Characteristic features of the art of classicism. Classical style in architecture
18th century literature
1) Literature of Petrovsky time
2) Formation of new literature. Russian classicism (A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov and others).
3) Literature of the Enlightenment (N.I. Novikov, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.).
The first period is Preclassicism, or the literature of the time of Peter the Great. The name was proposed by Professor P.A. Orlov, this period begins in 1700 and continues until the early 30s.
Russian literature was born along with the Petrine reforms.
“Our literature suddenly appeared in the 18th century…” wrote A.S. Pushkin, while the writer, of course, knew that the origins of Russian literature go back to ancient times. In this phrase, the key word is "suddenly". With this word, Pushkin emphasized that literature, formed in the dynamics of Russia's development, rapidly went from infancy to maturity ("suddenly" - not even in a century, but in 70 years). "Young Russia" "married with the genius of Peter" (Pushkin).
Main feature- an intensive process of secularization (secularization).
New concept of man: to be a citizen of the Fatherland. This concept becomes the main moral value for Peter's contemporaries. It was during this period that the word of Greek origin appeared in Russian - patriot. That is, the son of the Fatherland. A person is no longer perceived as a source of sinfulness, as was the case in ancient Russian literature, but becomes an active person. Not wealth, not a noble origin, but intelligence, education, courage, public benefit - this is what elevates a person to the high rungs of the social ladder. That is why among the ascetics of the sovereign there are people of humble origin: the first governor of St. Petersburg Menshchikov, diplomat Yaguzhinsky, senator Nesterov, and the wife of Peter I herself, the future empress, did not differ in the nobility of the family.
A brief description of the period: the ideological pathos of the literature of those years - support for the reforms of Peter the Great, hence the publicism of the works; the artistic consciousness is characterized by a thirst for novelty and at the same time an attraction to centuries-old traditions, hence eclecticism, the absence of a single aesthetic system, a single literary trend.
Among the new undertakings of the time of Peter the Great, the following should be especially noted:
1) The creation of the first newspaper - Vedomosti - which began to appear in December 1702. Peter himself took part in the publication of the newspaper: he selected material for publications, edited them, and often spoke on its pages himself.
2) The opening of a public (not court!) Theater in 1702 in Moscow. It existed until 1707. One of the main reasons for its short existence was the lack of a national repertoire that would meet the urgent needs of the time (by the way: the director and actor Johann Kunst, invited from Germany, headed the theater. The main roles were played by German actors). School theaters worked more successfully at that time (in Moscow, Kyiv, Novgorod, Tver, Astrakhan, Rostov and other cities).
3) The transformation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow into a State institution, instead of the boyar Duma - the Senate, instead of the patriarch - the Synod, the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, the introduction of a civil font, more books were published in 25 years of the 18th century than in the previous two centuries.
4) The development of Russian journalism.
One of the famous writers of the time of Peter the Great was Feofan Prokopovich (1681 - 1736) - literary theorist, playwright, orator.
He grew up in a relatively democratic environment - he was the son of a Kyiv merchant. After the death of his father, he lived with his mother in extreme poverty. He brilliantly graduated from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, was tonsured a monk, went to Rome for 3 years, where he was prophesied a career as a brilliant preacher, because. was gifted with oratory. But in his way of thinking, he differed from the priests in a critical warehouse, understood the significance of Peter's reforms and, in Peter's struggle with the churchmen, sided with the sovereign, which caused the curse of the orthodox clergy. A prominent place in his literary activity is occupied by sermons. He gives a new sound to this traditional church genre: he tells about topical political tasks, the activities of the sovereign, about the benefits of education, travel. This form of communication between the priest and the flock exists to this day. Any church service in the temple ends with the appeal of the priest to the faithful.
According to Professor P.A. Orlov, the author of the textbook "The History of Russian Literature", Feofan Prokopovich "became known as a playwright: for the school theater at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, he wrote the play "Vladimir" in 1705. The author defined the genre of his play as a tragicomedy. The content was the adoption of Christianity in 988 by Prince Vladimir of Kyiv. The plot is based on the struggle of Vladimir with the defenders of the old faith - the pagans - the priests Zherivol, Kuroyad, Piyar. The novelty is that the plot is based not on a biblical event, as it used to be in ancient Russian literature, but on a historical one. This made it possible to give the play a topical character. The opposition of the prince to the pagan priests reminded Feofan Prokopovich's contemporaries of the struggle of Peter I with the reactionary clergy. The play ended with the approval of the new - that is, Christianity and the overthrow of pagan idols. So, at the beginning of the 18th century, a writer in the robes of an archbishop gave Russian literature a special feature - the ability to speak on topical topics, using events of ancient times or insignificant events. This feature of Russian literature would become a tradition in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Throughout his life, Feofan Prokopovich composed verses in the syllabic system of versification characteristic of the 18th century, but only 22 poems have come down to us.
