Artistic culture of Indonesia in the 13th-17th centuries. Dutch penetration and establishment in Indonesia in the first half of the 17th century

The degree of influence and assimilation of elements of Indian influence was different for coastal and inland (mostly agrarian) regions. In general, the paths of transition to a more mature socio-economic structure were determined mainly by local factors that had developed before the start of active contacts with other regions at the turn of the new era.

Section II

INDONESIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES (VII-MIDDLE XVII century)

Chapter 2

EARLY MIDDLE AGES (VII-X centuries). THE BEGINNING OF THE COLLECTION OF THE LANDS OF WESTERN NUSANTARA UNDER THE RULE OF THE MALAY AND JAVAN KINGDOM

STAGES OF THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF AGRARIAN RELATIONS

IN MEDIEVAL INDONESIA

In the medieval societies of Indonesia, the bulk of the population was made up of free peasants, united in small rural communities characteristic of medieval Southeast Asia(in general, any free was a member of a particular community). Throughout the 8th-15th centuries, judging by epigraphic data and information from narrative sources, primarily from Java, the dependence of communities increased first on the power of the monarch, and then more and more on the power of specific private owners. At the same time, representatives of its elite stood out from the community. Initially, they enjoyed various privileges, without leaving the community property, remaining village officials, and later more and more often moved to the position of bureaucracy under the monarch. Accordingly, if the most massive lower part of the layer of exploiters was previously represented by the communal elite, then in the future in its composition the proportion of state employees - petty and medium-sized officials - continuously grows (but does not become the main one).

The social position of the clergy also changed; initially united around large churches, it gradually turned into a corporation of small and medium-sized clergy, in one way or another connected with the state apparatus.

The land at that time in Java and, apparently, in other developed areas of the Archipelago could be the object of ownership of both the community and the private person.

The subject of our socio-economic analysis will be, first of all, the well-documented Java, since the socio-economic structures known to us, characteristic of medieval Malays, Balinese, etc., are in principle similar to Javanese. As a property, land in Java belonged to the VIII century. sovereigns of two levels: princes- cancer and the monarch who grew up from their midst and stands above them; then from the end of the X and at least the XV century. - only to the monarch. Cancers were major hereditary rulers of small principalities that arose in Central Java during the formation of a class society, then they turned into a hereditary patrimonial aristocracy, in the VIII-IX centuries. gradually losing part of its privileges in favor of the monarch and the highest representatives of power - rakarayans. By the end of the ninth century sovereignty is identified only with the maharaja (monarch), and the supreme ownership of the land becomes (until the end of the 15th century) "monocentric" instead of the earlier "polycentric". In the second quarter of the X century. the center of economic activity in Mataram moved from Central to the East Java region, where the prerequisites for folding classes arose later. The central government, which had already become the supreme owner of the land in the fight against cancer, entered into direct relations here with the top of the communities, from among which the cancer had not managed to stand out. More complex than in the center of Java in the 8th century, the apparatus of centralized oppression in the 10th century. superimposed on the rural society of East Java, where large possessions such as the possessions of cancer have not yet been formed. A new social situation arose in which there was no place for large non-serving owners not related to the monarch. Only in the XV century. the Javanese again had a large hereditary landed aristocracy, and with political rights; but now they are members of the monarch's family, who soon tore the country apart.

It is noteworthy that the monarch, the bearer of central power, only in two centuries (VIII-IX) acquired the supreme ownership of the land, at least in the traditional sense for our science. Although the large feudal lords were defeated by the end of the 9th century, nevertheless, the supreme power made the arena of its economic and political activity not the center of Java, where it won, but the east, where there were no losers at all as a social group, at least in the 10th-11th centuries There, in an almost pure form, a model familiar from other Asian countries was formed: “the monarch is the community”. It was preserved, which rarely happens, for several centuries, during which a service middle layer (secular and partly clergy) stood out from the free, and later, by strengthening the property rights of the closest relatives of the monarch, large hereditary owners arose from their midst - sconces (soon - with political rights). The latter were destroyed in the 15th century. the type of state that corresponded to a pronounced sovereign ownership of land - a centralized state-empire with a detailed system of exploitation of the free. At the same time, this detailed system itself began to disappear noticeably earlier than the collapse of the political institutions of the centralized empire - from the beginning of the 14th century, if not earlier. This is evidenced by the massive transfer by the state of its property rights to serving, and sometimes non-serving hereditary owners (not to be confused with immunities in general, which existed from the 8th century), as well as a general decline in taxation detail, the widespread use of customary law (which later prevailed in Indonesia). , and everywhere in Southeast Asia).

These processes prepared the decline of the centralized state and the collapse of the Majapahit empire at the end of the 15th century, but the very transition to the use of customary law by the society did not mean then, at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, the rejection of the supreme state ownership of land. It only marked the onset of the second period of the functioning of such property, which was accompanied by a certain decline in centralization almost everywhere in Southeast Asia - the period of collection of the bulk of the rent-tax by those sections of society (servicemen, clergy, and sometimes non-servicemen) to whom it was assigned by the state, and not by themselves. state, as before.

The processes of socio-economic development listed above did not proceed evenly over the course of eight centuries. In the picture of agrarian relations in Javanese society, which is drawn by the data of a quantitative analysis of inscriptions of the 8th-15th centuries, several eras of economic activity and corresponding innovations can be distinguished (primarily in the field of land redistribution). Each of them has certain socio-economic characteristics, each corresponds to clearly defined segments of the political history of Central and East Java, that is, the Javanese people. There are three such epochs: the first 732-928. (transitional Malang period 929-944); the second 992-1197; third epoch 1264-1486 They are separated by periods of time when no inscriptions are known at all, so epochs and periods do not have clearly defined time boundaries. There are some differences from the traditional periodization of the political history of Java, which, however, is still weakly substantiated for a number of periods.

Each of the three eras is characterized by a special specific composition of permanent social groups and special types of relations between them, as well as each of the groups - to the land. What are these groups?

They are traditional for medieval class societies: the monarch as the bearer of central power; serving and non-serving large hereditary landowners; service (rarely - non-service) medium and small landowners; clergy; village elite - village officials; the free ordinary population of the village; handicraft and trade non-communal groups; dependent population of the village. Both the nature of these groups, and the degree of similarity of some of them to each other, as well as the relation of each of them to the earth, often changed over time, from epoch to epoch, as will be shown in the course of describing the epochs themselves.

In Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries. two stages are clearly visible. The internal frontier in the development of culture of the XIII-XV centuries. was the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). If the first stage is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into a general Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

Folklore.

