administrative functions, thus it could become, in a sense, the germ of an upper house. The emperor agreed with these arguments.

Further discussion touched upon the functions of the lieutenant (deputy) minister. He had to take part in all the affairs of the minister, at the discretion of the latter. The emperor expressed the opinion that it was necessary to more specifically define the scope of activity of the lieutenant of the minister, who was too dependent on his boss. Ministers were ordered to designate two days a week for receptions. When discussing the article on the principles of organizing ministerial offices, the emperor spoke in favor of not including these provisions in the instruction to each minister48.

48 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 12. L. 24v. - 36 about.

The beginning of the meeting on May 5, 1802 was devoted to the discussion of the candidacies of the ministers of finance and justice. The emperor informed the members of the Unspoken Committee about the results of his conversation with La Harpe about the persons proposed for appointment as ministers. Alexander I proposed to appoint Count N. P. Rumyantsev as Minister of Finance, and A. I. Vasiliev as Minister of Justice. Laharpe expressed doubts about the need to move A. I. Vasiliev to the field of justice, in view of his greater usefulness in financial management, associated with his long-term practice in this area. Laharpe also noted the public recognition of Vasilyev as a person versed in finance. The members of the Unspoken Committee, responding to Alexander I, recognized Vasiliev's authority in society, but specified that until now, he was in charge not so much of finance as of the State Treasury. The appointment of Rumyantsev as Minister of Finance, according to the members of the Unspoken Committee, would require the appointment of one or more capable officials as assistants to him.

Alexander I also said that La Harpe advised at first to leave the Treasury and the Ministry of Finance united, especially if both were in the hands of A. I. Vasiliev, who could later separate them if necessary. And in general, La Harpe believed, in this direction it is not worthwhile from the very beginning to deal with the exact division of control spheres. The members of the Unspoken Committee spoke in favor of separating the state treasury and the ministry of finance, since all parts of the administration are already correlated and precisely defined, and one or another part belongs to a certain main unit.

In conclusion, the emperor informed the committee that La Harpe continued to insist on the creation of a separate Ministry of Commerce49.

First of all, a letter from A. R. Vorontsov addressed to the emperor was read, in which he strongly approved the plan for establishing ministries, noting that Empress Catherine II expressed similar ideas at the very beginning of her reign, but then abandoned them.

Further, the following were heard: “1) Remarks on the decree itself; 2) Note on various articles; 3) About the Forest Department; 4) Concise statements of money, which the manager of finance is obliged to submit monthly to the emperor; 5) About the report and audit; 6) A special note on various assumptions having connections with the administration being established.

A lengthy discussion ended with a statement by all members of the Unspoken Committee of the fact that the remarks made by A. R. Vorontsov50 were insignificant.

The last meeting of the Unofficial Committee, dedicated to the discussion of the ministerial reform - namely, the responsibility of ministers to the Senate, took place after the establishment of the ministries and touched upon the problems of not preparing, but implementing the ministerial reform. The meeting on March 16, 1803, was convened by order of the emperor to discuss a number of articles of the draft Decree to the Senate written by N. N. Novosiltsev, which caused disapproval of the sovereign.

49 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 12. L. 39-44v.

50 Ibid. L. 48-65.

The emperor introduced for discussion the question of the possibility of the Senate entering with a presentation to the emperor even in the case when the ministerial report had already been approved by the “highest” signature.

A. A. Czartorysky, P. A. Stroganov and N. N. Novosiltsev considered it necessary for the Senate to have such a right, since “it is impossible to deprive the Senate of the right to expose ministers in lies and prevent in this way undermining the emperor’s confidence in these cases.” V.P. Kochubey, who initially spoke out against it, agreed with the arguments of the members of the Private Committee. Alexander I also accepted these arguments.

However, the emperor did not agree with the end of Novosiltsev's project, in which the author argued that the report of the Military Collegium did not contradict the rights of the nobility and expressed gratitude on behalf of the emperor to the Senate for diligence in their work. Despite the arguments of the members of the Unspoken Committee that such an ending of the decree is a mild, but at the same time strict instruction, the emperor remained unconvinced51.

A note to the minutes of the meeting on March 16, 18G3, written by P. A. Stroganov, shows how this issue was resolved in practice. A few days later, N. N. Novosiltsev submitted to the emperor a draft Decree to the Senate, completely rewritten. In the text of the draft, he included the final lines that caused a dispute at the meeting on March 16, 18G3, but not in the sense of goodwill, but as a warning. The emperor agreed with this wording and approved the project as a whole52.