The second period - the formation of Russian classicism. It covers the 1730s - 60s of the 18th century. These are the first steps of Russian classicism, which are carried out by the "chicks of Petrov's nest" - Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov.
Russian classicism
Classicism(Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic method and aesthetic trend in art and literature of the 17th-19th centuries.
The origins of world classicism- France of the 17th century; the views that belonged to the outstanding French playwrights Corneille and Moliere and the literary theorist N. Boileau.
Characteristic features of Russian classicism:
1. Focuses on the forms of antiquity, especially the heroic classics.
2. Proclaims the primacy of state interests over personal ones, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty.
3. Establishment in the aesthetics of the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots.
The process of nation formation, the rise of statehood and the flourishing of secular culture, unprecedented for Russia, were the historical and ideological soil that nourished the patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.
1. The idea of the natural equality of people became the ideological basis of Russian classicism, in literature led to an appeal to the development of the ethical essence of man.
2. The artistic form of expressing this problem has become emphasized presence of the author (relationship to the depicted). In Russian classicism, genres that imply an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality were greatly developed: satire (A.P. Kantemir), fable (A.P. Sumarokov, V.I. Maikov, I.I. Khemnitser), ode (M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin).
3. The theme of tragedy was dominated by national history stories.
4. The characteristic features of Russian classicism are close connection with modernity and accusatory orientation. Russian classicists allowed themselves to teach and educate the autocrats, defining their duties in relation to their subjects (ode “On the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna, 1947” by Lomonosov, “Felitsa” by Derzhavin, etc.)
5. Classicism literature contributed the formation of the Russian literary language and the transformation of versification . The new content of the works of the classicists - the glorification of civil and social ideals - required a new form of literary works. The classicists were the first in Russian literature to use such genres as ode (M.V. Lomonosov “On the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna”, G.R. Derzhavin “To the rulers and judges”), tragedy (A.P. Sumarokov “Dmitry the impostor” ), satire (A.D. Kantemir “To your mind”, “On nobility”), comedy ((D.I. Fonvizin “Foreman”, “Undergrowth”), fable (I.A. Krylov).
Features of the comedy of classicism:
1) Heroes are divided into positive And negative , the author's assessment is clearly expressed. Each hero is the bearer of some trait (virtue or vice), which is reflected in "speaking names" (Skotinin, Prostakov, Milon, Pravdin, Starodum at Fonvizin).
2) Classical plays are characterized by "role system" .
Role- a stereotype of character that passes from play to play. For example, the role of classic comedy is perfect heroine, lover Hero, second lover(Jonah); reasoner- a hero who almost does not take part in the intrigue, but expresses the author's assessment of what is happening; soubrette- a cheerful maid, who, on the contrary, is actively involved in the intrigue. Þ
The plot is usually based on "love triangle" : the heroine - the hero-lover - the second lover.
At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and virtue triumphs.
3) Principle three unities follows from the requirement to imitate nature:
- unity of time: the action develops no more than a day;
- unity of action: one storyline, the number of characters is limited (5 - 10), all characters must be related to the story, i.e. no side effects, characters.
4) Requirements for a classic composition: in a play, as a rule, 4 acts - in the 3rd culmination, in the 4th denouement. Features of the exposition: the play is opened by secondary characters who introduce the viewer to the main characters and tell the background. The action is slowed down by long monologues of the main characters.
5) A clear division into high and low genres.
MEMO "FEATURES OF CLASSICISM"
At the core of aesthetics
Features of classicism:
cult of reason ; rationalism
artisticwork organized asartificial
, schematism;
essential features ;
pure characters heroes; Andnegative ;
idealization
civil issues .
The characters are clearly divided into"speaking names"
"role system". Role- (Jonah);reasoner soubrette
Law of three unities: unity of time: unity of place: unity of action:
Exposition features:
MEMO "FEATURES OF CLASSICISM"
The main property of classicism - appeal to the images and forms of ancient art as classical and ideal samples; normative poetry.
At the core of aesthetics - the principle of rationalism and "imitation of nature."