During the period of the struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, turning to epics and legends of the Kiev cycle, in which battles with the enemies of Ancient Russia were described in bright colors and the feat of arms of the people was famous, gave the Russian people new strength. Ancient epics acquired a deep meaning, began to live in oh life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that went to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic and historical songs is taking shape. Among them is the “Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich”, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.

Chronicle.

Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming more and more necessary. From the 14th century the use of paper instead of expensive parchment begins. The growing need for records, the appearance of paper led to the acceleration of writing. To replace the “charter”, when square letters were written out with geometric accuracy andfemininity, a semi-ustav comes - a freer and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. shorthand appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, in especially important cases, they continued to use parchment, various types of rough and household records were made, as before, on birch bark.

As already noted, chronicle writing in Novgorod was not interrupted even during the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. new centers of chronicle writing emerged. Since 1325, chronicle records began to be kept in Moscow as well. During the formation of a single state with its center in Moscow, the role of chronicle writing increased. When Ivan III went on a campaign against Novgorod, it was not by chance that he took with him the deacon Stepan the Bearded: to prove, on the basis of the chronicle, the necessity of annexing Novgorod to Moscow.

In 1408, an all-Russian annalistic code was compiled, the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which died in the Moscow fire of 1812, and the creation of the Moscow annalistic code is attributed to 1479. They are based on the idea of ​​all-Russian unity, the historical role of Moscow in the state unification of all Russian lands, the continuity of the traditions of Kiev and Vladimir.

Interest in world AI, the desire to determine one's place among the peoples of the world caused the appearance of chronographs - works on world AI. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.

Historical stories were a common literary genre of that time. They told about the activities of real historical persons, specific historical facts and events. The story often was, as it were, part of the annalistic text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the story “On the Battle of the Kalka”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (it told about the feat of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat), stories about Alexander Nevsky and others were widely known before the Kulikovo victory.

The brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 is dedicated to a cycle of historical stories (for example, “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”). Zephanius Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem "Zadonshchina", built on the model of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". But if in the "Word" the defeat of the Russians was described, then in the "Zadonshchina" - their victory.

During the period of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pakhomiy Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church leaders in Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who transferred the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sershev Monastery, who supported the great Moscow prince in the fight against the Horde.

“Journey beyond three seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the opening of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.

Architecture.

Earlier than in other lands, stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov. Using previous traditions, Novgorodians and Pskovians built dozens of small temples. Among them are such significant monuments of architecture and painting of that time as the Church of Fyodor Stratilat on the Ruche (1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) in Novgorod, the Church of Vasily on Gorka (1410) in Pskov. The abundance of decorative decorations on the walls, general elegance, and festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus is mainly on local traditions.

The first stone buildings in the Moscow principality date back to the 14th-15th centuries. The temples that have come down to us in Zvenigorod - the Cathedral of the Assumption (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-S Ozhev Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a powerful, full of grandeur, dignity and strength of the Moscow Kremlin.

The first white-stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian masters, who then occupied a leading position in Europe, ended with the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.

The Kremlin territory of 27.5 hectares was protected by a red brick wall, the length of which reached 2.25 km, the thickness of the walls was 3.5-6.5 m, and their height was 5-19 m. century, 18 towers were erected out of the current 20. The towers had hipped roofs. The Kremlin occupied a place on a cape at the confluence of the Neglinnaya River (now included in the collection) into the Moscow River. From the side of Red Square, a moat was built that connected both rivers. Thus, the Kremlin found itself, as it were, on an island. It was one of the largest fortresses in the world, built according to all the rules of the then fortification science. Under the shelter of powerful walls, the palaces of the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan, buildings of state institutions, and monasteries were erected.

The heart of the Kremlin is Cathedral Square, on which the main cathedrals overlook; its central structure is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower (finally completed under Boris Godunov, reaching a height of 81 m).

In 1475-1479. the main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the Assumption Cathedral was built. The temple was started to be built by Pskov craftsmen (1471). A small "coward" (earthquake) in Moscow destroyed the topmast of the building. The construction of the Assumption Cathedral was entrusted to the talented architect of the Italian Renaissance, Aristotle Fiorovanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. In the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, Fiorovanti managed to organically combine the traditions and principles of Russian (primarily, Vladimir-Suzdal) architecture and advanced technical achievements of European architecture. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here the tsars were crowned kings, Zemsky Sobors met, and the most important state decisions were announced.

In 1481-1489 vols. Pskov craftsmen erected the Cathedral of the Annunciation - the house church of the Moscow sovereigns. Not far from it, also on Cathedral Square, under the leadership of the Italian Aleviz the New, the tomb of the Moscow Grand Dukes was built - the Archangel Cathedral (1505-1509). If the plan of the building and its design are made in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, then the external decoration of the cathedral resembles the wall decorations of Venetian palaces. At the same time, the Faceted Chamber was built (1487-1491). From the "edges" that adorned the outer walls, it got its name. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. The almost square hall, whose walls rest on a massive tetrahedral pillar erected in the center, occupies an area of ​​about 500 square meters. m and has a height of 9 m. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the king, receptions were held, important decisions were made.

Painting.

The merging of local art schools into the all-Russian one was also observed in painting. It was a long process, its traces were noted both in the 16th and in the 17th centuries.

In the XIV century. in Novgorod and Moscow, the wonderful artist Theophan the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked. The fresco paintings of Theophanes the Greek that have come down to us in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and loftiness of the human spirit. Theophanes the Greek was able to create emotional tension, reaching tragedy, with strong long strokes of his brush, sharp “gaps”. Russian people came specially to observe the work of Theophan the Greek. The audience was amazed that the great master wrote his works without using icon-painting samples.

The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of Feofan the Greek's contemporary, the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information about the life of the outstanding master has been preserved.

Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory at the Kulikovo field, the economic upsurge of Muscovite Russia, and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist's works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous "Trinity" (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev's painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of ​​the unity of the world and humanity.

A. Rublev's brushes also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad that have come down to us.

RUSSIAN CULTURE XVI century.

The religious worldview still determined the spiritual life of society. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 also played an important role in this. It regulated art, approving the patterns that were to be followed. The work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.

In the XVI century. the formation of the Great Russian people is completed. In the Russian lands, which became part of a single state, more and more things were found in common in language, life, customs, customs, etc. In the XVI century. More tangibly than before, secular elements were manifested in culture.

Socio-political thought.

Events of the 16th century caused a discussion in Russian journalism of many problems of that time: about the nature and essence of state power, about the church, about the place of Russia among other countries, etc.