Despite the apparent preservation of the responsibility of ministers to the Senate, the Decree of March 21, 18G3 meant the elimination of the right to represent the Senate and fixed the absence of ministerial responsibility to the Senate. This ended the discussion of ministerial reform in the Unspoken Committee.

List of sources and literature

Decree "On the inviolability of the rights granted to the nobility" // PSZ-I. T. XXVII. SPb., 1830. No. 20676.

Decree "On the establishment of an indispensable Council for the consideration of important state affairs" // PSZ-I. T. XXVI. SPb., 1830. No. 19 806.

Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts. F. 1278. Op. 1. Stroganovs.

Works of G. R. Derzhavin. T. 6. St. Petersburg, 1871. XXX, 905 p.

Materials related to the issuance of the decree on September 8, 18G2 on the essence of the office, the rights and obligations of the Senate // Collection of the Archaeological Institute. Book. 1. Separate 2. St. Petersburg, 1878, pp. 68-168.

Safonov M. M. The constitutional project of P. A. Zubov - G. R. Derzhavin // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1978. T. X. S. 226-244.

Safonov M. M. The problem of reforms in the government policy of Russia at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. L., 1988. 247 p.

Almanach national de France. Paris, 1801.

51 RGADA. F. 1278. Op. 1. D. 11. L. 59-61v.

At the beginning of his reign, Alexander Ι expressed the idea that the state urgently needed radical changes. A personal friend of the emperor, Count Stroganov, put forward a proposal on this occasion that the administration should first be reformed. As a result, in 1801, in May, he presented a draft to the emperor, in which he recommended the creation of a secret committee to develop and discuss a plan for transformation. Ultimately, Alexander Ι approved the creation of this body. In fact, the secret committee is a state advisory institution of an informal nature. At the direction of the autocrat, Count Stroganov himself, as well as Kochubey, Czartorysky and Novosiltsev, who were especially close to the emperor, were included in the structure of the body.

Committee Tasks

It is worth initially dispelling one myth regarding some of the orders of the secret committee. When the tsar approved its composition, only Count Stroganov was in St. Petersburg. In view of this, the start of the body's work was temporarily postponed. Therefore, to say that Alexander Ι approved a number of orders of that time with the help of a newly formed committee would be a mistake. He carried out all the new instructions of that period, as well as the cancellation of some orders, together with the count, without the participation of the newly created body. When the first meeting of the committee was held, the plan of its work was immediately determined, as well as the tasks that it had to perform. This plan included the following items:

Determination of the actual state of affairs;

Carrying out reforms in the governmental mechanism;

Ensuring the independence of the renovated state institutions.

It is worth noting that it was Stroganov who considered these tasks to be priorities. At that time, the emperor was concerned about the issue of creating some kind of demonstrative declaration (for example, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen).

Novosiltsev's plan

Novosiltsev, in turn, proposed a different program of reforms. It included the following questions:

1. About the protection of the state, both from the sea and from the land.

2. On the formation of possible relations with other countries.

3. Solving the issue of the internal statistical and administrative state of the country. Moreover, the statistical state meant not the study of the problems of the people, but the establishment of industry, the establishment of trade routes and the issue of agriculture. To administrative, he attributed the solution of financial and legislative issues, as well as problems of justice. And it was to these questions that he assigned paramount importance.

Discussion of Novosiltsev's plan

To implement the first point of the plan, a special commission was created, which included competent people in the naval sphere. Some difficulties arose with the implementation of the second section. This was due to the fact that Alexander's absolute ignorance in the affairs of the foreign policy of the state was revealed. However, Czartoryski and Kochubey, who were competent in such matters, had definite views on this matter. However, even here difficulties arose, since the emperor suggested that special attention should be paid to drawing up a coalition against England. Moreover, such a proposal caused a storm of bewilderment among the members of the committee, since shortly before this, Alexander signed a friendly convention with this country. This made it possible to extremely successfully resolve the most controversial issues regarding maritime rights. In order to cool the ardor of the autocrat a little, the members of the committee advised him to consult on this issue with old experienced diplomats. Moreover, they strongly recommended the candidacy of A. R. Vorontsov.

Domestic reforms

The secret committee during the following meetings paid special attention to the internal relations of the country. This was due to the fact that the solution of these issues was considered the highest priority. As for the emperor, he was primarily concerned about two main points. This, as mentioned above, is the creation of a special declaration on the protection of rights, as well as the issue of reforming the Senate. It was in him that the emperor saw the defender of the inviolability of citizens.