Features of classicism:
cult of reason ; rationalism
artisticwork organized asartificial , a logically constructed whole;
strict plot and compositional organization , schematism;
life phenomena are transformed in such a way as to reveal and imprint their generic,essential features ;
pure characters heroes;heroes are divided into positive Andnegative ;
idealization heroes, utopianism, absolutization of ideas;
the objectivity of the narrative is emphasized;
active engagement with the publiccivil issues .
The characters are clearly divided intopositive and negative, the author's assessment is clearly expressed. Each hero is the bearer of some trait (virtue or vice), which is reflected in"speaking names" (Skotinin, Prostakov, Milon, Pravdin, Starodum at Fonvizin).
Classical plays are characterized by"role system". Role- a character stereotype that passes from play to play. For example, the role of a classic comedy isideal heroine, hero-lover, second lover (Jonah);reasoner - a hero who almost does not take part in the intrigue, but expresses the author's assessment of what is happening;soubrette - a cheerful maid, who, on the contrary, is actively involved in the intrigue.
The plot is usually based on"love triangle": the heroine - the hero-lover - the second lover. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and virtue triumphs.
Law of three unities: unity of time: the action develops no more than a day;unity of place: the author should not transfer the action from one place to another;unity of action: one storyline, the number of characters is limited (5-10
Requirements for a classic composition: in a play, as a rule, 4 acts: in the 3rd climax, in the 4th denouement.Exposition features: the play is opened by secondary characters who introduce the viewer to the main characters and tell the background. The action is slowed down by long monologues of the main characters.
A) Before you are 10 images of tombstones, some of which were created in the era of antiquity, and the rest - in the era of classicism in Russia, when the masters were largely guided by antique samples. Sign under each image of the monument, to which of the two eras (antiquity or classicism) it belongs.
For each correct answer - 1 point.
In total for part A - a maximum of 10 points.
B) Formulate what features unite the monuments of Russian classicism and antiquity. Determine what is typical only for tombstones of classicism.
Reasoning Evaluation Criteria
- Logic and coherence of reasoning 4 points
- The presence of subtle observations that reveal significant meanings 4 points
- Correct use of the conceptual apparatus and terms 2 points
In total for part B - a maximum of 10 points.
In total for task 1 - a maximum of 20 points.
Task 2 "Horace".
Before you is a fragment of the text of the tragedy of Pierre Corneille "Horace" (1639) and the painting by Jacques-Louis David "The Oath of the Horatii Brothers" (1784).
The plot of both works is based on the story of the Roman historian Titus Livius about the early period of Roman history. Three brothers from the Horatii family were chosen to fight the three best warriors of the city of Alba Longa, hostile to Rome, the Curiatii brothers. At the same time, Sabina, the wife of one of the Horatian brothers, was born in Alba, and Camilla, the younger sister of the Horatian brothers, was engaged to one of the Curiatian brothers. As a result of a cruel and long duel, the younger brother from the Horatii clan won by cunning, and so Rome finally rose above Alba Longa, and gradually over all the other Italian cities.
Compare how the same story is depicted in Corneille's text and in David's painting.
What details do the authors draw the attention of the reader/viewer to? What do space and scene look like? What role do color and color play in the perception of an image? How is the composition built?
What is the similarity and difference between the interpretation of this scene in the text of the tragedy and in the picture?
Based on these questions and your observations, write a short discussion (100‒120 words 1 ) on the topic “The story of the Horatii brothers at Corneille and in the picture of David.”
1 Here the minimum estimated amount of reasoning is indicated, the maximum amount is not limited.
PIERRE CORNEL "HORATIUS"
ACT TWO
PHENOMENON SIX
(translated by N. Rykova)
Horace, Sabina, Curiatius, Camilla
Curiatius
Oh gods, why is Sabina with him? Alas!
You sent the bride to help her sister,
So that her complaints shake my spirit
And could she win in her sadness?
Sabina
No, my brother, I will not get in your way -
I want to hug you, saying "I'm sorry" to you.
You are valiant blood, and believe in it calmly;
You will not do what is unworthy of the brave.
Whenever one of you could tremble now, -
I would have renounced my husband, my brother.
But a glorious husband, but a dear brother
Only one thing to ask and beg is ready:
I want this fight not to become criminal,
So that this honor is both pure and holy,
To stain her not dare a crime,
And you could become enemies without regret.
Only I am the culprit of your sacred bonds.
When I disappear, your union will disappear.
As honor commanded, the connection between you will be interrupted.
And so that hatred makes you enemies,
Let my bitter end decide everything today:
That is what Rome desires, and Alba commands it.