At the beginning of the XVI century. was created literary-journalistic and historical essay "The Tale of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir". This legendary work began with a story about the Great Flood. Then followed a list of rulers of the world, among whom the Roman emperor Augustus stood out in particular. He allegedly sent his brother Prus, who founded the family of the legendary Rurik, to the banks of the Vistula. The latter was invited as a Russian prince. The heir of Prus and Rurik, and consequently of August, Prince of Kiev Vladimir Monomakh received from the Emperor of Constantinople and the symbols of royal power - a cap-crown and precious barms-mantles. Ivan the Terrible, proceeding from his kinship with Monomakh, proudly wrote to the Swedish king: “We are related to Augustus Caesar.” The Russian state, according to Grozny, continued the traditions of Rome and the Kievan state.

In the ecclesiastical milieu, the thesis about Moscow, the “third Rome,” was put forward. Here the historical process acted as a change of world kingdoms. The first Rome - the "eternal city" - perished because of heresies; “to oh Rome” - Constantinople - because of the union with the Catholics; “Third Rome” – the true guardian of Christianity – Moscow, which will exist forever.

Reasoning about the need to create a strong autocratic power based on the nobility is contained in the writings of I.S. Peresvetova. Questions concerning the role and place of the nobility in the administration of the feudal state were reflected in the correspondence between Ivan IV and Prince Andrei Kurbsky.

chronicle writing

In the XVI century. Russian chronicle continued to develop. The writings of this genre include “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom”, which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. Another major work of that time is the “Book of Powers of the Royal Genealogy”. Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans in it are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. Such an arrangement and construction of the text, as it were, symbolizes the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.

In the middle of the XVI century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle code, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name of the Facial Vault (“face” - image).

Along with chronicle writing, historical stories, which told about the events of that time, received further development. (“Kazan Capture”, “On the Coming of Stefan Baiy to the City of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were created. The secularization of culture is evidenced by a book written at that time, containing a variety of useful information for guidance in both spiritual and worldly life - “Domostroy” (in translation - housekeeping), which is considered to be Sylvester.

Beginning of typography.

The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when the first Russian dated book “The Apostle” was published by the first printer Ivan Fedorov. However, there are seven books with no exact publication date. These are the so-called anonyms - books published before 1564. One of the most talented Russian people of the 16th century was involved in organizing the creation of a printing house. Ivan Fedorov. Printing work begun in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building was built for the printing house. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian primer - "ABC". Throughout the 16th century in Russia, only 20 books were printed by typography. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.

Architecture.

One of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture was the construction of hipped temples. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. The most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries and as the main cathedrals - in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

Another direction in the architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron of this craft.

In the XVI century. extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s of the XVI century. the part of the settlement adjacent to the Moscow Kremlin from the east was surrounded by a brick wall called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of isiks believe that the name comes from the word “whale” - a knitting of poles used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name comes either from the Italian word - city , or from the Turkic - a fortress). The wall of Kitay-gorod protected the city of Red Square and the nearby settlements. At the very end of the XVI century. architect Fyodor Kon erected the white-stone walls of the 9-kilometer White City (modern Boulevard Ring). Then Zemlyanoy Val was erected in Moscow - a 15-kilometer wooden fortress on the rampart (modern Garden Ring).

Stone fortresses with fire were erected in the Volga region (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan), in the cities to the south (Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov) and west of Moscow (Smolensk), in the north-west of Russia (Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Pechory ) and even in the far North (Solovki Islands).

Painting.

The largest Russian painter, who lived in the late XV - early XVI century, was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the fresco painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of the Moscow Metropolitan Alexei, and others. Dionisy's painting is characterized by extraordinary brightness, festivity, and sophistication, which he achieved. applying such techniques as lengthening the proportions of the human Body, refinement in the decoration of every detail of an icon or fresco.

RUSSIAN CULTURE XVII.

In the 17th century the formation of the all-Russian market begins. With the development of handicrafts and trade, the growth of cities, the penetration into Russian culture and the widespread dissemination of secular elements in it are connected. This process was called in the literature "secularization" of culture (from the word "worldly" - secular).

The secularization of Russian culture was opposed by the church, which saw in it a Western, “Latin” influence. The Moscow rulers of the 17th century, seeking to limit the influence of the West in the person of foreigners arriving in Moscow, forced them to settle away from Muscovites - in the German settlement specially designated for them (now the area of ​​Bauman Street). However, new ideas and customs penetrated into the established life of Muscovite Russia. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, to understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, manufacturing, etc. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia contributed to the expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.

Education.

In the second half of the XVII century. several public schools were established. There was a school for the training of employees for central institutions, for the Printing House, the Pharmaceutical Order, etc. The printing press made it possible to publish uniform textbooks for teaching literacy and arithmetic in mass circulation. The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by the sale in Moscow (1651) for one day of the “Primer” by V.F. Burtsev, published in 2400 copies. The "Grammar" of Meletius Smotrytsky (1648) and the multiplication table (1682) were published.

In 1687, the first institution of higher education, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was founded in Moscow, where they taught “from grammar, ri iki, piitika, dialectics, philosophy ... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sofrony and Ioanniky Likhud, Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. also studied at this academy. Lomonosov.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine, in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc. with great accuracy), in observing nature.

Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the development of geographical knowledge. In 1648, the expedition of Semyon Dezhnev (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev.

E.P. Khabarov in 1649 made a map and studied the lands along the Amur, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. At the very end of the XVII century. Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

Literature.

In the 17th century created the last annalistic works. The “New Chronicler” (30s) recounted the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

Historical stories, which had a journalistic character, occupied a central place in isical literature. For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik dyak Ivan Timofeev”, “The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn”, “Another Tale”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century of the genre of satirical story, where already fictional characters act. The “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “Kalyazinsky Petition” contained a parody of the church service, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, and “The Tale of Ruff Yershovich” contained judicial red tape and bribery. New genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed essay on AI. The Kiev monk Innokenty Gizel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint mission of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - the first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian AI.

Theater.

A court theater was created in Moscow (1672), which lasted only four years. It featured German actors. Male and female roles were played by men. The repertoire of the theater included plays based on biblical and legendary stories. The court theater did not leave any noticeable trace in Russian culture.

In Russian cities and villages, since the time of Kievan Rus, a wandering theater has become widespread - the theater of buffoons and Petrushka (the main character of folk puppet shows). The government and Church authorities persecuted buffoonery for their cheerful and bold humor, exposing the vices of those in power.

Architecture.