Project "Charter to the people"

Another development, to which Alexander paid special attention, was compiled by Vorontsov and had nothing to do with the changes in the Senate. However, this project concerned internal changes and responded to the wish of the emperor to create a special declaration. Special acts were developed, outwardly very similar to Catherine's letters of commendation, but with one significant difference. It followed from the content that serious guarantees of the freedom of citizens extended to all segments of the population.

Solution of the peasant question

For the first time, the Committee for Improvement raised this issue during the discussion of the "letters of letters granted to the people." Moreover, this problem was raised for a reason. In the issue of "letters" the point about the possibility of peasants owning their own real estate was especially noted. It is worth noting that at that time, according to the autocrat, this was a rather dangerous right. However, after the coronation (which took place in November 1801), under the influence of La Harpe and Admiral Mordvinov (they declared the need to take some action in favor of the peasants), Alexander slightly retreated from his convictions. For example, Mordvinov proposed extending the right to own real estate to state-owned peasants, philistines and merchants. The members of the committee did not rule out the possibility that over time they would be able to come to a consensus on the abolition of serfdom. However, with the proviso that the solution of this issue should take place gradually and slowly, since the path of action remained completely unclear. In fact, the secret committee did not investigate the solution of issues related to trade, agriculture and industry. Although it should be noted that their condition at that time required special attention.

Central Government Reforms

The secret committee set itself the most important task of resolving issues on the transformation of the central authorities. Moreover, these changes began during the reign of Catherine - she managed to transform local institutions. However, the queue did not reach the central ones. The only thing she managed to do was to abolish the main part of the colleges. As can be seen from history, already under her rule, there was great confusion in the implementation of these reforms. That is why the members of the committee decided that the transformation of the central government is a paramount issue. Starting from February 1802, all the work of the committee was aimed precisely at the realization of this idea.

ministries

Approximately six months later, the members of the committee developed and approved a project for the formation of these bodies. As part of this proposal, the ministries of foreign, internal affairs and public education, justice, military and naval ministries were created. At the suggestion of Alexander, this list also included the Department of Commerce, which was created specifically for N. P. Rumyantsev. It is worth noting that the only completed work of the secret committee was the establishment of the ministries.

Emperor Alexander I

The beginning of the reign of Alexander I was marked by a broad amnesty and the repeal of a number of laws introduced by his father, Paul I.

The secret office was abolished, all political affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of the courts, torture was banned, privileges were returned to the nobility, and censorship was weakened.

In the first liberal transformations of Alexander I, a large role was played by the Unofficial Committee (an unofficial advisory body), created in 1801, which included friends of the youth of Alexander I: P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Czartorysky, N.N. Novosiltsev. During 1801-1804. they gathered at the emperor and together with him thought over the course of transformations and reforms. The secret committee considered the issues of the Senate and ministerial reform, the activities of the "Indispensable Council" (the former Council of State, which in 1810 again became known as the State Council), the peasant question, the coronation projects of 1801 and a number of foreign policy events. All members of the Unspoken Committee were adherents of the liberation of the peasants and supporters of the constitutional order.

Composition of the Private Committee

prince Adam Czartoryski, a Polish magnate with a European education, his homeland was annexed to Russia after the partition of Poland. He wanted to help Poland gain freedom and openly expressed his views.

Viktor Kochubey, a former ambassador in Constantinople, a longtime friend of Alexander, with whom he corresponded and to whom he revealed his most secret thoughts, sought to introduce fair laws and establish order in the country.

Pavel Stroganov. From the family of the largest rich people in Russia, who owned a huge collection of paintings. At the height of the French Revolution, he was in Paris and walked around in a red cap as a sign of solidarity with the revolutionaries. Catherine II urgently returned him to Russia, where he lived in the village for several years. Later, Stroganov reappeared at court, marrying the smartest and most educated woman in St. Petersburg, Princess Sofya Golitsyna, and began to lead the life of an enlightened nobleman.

Nikolai Novosiltsev- a relative of Stroganov - a specialist in jurisprudence, political economy and world history.

Secretly, friends drew up notes with projects for reforms that included the introduction of civil liberties, equality of all before the law and the creation of a society based on the principles of justice and brotherhood.

Alexander, the youngest of them, approved of the views of his like-minded people.

Paul I was alarmed by his son's friendship with liberal-minded young people, and he dispersed the circle: he sent Czartorysky as an envoy to Sardinia, Kochubey went into exile in Dresden, Novosiltsev himself went to England, Stroganov was removed from the court - the circle broke up. But as soon as Alexander I ascended the throne, the circle revived, but already in the form of an Unspoken Committee.