One will kill me, the other, longing for revenge,
In righteous anger he will come to the feat of honor,
And he will raise the sword, fully justified
Or revenge for a sister, or sorrow for a wife.
But what am I saying! And so you are too right: -
It should not cloud your high glory.
You gave your whole soul to your homeland.
The stronger your bond, the more generous you are with it.
On the altar of the country, you should slaughter a brother,
Do not delay, carry out the covenant sacredly:
First, thrust a sharp sword into his sister,
First, make his wife lie down dead, -
Start with me when your homeland
So dear to me you give your life.
In the battle assigned to you, the enemy is Rome,
You are Alba's mortal enemy, and I am both of them!
Or do you desire, soulless and severe,
So that I can see how that laurel wreath
What will the hero bring to his sister or wife,
Smokes blood, dear and close to me?
How to pay tribute to both the victim and the hero,
To be a tender wife and loving sister,
Rejoicing at the living, grieve over the dead?
There is only one solution: Sabina cannot live.
I must accept death, so as not to taste the torment:
I will kill myself, if your hands are weak,
Cruel hearts! What kept you?
I'll get my way later, if not now.
As soon as you come together with raised swords,
Lust for death, I will throw myself between you.
For one of you to fall head
You will have to hit Sabina first.
Horace
Wife!
Curiatius
Sister!
Camille
Be brave! They must soften!
Sabina
How! Do you sigh? Are your faces turning pale?
What scared you? And these are the brave
Hostile cities brave fighters?
Horace
What have I done, wife? What insults
Made you seek such revenge?
What did I do wrong! Who gave you the right
My spirit to test in a painful struggle?
You managed to surprise and delight him;
But let me complete my holy work.
You have surpassed your husband; but if he is loved
A valiant wife, do not triumph over him.
Go away, I don't want a victory too controversial
That I am defending myself is already shameful.
Let me die as honor commands.
Sabina
Don't be afraid, you now have a protector.
PHENOMENON SEVENTH
Old Horace, Horace, Curiatius, Sabina, Camilla
Old Horace
As children? Feelings dominated here
Are you wasting your time around your wives?
Ready to shed blood, embarrassed by tears?
No, you must leave the weeping wives.
Complaints will soften you and, with crafty tenderness
Deprived of courage, pushed to the wrong path.
Only flight will defeat such opponents.
Sabina
They are faithful to you: do not be afraid for them,
No matter how Camilla and Sabina suffered here,
You can expect honor from your son-in-law and from your son;
And if the murmur of our brave could soften,
You will surely be able to strengthen their valor in them.
Let's not shed unnecessary tears, Camille,
Before this firmness, our strength is negligible -
Only in hopelessness will we find peace.
Fight, predators! We will die of grief.
PHENOMENON EIGHT
Old Horace, Horace, Curiatius
Horace
Father, do not give in to such fury
And wives, I pray you, do not let out of the house.
Tears, cries of their bitter love
Let us not be embarrassed when blood is shed.
So our connection is close, which is possible without a doubt
In a shameful conspiracy, we throw the accusation;
But the honor of election would cost dearly,
Whenever we are suspected of meanness.
Old Horace
I'll do anything, my son. Go to the brothers, children,
And know that you have only one debt in the world.
Curiatius
How can I say goodbye to you and what can I say ...
Old Horace
No need to awaken my father's feelings!
I don't have enough words to inspire you with courage.
I am unsteady in my thoughts, and I feel moisture
In senile eyes, and he himself is ready to sob.
Fighter! Do your duty and await the judgment of the gods.
Criteria for evaluating written reasoning
The criteria for evaluating written reasoning are built in such a way that the ability to reveal and describe the meaning of a work of art through the analysis of expressive means is highly valued in the participants' works.
When evaluating work, you should be guided by the following criteria:
A. Interpretation and understanding
The work demonstrates the ability of the participant to consistently and reasonably:
- compare dissimilar texts;
- see deep meanings;
- make subtle observations to identify them;
- involve a wide range of associations to identify meanings.
Grading scale: 0–9–17–25.
In total, according to criterion A, a maximum of 25 points.
B. Creating text
The work includes:
- constant reliance on the analyzed work (citations, description of details, examples, etc.);
- compositional harmony, logical narration;
- stylistic uniformity.
Grading scale: 0–3–7–10.
In total, according to criterion B, a maximum of 10 points.
C. Literacy
There are no language, speech and grammatical errors in the work.