Architectural buildings of the 17th century. are of great beauty. They are asymmetrical both within a single building and in an ensemble. However, in this apparent disorder of architectural volumes there is both integrity and unity. Buildings of the 17th century multicolored, decorative. Architects were especially fond of decorating the windows of buildings with intricate, unlike each other platbands. Widespread in the 17th century. received multi-colored “solar tiles” - tiles and decorations made of carved stone and brick. Such an abundance of decorations located on the walls of one building was called “stone pattern”, “wonderful pattern”.

These features are well traced in the Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the Kremlin, in the stone chambers of the Moscow, Pskov, Kostroma boyars of the 17th century that have come down to us, in the New Jerusalem Monastery, built near Moscow by Patriarch Nikon. The famous temples of Yaroslavl are close to them in style - the church of Elijah the Prophet and ensembles in Korovniki and Tolchkovo. As an example of the most famous buildings in Moscow of the 17th century. you can name the Church of St. Nicholas in Khamovniki (near the metro station "Park Kultury"), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putanki (near Pushkin Square), the Church of the Trinity in Nikitniki (near the metro station "Kitay-gorod").

The decorative beginning, which marked the secularization of art, was also reflected in the construction or reconstruction of fortifications. By the middle of the century, the fortresses lost their military significance, and the hipped roof, first on Spasskaya and then on other towers of the Moscow Kremlin, gave way to magnificent tents that emphasized the calm grandeur and feminine power of the heart of the Russian capital.

In Rostov the Great, in the form of a Kremlin, the residence of the disgraced but powerful Metropolitan Jonah was built. This Kremlin was not a fortress, and its walls were purely decorative. The walls of large Russian monasteries erected after the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish intervention (Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Spaso-Efimiev Monastery in Suzdal, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Vologda, Moscow monasteries), following the general fashion, were also decorated with decorative details.

The development of ancient Russian stone architecture ended with the folding of the style, which received the name “Naryshkinsky” (after the names of the main customers), or Moscow, baroque. Gate churches, the refectory and the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent, the Church of the Intercession in Fili, churches and palaces in Sergiev Posad, Nizhny Novgorod, Zvenigorod and others were built in this style.

The Moscow baroque is characterized by a combination of red and white colors in the decoration of buildings. The number of storeys of buildings, the use of columns, capitals, etc. as decorative ornaments are clearly traced. Finally, in almost all the buildings of the “Naryshkino” Baroque one can see decorative shells in the cornices of buildings, which were first erected in the 16th century. by Italian masters when decorating the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The appearance of the Moscow baroque, which had common features with the architecture of the West, testified that Russian architecture, despite its originality, developed within the framework of a common European culture.

In the 17th century, wooden architecture flourished. “The eighth wonder of the world” was called by contemporaries the famous palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. This palace had 270 rooms and about 3 thousand windows and windows. It was built by Russian craftsmen Semyon Petrov and Ivan Mikhailov and existed until the middle of the 18th century, when it was dismantled under Catherine II due to dilapidation.

Painting.

The secularization of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The greatest artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his well-known icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, new realistic features of painting are clearly visible: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective.

The tendency towards a realistic depiction of a person and the secularization of icon painting, characteristic of the school of S. Ushakov, is closely connected with the spread in Russia of portraiture - “parsuna” (persons), depicting real characters, for example, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and others. However, the technique of the artists was still similar to that of icon painting, i.e. wrote on the boards with egg paints. At the end of the XVII century. the first parsunas appeared, painted in oil on canvas, anticipating the heyday of Russian portrait art in the 18th century.

The culture of Indonesia is considered one of the oldest and richest in all of Southeast Asia. The basis of Indonesian culture is the Malay tradition, which has absorbed the totality of cultures of all tribes and peoples inhabiting the islands of the Malay Archipelago.

One of the characteristic features of the culture of Indonesia is its amazing linguistic diversity - 728 living languages ​​​​and dialects are common in the archipelago.

From the 15th century the traditions of Islam, spread by the rulers of the Malacca Sultanate, who took control of most of Indonesia, came to the fore. The European colonialists who settled in Java in the 17th-19th centuries significantly influenced the architecture of the country, contributed to the emergence of large cities and the formation of modern authorities.

National features of Indonesia

The primacy of two traditional principles of life - the principle of mutual assistance (gotong royong) and the principle of public consent (mufakat), achieved through the exchange of opinions during negotiations (musyawarah) played a decisive role in shaping the worldview of the Indonesians. Religion also has a huge impact on all areas of Indonesian life, especially Muslim norms of behavior and traditions dating back to ancient times.

Despite the fact that the modern legal norms of Indonesia are based on the code of laws adopted by the Dutch colonial administration, the laws of "adat" are ubiquitous in the country, which have regulated the life of local village communities for centuries.

For Indonesians, one of the main life principles of the people of Indonesia is the desire to "save face" at all costs. This principle implies not only strict adherence to one’s social role, but also the condemnation of such obscene (for traditional culture) forms of behavior in society as a violent manifestation of negative emotions (anger, loud screams, swearing), disrespect for elders, wearing clothes that are too open or attempts to flirt with women.

Indonesian national costume

More than 300 ethnic groups live in Indonesia, each of which has its own variation of the folk costume - from the loincloths and feathers adopted by the Papuans to the intricate outfits of the Minangkabou and Toraya tribes, decorated with rich embroidery and beads. The classic Indonesian costume originated from the traditional outfits of the inhabitants of the islands of Java and Bali.

The centerpiece of the traditional Indonesian women's costume is the light, tight kebaya blouse, which is worn with a colorful batik-painted sarong skirt (or its variations, kain and dodot).

The male Indonesian costume consists of a loose baju shirt worn over a sarong, which differs from the female version in a large number of pleats. Muslim men usually wear embroidered fez "pichi" in addition to this, while Buddhist and Hindu men wear colorful shawls.

In Sumatra, men and women traditionally wear a sarong over trousers - trousers or bloomers.

Art of Indonesia

Indonesia boasts a variety of traditional arts that have evolved over the centuries and have absorbed cultural elements from all over Asia. The most famous forms of classical art in Indonesia are dance and dramatic puppet shows.

Dance art exists in Indonesia in many forms - from simple ritual dances performed at festivals in villages to costumed dance and theatrical performances based on ancient epics, dating back to the court dances of Bali and Java. Dancing in Indonesia is usually accompanied by musicians from the "gamelan" orchestra, which consists of a large number of string and percussion instruments.

One of the brightest representatives of the Indonesian national dance is "Kechak" (Monkey Song of the Ramayana) based on the famous ancient Indian epic. The action, which involves a large group of local men, making synchronized movements to the complex rhythmic patterns sung by the leader, resembles a kind of mystical ritual or meditation, leaving an indelible impression on the viewer.