The Indispensable Council and the Senate were supposed to personify the continuity of Catherine's and the new reigns, and the Unspoken Committee was a response to the challenges of the time - above all, to changes in Europe under the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution.

Formally, the Private Committee was not part of the system of state administration, but in regular conversations with its members, the "young friends" of the emperor, plans for reforms were discussed. However, neither the emperor nor his staff had a clear idea of ​​the sequence of necessary reforms.

The circle lasted until about 1804. The emperor was more and more involved in the details of government, and now he did not really need advisers. Then the members of the former Unspoken Committee took high positions in the newly formed ministries.

Activities of the Private Committee

The first laws they created were the following:

A law that provided merchants, burghers and state peasants to acquire uninhabited lands (1801).

Decree "on free cultivators", giving landowners the right to release peasants with land for ransom (1803).

The Senate was declared the supreme body of the empire, concentrating the highest administrative, judicial and controlling power (1802).

At the head of the Synod was a civil official with the rank of chief prosecutor. From 1803 to 1824 the post of Chief Prosecutor was performed by Prince A.N. Golitsyn, who from 1816 was also the Minister of Public Education.

The ministerial reform was launched on September 8, 1802 by the Manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries". 8 ministries were approved, replacing the Petrine collegiums (liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I):

• foreign affairs
• military ground forces
• naval forces
• internal affairs
• finance
• justice
• commerce
• public education.

The ministries were built on the principle of unity of command.

Education

In 1803, new principles for the education system were laid out:

• classlessness;
• free education at the lower levels;
• continuity of curricula.

The education system consisted of levels:

• university
• gymnasium in the provincial town
• county school
• one-class parochial school.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

From the very beginning of the reign of Alexander I, Russia significantly expanded its territory: in 1801 Eastern Georgia joined it; in 1803-1804 – Mengrelia, Guria, Imereti; However, the actions of the Russian troops in Transcaucasia affected the interests of Persia, which caused the Russian-Persian war, which lasted from 1804 to 1813 and ended with the signing of the Gulistan Peace in 1813 and the annexation of Baku, Derbent, Karabakh and other Transcaucasian khanates to Russia. Under the treaty, Russia was granted the exclusive right to have its own navy in the Caspian Sea. The annexation of a part of Transcaucasia to Russia, on the one hand, saved the peoples of Transcaucasia from the invasions of Persian and Turkish invaders and helped to raise the economy of Transcaucasia to a higher level; on the other hand, between the Caucasian peoples and the Russian authorities and Russian settlers, there were often quarrels on religious and ethnic grounds, which gave rise to instability in the region.

Persia did not accept the loss of Transcaucasia. Pushed by Great Britain, she soon unleashed a new war against Russia, which ended in the defeat of Persia and the signing of the Turkmenchay peace treaty in 1828.

Borders before and after the conclusion of the treaty

The Russian Empire also included Finland, Bessarabia, most of Poland (which formed the Kingdom of Poland).

Peasant question

In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Count Guryev to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Project Mordvinov:

• peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which is completely left to the landowners;
• the size of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years old - 100 rubles; 30-40 years - 2 thousand; 40-50 years old - ...

Arakcheev project:

• to carry out the liberation of the peasants under the leadership of the government - to gradually redeem the peasants with land (two acres per capita) by agreement with the landowners at the prices of the given area.

Project Guryev:

• the slow redemption of peasant land from the landlords in a sufficient amount; the program was designed for 60 years, that is, until 1880.

As a result, the fundamentally peasant question was not resolved under Alexander I.

Arakcheev military settlements

At the end of 1815, Alexander I began to discuss the project of military settlements, the development of the plan of which was entrusted to Arakcheev.

The goals of the project were to enable the new military-agricultural class to maintain and recruit a standing army on its own without burdening the country's budget; the size of the army was to be maintained at the wartime level, and the main population of the country was exempted from the duty of maintaining the army. These military settlements were also to serve as a cover for the western frontier.

In August 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military settlers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. The growth in the number of districts of military settlements, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea, continued until the end of the reign of Alexander I. The military settlements were abolished in 1857.

J.Dow "Portrait of A.A. Arakcheev"

The oppressor of all Russia,
Governors tormentor
And he is a teacher of the Council,
And he is a friend and brother to the king.
Full of malice, full of revenge
Without mind, without feelings, without honor,
Who is he? A devotee without flattery
….. penny soldier.