Grading scale: 0–2–3–5.
In total, according to criterion C, a maximum of 5 points.
Note: A continuous check of work according to the usual school literacy criteria with a full count of errors is not provided. If there are language, speech and grammatical errors in the work that seriously impede reading and understanding of the text (on average, more than five gross errors per 100 words), the work on this criterion receives zero points.
In total for task 2 - a maximum of 40 points.
Explanation of the rating scale
In order to reduce subjectivity in evaluating works, it is proposed to focus on the rating scale that is attached to each criterion. It correlates with the usual four-point system for a Russian teacher: the first grade is a conditional two, the second is a conditional three, the third is a conditional four, the fourth is a conditional five. Points between grades can also be set - they correspond to conditional pluses and minuses in the traditional school system.
The assessment for the work is set first as a sequence of assessments for each criterion (the student must see how many points he scored for each criterion), and then as a total score. This will allow at the stage of showing works and appeals to focus on discussing the real pros and cons of the work.
Maximum 60 points for work.
Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic trend. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.
Classicism in architecture
Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.
The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental antique architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.
The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.
The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.
The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.
In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).
The development of classicism in the world
Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.
There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:
- Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
- Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
- Empire.
These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.
It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.
Features of classicism
Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.
Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.
Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between the various arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.
Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.
Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.
Representatives of classicism
Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the period of its existence, many talented craftsmen have appeared, and a large number of projects have been created.
The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.
In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.
In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.
The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.
In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.
In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.
Classicism in the interior
The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.
Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.
The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.
Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.
The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.
The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.
At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.
Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.
Architecture examples
Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.
In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.
The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.
The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.
St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.
The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.
The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).
The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.
The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.
As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.
Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.
If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century there appeared original Russian architects, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.
The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.
This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.
St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.
Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.
A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.
Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
| Dominant and trendy colors | Saturated colors; green, pink, magenta with gold accent, sky blue |
| Classicism style lines | Strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion; smooth generalized drawing; symmetry |
| Form | Clarity and geometrism of forms; statues on the roof, rotunda; for the Empire style - expressive pompous monumental forms |
| Characteristic elements of the interior | Discreet decor; round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornament, coffered vault; for the Empire style, military decor (emblems); symbols of power |
| Constructions | Massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched |
| Window | Rectangular, elongated upwards, with a modest design |
| Classic style doors | Rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; with lions, sphinxes and statues |
Trends of classicism in architecture: Palladian, Empire, Neo-Greek, "Regency style".
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
The emergence of classicism
In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: "The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients." This call to renew contemporary art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism the necessary opposition to the court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject the imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - English in 1688, French - 101 years later.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
Historical characteristics of the classicism style
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.
Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, were being built in Paris, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
From the forms of Rococo, marked at first by Roman influence, after the completion of the construction of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After the wars of liberation against Napoleon, this "Hellenism" found its masters in K.F. Schinkele and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.
The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy the ancient building. What F. Gilly had left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and was called Walhalla (Walhalla "The Hall of the Dead").
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" is used - empire style. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.
In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities.
In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, Classicism had to get along with the romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the architectural neo-Gothic fashion. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.
In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaus-Arts).
The centers of construction in the style of classicism were the princely palaces - residences, Marktplatz (trade square) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built mainly in the classical style.
But the palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. Public buildings were included in the sphere of state building - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. Social buildings were added to them - hospitals, houses for the blind and deaf, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.
Church building no longer played a primary role, but remarkable structures were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a discussion about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.
Building features of the classicism style
After the collapse of the great historical styles that survived the centuries, in the XIX century. there is a clear acceleration of the process of development of architecture. This becomes especially evident if one compares the past century with all the previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic cover about five centuries, the Renaissance and Baroque together - already only half of this period, then it took less than a century for classicism to master Europe and penetrate across the ocean.
Characteristic features of the classicism style
With a change in the point of view of architecture, with the development of construction technology, the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. there was also a significant shift in the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that have not survived the highest stage of baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.
Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was to use ancient systems of shaping in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in opposition to the randomness, non-strictness of the architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview.
Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of the work of archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid the theoretical foundations of the movement, whose participants considered ancient culture to be the pinnacle of perfection in the art of building, a model of absolute and eternal beauty. Numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments contributed to the popularization of ancient forms.
Types of buildings in the style of classicism
The nature of the architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls are divided from the outside and from the inside by small pilasters and cornices. Symmetry prevails in the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans.
The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to reveal architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.
The most significant town-planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, resorts are laid.