In the performances of the traditional Indonesian theater “wayang”, both live actors (with masks - “wayang toneng” or without them - “wayang orang”) and puppets (“wayang golek”), made with great skill by local artisans, can participate.

Another type of theatrical art in Indonesia is the performance of the shadow theater "wayang kulit", which has become a universally recognized symbol of this country.

Most of the plots of theatrical productions are taken from the large-scale ancient Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, so it is not surprising that, according to custom, performances last from dusk to dawn, requiring considerable perseverance from the audience.

Initially, wayang kulit was not related to theatrical performances, but was part of the ritual of communication between the islanders and the souls of their ancestors.

Indonesian handicrafts

Indonesia has been famous since ancient times for its skilled artisans working in such areas as wood or stone carving, textile processing, ceramics and metals. A striking example of the skill of Indonesian artisans is the art of painting batik, which was born on the island of Java. The main centers of batik production are concentrated in Java cities such as Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Pekalongan and Cirebon.

Such products of Indonesian artisans as "kris" are known all over the world - daggers with an amazingly shaped blade, which are attributed to magical properties. The curved blades of the kris symbolize the mythical snakes of the nagas, and the “pamora” patterns that adorn them carry an ancient sacred meaning.

Cultural events in Indonesia

Many holidays are celebrated in Indonesia every year, many of which are associated with the religious and cultural traditions of the island state, as well as important state dates.

Each of the more than 20,000 temples in Bali has its own festival.

Main holidays in Indonesia

• Chinese New Year "Imlek"(February 3) is a holiday associated with Indonesia's large Chinese community.
• Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad(second half of February) - for 86% of the population of Indonesia who profess Islam, this day is one of the main holidays of the year.
• Vesak or Hari Vesak(May-June) - the day on which the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha fell, the Buddhists of the country celebrate purification rituals in temples and large street processions.
• Balinese New Year or Day of Silence(late March - early April) - marks the beginning of a new annual cycle according to the local lunar calendar. Many Indonesians retire to their homes to spend the whole day in silent meditation. On this day (also known as "Nyepi"), almost all shops and many service establishments are closed. The day preceding Nyepi is a separate holiday - "Melasti". On the contrary, it is dedicated to mass rituals of offerings to good spirits performed near water sources and accompanied by mass festivities.
• Kartini Day(April 21) - is considered the Indonesian counterpart of International Women's Day and is associated with the name of the national heroine Raden Ajeng Kartini, who devoted her life to the struggle for women's rights.
• Bali Arts Festival(June-July) - the largest arts festival in Indonesia lasting a whole month and including music and dance performances, exhibitions, craft fairs, street processions and other mass entertainment events.
• Jalan Jax Street Festival(July-August), taking place on the street of the same name in the capital of Indonesia, is considered one of the largest and most interesting events of this kind. On this day, the whole street of Jakarta turns into one fun fair, accompanied by numerous performances of musicians, artists and athletes.
• independence Day(August 17) - the largest public holiday in Indonesia, the main celebrations of which are held in the capital Jakarta.
• Ritual of Quesodo(August) takes place annually at one of the most beautiful natural attractions of the island of Java - the active volcano Bromo. During it, local residents throw offerings to the spirit of the mountain into the mouth of the volcano, asking for protection from that.
• Ramadan(the beginning of the 9th month of the Islamic calendar) - the largest Islamic holiday of the year marks the beginning of the holy month of Ramadan.
• Erau Festival(last week of September) - a major ritual festival of the Dyak tribe living on the island of Kalimantan.
• Day of Sacrifice or Idul Adha(the tenth day of the Muslim month of Zul Hija) - one of the most popular Islamic holidays of the year (also known as Eid al-Adha) is associated with the ritual of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Christmas or Hari Natal(December 25) is an official public holiday, which is known not only for traditional festivities, but also for the largest sales of the year.
• New Year or Experience Baru Masehi(January 1) is a national holiday, which, due to the development of the tourism industry, is gaining popularity among local residents from year to year.
• Galungan or Hari Raya Galungan(every 210 days) - one of the most colorful and popular Hindu holidays in Bali is dedicated to the victory of universal good (dharma) over evil (adharma). It is believed that during the holiday, the gods descend to earth and accept the gifts of people in order to return to heaven in 10 days (which is dedicated to a special holiday - Kuningan).

E. Rotenberg

The states of medieval Indonesia occupied territory on the islands of the vast Malay Archipelago. The main part of its population was made up of Malay tribes and nationalities, representatives of the southern type of the Mongolian race. The location of the archipelago on sea routes, which had been established between India and China since the first centuries of our era, played an important role in the historical fate of these peoples. The natural wealth of Indonesia, and above all spices, for many centuries attracted the attention of Asian, and later European conquerors. From the beginning of the first millennium AD, the islands of the archipelago became the object of Indian colonization.

By that time, the Malay tribes were at various stages of social development. In the most developed areas - the coastal regions of Sumatra and Java - the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of the first slave-owning states was completed. As a result of the conquest of Sumatra and Java by immigrants from India in the first centuries of our era, Indonesian principalities arose here, the ruling class in which were Indian conquerors, mixed with the ruling elite of the Malay tribes. The basis of the economy of these principalities was agriculture with the use of artificial irrigation. Slave-owning relations were gradually supplanted by feudal ones, and by the 8th century. the feudal system was dominant in Java and Sumatra. Crafts developed; constant trade relations with the countries of the continent, including China, contributed to the flourishing of navigation and related shipbuilding. Large trading cities arose.

One of the results of colonization was the spread of the Hindu cult in Indonesia, which existed here along with Buddhism, often intertwined with it. Among the masses of the indigenous inhabitants, however, the animistic ideas, characteristic of the previous stage of historical development, were still preserved. Indian conquerors also brought with them the richest culture.

Apparently, the social and cultural development of the local peoples was quite high, and Indian culture did not become the property of a narrow ruling elite. Accepted by wider sections of society, she played an important role in the formation and development of Indonesian art.

Although the territory occupied by the Indonesian states was subsequently extremely vast, the main area where the monuments of medieval art were concentrated turned out to be the island of Java - the most populated and richest in natural resources of all the islands of the Malay Archipelago. It was here that the first monuments of stone construction that have come down to us in Indonesia arose - temples on the Dieng plateau, dating back to the 7th - early 8th centuries. The Dieng Plateau was at that time the main center of worship in Central Java, a place of religious pilgrimage. Of the many religious buildings erected there, only eight have survived to date. These are characteristic examples of Javanese temples known as chandi.