We know this epigram of A.S. Pushkin on Arakcheev from school textbooks. And the word "Arakcheevism" for us is associated with the concept of gross arbitrariness and despotism. Meanwhile, historians of the 20th century began to evaluate his personality somewhat differently. It turns out that Alexander I himself initiated the creation of military settlements, and Arakcheev was against this, but, as an honest soldier, he did his duty. All his life he fiercely hated bribery: those caught red-handed were immediately expelled from their posts. Red tape, extortion for the purpose of obtaining a bribe were pursued by him mercilessly. Arakcheev strictly followed the execution of the assigned work. For this, the clerical community, in which the passion for bribes was ineradicable, hated Arakcheev. Most likely, it was this that created such a negative impression about him.

Pushkin subsequently changed his attitude towards Arakcheev and wrote about the message of his death: “I am the only one who regrets this in all of Russia - I did not manage to see him and talk a lot.”

opposition movement

It was especially strong against military settlements: in 1819 an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov, in 1820 on the Don: 2556 villages were engulfed in revolt.

On October 16, 1820, the uprising of the Semyonovsky regiment began, under its influence fermentation began in other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison.

In 1821, a secret police was introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Wars in which Russia took part during the reign of AlexanderI

Against the Napoleonic Empire outside Russia (1805-1807).

Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809). The reason is the refusal of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden to join the anti-English coalition. Result of the war:

• Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia;
• Sweden pledged to terminate the alliance with England and make peace with France and Denmark, join the continental blockade.

In 1806-1812. Russia waged war against Turkey. And as a result of the skillful diplomatic actions of M. I. Kutuzov, the Ottoman government was inclined to sign a peace treaty.

Lithograph "Alexander I accepts the surrender of Paris"

1804-1813 — Russian-Persian war.

1813-1814 - Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. In 1815, Alexander I was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna, which established a new European order.

The secret committee was founded unofficially in 1801 as the Circle of Young Friends of the Emperor.

The existence of the Committee lasted until 1805. Due to the radical views of its members and their disagreements with Emperor Alexander I, it was dissolved.

Goals and objectives of the Private Committee

The main purpose of the Committee was to:

• Find out the state of affairs in the Russian Empire.
• Reform the administration system.
• Form a national constitution that will enshrine all reforms.

The main tasks of the Committee:

• Reshape the government.
• Approve new social and economic rights of citizens of the country (the so-called Coronation charter).
• Reforming the public administration system (the Senate, ministries, etc.).
• Reforming the position of the peasant class.
• Transform the Russian Empire from absolute to constitutional by limiting the power of the emperor.

Composition of the Private Committee

Included (except for the Russian emperor) only four people:

• Stroganov P.A.
• Novosiltsev N.N.
• Chartoryisky A.A.
• Kochubey V.P.

Reforms of the Private Committee

The main reforms were the following:

• Decree "On free cultivators" in 1803 - the unrealized abolition of serfdom, which the Emperor did not dare to.
• The landlords received the right to release the peasants into the wild for the so-called. ransom, but that didn't solve the underlying problem.
• A draft law was developed that prohibited the sale of serfs. It was also proposed to exclude the illiterate from the nobility and for their rude attitude towards the peasants.
• Reform of ministries - Collegiums of Petrovsky time were abolished. Instead, ministries of the European type were created.
• Senate reform. This body received the rights of the judiciary.
• Reform of the education system. Several new types of schools were created. Universities were granted broad autonomy.

The main results of the Committee's activities

In the field of management:

• The Committee was, in a certain sense, a "laboratory" for new reforms in the Empire.
• The Cabinet of Ministers was created to govern the country.
• Eight new ministries have started working in Russia.
• The members of the Committee analyzed in detail the problems of the Empire, but their solution did not follow. As a result, they caused the revolutions of 1905 and 1917.
• A draft constitution was drawn up.

In the socio-economic sphere:

• More than 12,000 prisoners were amnestied, and prison maintenance was improved.
• Borders were opened for the import and export of goods.
• Universities gained independence from the authorities.
• Restored the so-called. "Charter to the nobility" and "Charter to the cities."
• Peasants were forbidden to sell without land and to give (complain) to the nobles.
• The peasants received the right to redeem themselves from the landlord along with the land.
• The petty-bourgeois and peasant estates were allowed to buy land that had not yet been populated.

There are a few facts worth paying attention to:

• The committee worked in secret.
• The representatives of the committee were strongly influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution.
• The main direction of the committee was the slogan "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity".
• Each member of the Committee had the right to enter the office of Alexander I at any time and share his thoughts on future reforms. Thus, the priority of reforms was demonstrated.
• Formally, there was a fifth representative in the Committee - A. Laharpe. He did not attend the meetings.