Chandi is a relatively small stand-alone temple in the form of a compact cubic array, placed on a stepped base and crowned with a high stepped covering of pyramidal outlines. On the side of the main façade, the main volume was usually adjoined by an entrance portal protruding forward, to which a steep staircase leads; three other walls were also equipped with portals or niches, the architraves of which, like the framing of the entrance portal, were decorated with ornamental carvings and demon masks. Inside the temple there was a small room, covered with a false pyramidal dome; there was a statue of the deity. Many features of the compositional construction of candi were associated with the nature of the worship, which was performed not inside the temple, but mainly outside it, and these cult requirements received a peculiar aesthetic interpretation in temple architecture. The Javanese candi is a kind of temple-monument, designed primarily for viewing from the outside, which explains its equilateral plan, expressive silhouette, and special plasticity of architectural masses and forms.

The question of the origin of the type of chandi itself is rather complicated. There is no doubt that Indian architecture had a significant impact on its formation, especially the monuments of southern India, from where the main stream of Indian colonization came from. This is reflected in the predominance of mass over space inherent in Javanese temples, in the nature of their structures and architectural forms, and in some decorative techniques. Of considerable importance for the formation of the Chandi type were probably also the buildings that arose in the previous centuries on the territory of the Indochinese Peninsula, in particular the early Cambodian prasat. However, it should be noted that even the first Javanese temples bear the stamp of originality that distinguishes them from continental samples. In comparison with Indian temples, Javanese Chandi are distinguished by their simplicity and austerity of appearance, and in comparison with the buildings of Cambodia, by more harmonious proportions, clarity and clear tectonics of architectural forms. An example is the chandi Puntadeva on the Dieng plateau (7th-early 8th century) (ill. 162) - a small building of slender proportions, square in plan. Excessive fragmentation of forms, characteristic of Indian temples, and ornamental abundance are absent here; calm straight lines prevail; The plasticity of the wall is discreetly revealed by pilasters and panels. The cornices of the basement and cella are somewhat more energetically emphasized, introducing the necessary contrasts into the tectonics of the building. The high cover repeats in a reduced form the shape and articulation of the cella. Separate motifs, the nature of breaks and profiles can outwardly resemble even the forms of ancient order architecture.

In relating to the 7th - early 8th c. chandi Bhima walls are treated even more strictly; not only the ornament is missing, but even the obligatory demon masks above the openings. The frieze of garlands and the modillions of the cornice are surprisingly close in form to antique motifs. The general tendency of the entire volume of the cella upwards is reinforced by the introduction of an attic, which repeats the main articulations of the wall. On the other hand, the high pyramidal crown is distinguished by its complexity and richness of forms. Along the axes of the slopes and at the corners, it is decorated with a multi-tiered system of arched recesses; inside each such recess is placed the sculptural head of Bhima, one of the heroes of the Mahabharata, whose name this candi bears. A clearly drawn contrast between a strict cella and a complex covering testifies to the high artistic skill of the builders of the temple.

In the 7th-8th centuries, with the strengthening of the feudal system in Indonesia, the process of consolidation of small Indo-Malay principalities into larger state associations began. This process coincided in time with a particularly strong wave of Indian military, religious and cultural expansion. During this period, the first powerful Indonesian state arose - the state of Srivijaya - headed by the rulers of the Shailendra dynasty. The capital of the state was the port of Palembang in Sumatra, which became one of the largest cities in Southeast Asia. The state of Srivijaya has retained its predominant importance for several centuries; during its heyday - in the 8th - 9th centuries - along with Sumatra, part of Java and other islands of the archipelago, it also included the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines; Cambodia and Champa were dependent on him. It was a vast maritime empire with a strong navy that controlled trade routes along the southern and southeastern coasts of Asia.

Around 732, the rulers of the Shailendra dynasty captured Central Java. The inclusion of this area in the powerful state of Srivijaya gave Javanese art a different, incomparably larger scale, expanded its tasks and possibilities. In the same period, Buddhism in India suffered a final defeat in the struggle against Brahmanism, and a large number of Indians who professed Buddhism moved to Java. -This circumstance increased the influence of the Buddhist cult in Java and affected the construction of temple structures.

8th and 9th centuries became the time of the first powerful upsurge of Indonesian art. In Sumatra, monuments of this period have been preserved in an insignificant number; The main artistic center at that time was Central Java, which remained under the rule of Shailendra from 732 to 800. A number of valuable monuments have been preserved on the territory of the city of Prambanam, where the residence of the ruling dynasty was located.

New features are already evident in the architecture of traditional chandi. Built in 779 on the Prambanam Plain, the Chandi Kalasan (ill. 163), dedicated to the goddess Tara, the female incarnation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, is the first known and accurately dated Buddhist structure on Yanan soil. This monument is one of the finest creations of Indonesian architecture. Unfortunately, the temple has come down to us somewhat damaged: the architectural processing of the high plinth has been lost, the coating has been badly damaged.

Already in size, Chandi Kalasan significantly exceeds the early temples - this is a real monumental structure. The plan, instead of the usual square, is a kind of cross with wide sleeves - risalits. Such a construction is explained by the presence on each of the three sides of the temple - except for the entrance - a special chapel, to which a separate entrance led with a steep staircase rising to it. From the cover, the first tier of octagonal outlines and partially the round second tier have been preserved. The overall appearance of the Chandi Kalasan, with its delicately found balance of load-bearing and carried parts, reveals features of proximity with buildings on the Dieng plateau, but its design is distinguished by greater depth and at the same time complexity. The peculiar “order” interpretation of the wall, characteristic of early Javanese architecture, has reached here a special sophistication. Light, barely protruding from the solid walls, pilasters form panels of various widths - narrow, completely filled with the finest ornament, and wide, with a smooth plane of which contrast the relief masks of demons, incomparable in richness and beauty of the decorative pattern. The breaks and profiles of the upper part of the plinth and the unusually complex entablature of the cella are distinguished by exceptional diversity and subtlety. But with a great variety and richness of motifs and forms, this structure retains the clarity of the general tectonic structure. It cannot be disturbed even by fanciful cult motifs, such as rows of bell-shaped stupas (called dagobas in Indonesia) placed as crowns over each of the four ledges of the cella.

In chandi Kalasan, the nature of ornamental stone carving attracts attention. The ornament itself, in the presence of pictorial elements, has a very large degree of purely decorative expressiveness. The carving is remarkable for its subtlety, almost airiness; the openwork pattern is unusually easy to lay on the wall, without disturbing its plane, but rather shading it. A similar principle of ornamentation (which applies to the entire architectural decoration as a whole) distinguishes the Indonesian monuments of this period from the works of Indian temple architecture, in which an excess of plastically interpreted ornamental forms is in accordance with the general * spirit of the architectural image, as if personifying the elemental power of the forms of organic nature.

By the end of the 8th c. Another outstanding work of Javanese architecture is Chandi Mendut, one of the most famous shrines of the island, located on the road to the greatest monument of Buddhist architecture in Java - Borobudur. Like the candi Kalasan, this is also a large building, but more austere and restrained in form; in it the taste for large calm planes is more pronounced. A distinctive feature of Chandi Mendut is a very wide and high terrace-like base, on which, like on a platform, rises a square cella with risalits barely protruding in the middle of each wall. The cella is crowned with a covering in the form of square terraces running in two tiers. The entablature of the cella and the ledges of the roof are decorated only with severe teeth. In Chandi Mendut, one can especially feel the heavy mass of the wall, the massiveness of architectural forms. The impression of massiveness is already created by the very masonry of large stone squares; the almost complete absence of openings and recesses in the walls contributes especially to it. Only the figures of bodhisattvas, executed in low relief technique and placed in a beautiful frame, soften the harsh power of the walls (ill. 164).

Chandi Kalasan and Mendut are compelling examples of what Indonesian art was creating in the 8th century. quite original monuments, not inferior in their artistic significance to the monuments of Indian architecture of this period.

The further development of Javanese architecture is characterized by the creation of temple complexes, marked by bold searches in the field of volume-spatial construction. Built at the beginning of the 9th century in the ruins of Chandi Sevu in Prambanam, it was an ensemble where the main temple, located on a high terrace-like base, majestically towered over the four concentric rectangles surrounding it, formed by a huge number of tiny temples. The following data give an idea of ​​the scale of this complex: the total number of these temples-chapels is two hundred and forty, the length of the entire ensemble along the longitudinal axis is over 180 m, along the transverse axis - about 170 m. All buildings were richly decorated with sculpture and ornament. The central temple is large; with its cruciform plan, it resembled a chandi Kalasan: on each of the four sides it was adjoined by a chapel with an independent entrance and a staircase leading to it. All four facades are the same, which is due to the location of the temple in the center of the complex. The two double belts of small churches surrounding the central temple are planned in such a way that from afar, along the axial directions, a spectacular view of each of the four facades of the temple opens up, which towered over a whole crest of fancy crowns formed by several rows of temples-chapels. The use of such a planning principle was associated with ideas of a cult nature: the strict geometric construction of the plan of the entire complex concealed a certain religious symbolism. But the elements of abstract symbolism turned out to be here transformed into factors of great artistic expressiveness. Using them, the builders of Chandi Sevu showed their inherent art of high artistic organization: they managed to merge a huge number of various buildings and all the plurality of architectural forms into a single whole, into a genuine architectural ensemble.

The most significant creation of the architecture of the Shailendra era and of all Javanese architecture in general is the famous Borobudur, a monumental temple of grandiose scale, erected in the second half of the 8th and early 9th centuries. in the Kedu Valley (Central Java).

Borobudur is a gently sloping earthen hill, surrounded by stone-lined terraces towering one above the other in five tiers (ill. 166, 167). Thus, in general, the monument turns out to be like a gigantic stepped pyramid. In terms of the terraces of this structure, they form a square with many ledges; the dimensions of the base are 111X111 m. the total height of the building is 35 m. The terraces have an internal bypass, along the walls of which an endless ribbon of relief compositions spreads (ill. 169 a); the crest of each of the terraces is decorated with bell-shaped decorative stupas running almost in a continuous row, as well as niches following at certain intervals in a complex architectural and ornamental frame. Inside each of these niches, in outline representing a kind of stupa in section, is placed a statue of the Buddha. Thus, on five terraces there are a total of four hundred and thirty-six Buddha statues, each of which is a life-size human figure. The entire five-tier structure is crowned with three round terraces, on which hollow stupas with slotted holes in the walls are located along concentric circles (ill. 168). Inside each of them is also placed a statue of the Buddha; there are seventy-two such stupas with statues. In the center of the uppermost terrace there is a large stupa that crowns the entire building (ill. 169 6). Steep stairs along the four axes of the pyramid, cutting through the walls of the terraces, lead to its top.

The complex stepped plan of Borobudur, the abundance of architectural forms that are hardly perceived by the eye, countless statues and endless narrative reliefs with a variety of compositions, carved ornament covering the planes of the walls - all this makes a truly stunning impression. But behind this abundance and variety of architectural and sculptural Elements lies a strict unity of the general design, which is comprehended as a result of a successive change of various aspects of perception.

At the beginning of the review, when the viewer sees the entire monument from the plain, the huge stone hill seems to be a living and breathing mass, from which, as it were, countless images and forms are born and appear before the viewer’s eyes. The main architectonic articulations of the monument are hidden here, as the horizontals of the terraces are lost behind the countless needles of the decorative stupas and niches with statues that crown them. When the viewer then enters the structure itself, he finds himself, as it were, isolated in the bypasses of its terraces, and his attention is entirely directed to the relief friezes placed on the walls of the bypasses. Following the course of their story, the viewer gradually rises higher and higher from the terrace to the terrace, until he finds himself at the top of the stepped pyramid. II here, after a long layering of the most diverse artistic impressions, the process of comprehending the general concept of a monumental structure is completed. Only now can the viewer grasp it as a whole, understand the logic of its plan, the correlation of its masses. Here, a contrasting juxtaposition of the stepped polygons of the lower terraces, saturated in abundance with the most complex architectural and sculptural forms, and the completely smooth planes of the three upper round terraces with their triple ring of slotted stupas, among which the bell-shaped array of a large central stupa so organically grows, is clearly visible.

As the researchers convincingly prove, the original plan of the monument was different: above the five lower terraces, several more tiers of the same square terraces were supposed to follow, ending with a building of a cruciform temple with entrance portals on all four sides. In this case, Borobudur would have been a gigantic likeness of four-portal chandi placed on stepped bases; the silhouette of the monument would have been different, its pyramidal form would have been more clearly expressed. During the construction process, however, it turned out that the ground was too weak to withstand the weight of such a huge structure, which is why this bold plan had to be abandoned and, without bringing the building to the originally planned height, crown it with a lighter triple ring of stupas. Nevertheless, even in its final form, the monument has a unity of plan and three-dimensional solution, as well as a striking integrity of figurative design.

Obviously, here, too, the compositional solution of the building, based on a comparison in terms of various geometric figures, carries a certain symbolic idea. This idea cannot yet be considered unraveled, since all interpretations are controversial. However, the fact that during the construction process, the creators of Borobudur, having shown exceptional artistic flexibility, managed to make serious changes to the original project, indicates that the cult symbolism was not an unshakable dogma for them. Borobudur is also the highest example of the synthesis of architecture and sculpture in Indonesian art. We do not have sufficient idea of ​​the history of earlier Javanese sculpture: we know works mainly from the second half of the 8th century, which - like Borobudur - are an indicator of the full maturity of Indonesian sculpture. The unprecedented scale of the sculptural works of Borobu-dura is evidenced by many hundreds of Buddha statues placed on the crests of the terraces. The example of Borobudur shows how cult prescriptions sometimes led to exorbitant artistic extravagance. It has already been mentioned above that seventy-two Buddha statues are placed under the slotted stupas on the upper round terraces. These statues practically remain invisible: they can hardly be seen, only by bringing your eyes close to the narrow holes in the walls of the stupas. II nevertheless, these sculptures, almost inaccessible to the eye of the viewer, are made with the usual care and are monuments of high artistic skill.

Countless Buddha statues of the Borobudur temple are marked by features of compositional and stylistic uniformity (ill. 170, 171). In all cases the Buddha is represented naked, sitting cross-legged; only minor changes in the position of the hands, pre-established by religious canons, indicate various incarnations of the deity. These canons, like the external type of Buddha itself, are close to the Indian prototypes, but here they receive a different implementation. In the Borobudur statues, the deity's emphasized detachment from the real world gave way to a sense of inner balance and deep peace. The severity of their compositional construction is moderated by a more lively sense of plasticity and the rough texture of the porous sandstone from which the statues are made.

The relief compositions along the terraces, the total length of which is more than five kilometers, amaze even more with their scale. Of course, not all compositions are equal in their artistic quality, but the best of them belong to the outstanding works of Javanese sculpture of the Shailendra era.

In terms of their figurative features, the reliefs of Borobudur correspond to that stage of historical and artistic development, which in India is characterized by sculpture of the period after the Guptas (7th-8th centuries). We find here similar features of the pictorial system, the same iconography of the deities and, finally, closeness in technical methods. But at the same time, the differences in figurative and stylistic nature are quite obvious. In contrast to the dramatic works of Indian masters based on strong emotional contrasts, such as, for example, the cycle of reliefs in the temples of Elura, Elephanta and Mamallapuram, the Javanese masters are dominated by a single emotional tone of calm harmony, a sense of serenity and happy fullness of being. These features of the worldview are also reflected in the pictorial techniques of the best reliefs of Borobudur. Their distinguishing feature is the calm simplicity of compositional construction, architectonic clarity; with ideal generalization and inevitable features of conventionality - a greater plethora of images, a sensual-tactile transfer of the plasticity of the human body. The relief images of Borobudur are devoid of the extremes that are often characteristic of the images of Indian art, sometimes hieratically conventional, sometimes bearing an exaggeratedly sensual character. They also do not have the stormy dynamics of Indian samples, sharp large-scale contrasts, free, sometimes broken composition. In this sense, the plastic images of Borobudur are the most "classical" among the monuments of art of all the states of Southeast Asia.

The reliefs of Borobudur tell about the earthly life of the Buddha. The endlessly stretching friezes consistently depict various stages of his earthly existence and other episodes from Buddhist legends and traditions, however, the dogmatic side of legends in many cases is often only a kind of pretext for embodying images of reality. The theme of Borobudur reliefs includes real life in many of its manifestations. Their action takes place not in transcendental heights, but on earth - this is the life of the royal court and the nobility, peasants and hunters, sailors and Buddhist monks. In strictly canonical forms, only the Buddha himself is depicted; the less significant deities of the Buddhist pantheon already differ little in character from the images of people who, in essence, occupy the main place in the compositions. Equally indicative is the predilection of the masters of Borobudur for showing the real environment surrounding a person: architecture, vegetation, details of everyday life are depicted with many details. These images, of course, are still conditional, but the very fact of introducing them into relief compositions is very important. The feeling of the real environment does not leave the Javanese sculptors. It is no coincidence that the Javanese artists are attracted by the narrative element, a kind of lively story, in contrast to the Indian masters, who usually focus their attention on the climax of events and on images of a symbolic nature.

The characteristic features of the relief sculpture of Borobudur can be illustrated by several episodes. Thus, the composition, reproducing, it would seem, a purely ritual episode - the sacred ablution of the body sativa - turns into an image full of exciting poetry (ill. 172). In the center is the body-satva himself; his yogis are immersed in a flowing stream; his body under a transparent chiton seems to be naked. The sons of the gods, as a sign of reverence, sprinkle sandalwood powder and flowers over the water. The soft curve of the figure of the body-sattva, the smooth repetitions formed by the contours of the figures of the flying deities, the stamp of thoughtfulness that marked the faces of the reverently bowed witnesses of this event give the composition a shade of great lyrical feeling.

The so-called "Scene at the Well" is even more free from the cult connotation, where the Bodhisattva Sudhana is depicted talking to one of the women who came to the well for water. The bodhisattva himself is not even placed in the center of the composition, but aside; resting his hand on his knee, he sits on the steps of the stairs, teaching a woman sitting in front of him on the ground. On the opposite side of the relief is a fairly accurate depiction of a temple, a typical Javanese candi. The central part of the composition is occupied by two amazingly beautiful groups of young women placed on both sides of the well. Each of the figures is an example of high plastic perfection. Close to each other in rhythm, slender and graceful, they differ in individual motives of movements: some of the girls hold empty vessels in their hands, others are depicted carrying filled jugs on their heads. In this composition, the feeling of a happy fullness of life was most pronounced; it is expressed not only by the living, tangible plasticity of the figures, but is also poured into their entire environment, manifesting itself in every detail. Thus, a tree, hung with fruits, placed in the very center of the relief, is perceived as an image of a beautiful and fruitful nature.

Finally, there are relief compositions in which the cult shade completely disappears. These include, for example, a relief depicting the arrival of sailors (ill. 172). Part of the relief is occupied by a ship rushing along the waves with sails stretched by the wind; his depiction, with the authenticity of its details, reminds the viewer that Indonesia was a country of outstanding seafarers. In another part of the relief, it is shown how travelers who have come ashore, kneeling down, accept gifts from a peasant family that meets them. The images of a peasant, his wife and a teenage boy - their Malay ethnic type, the details of their costume - are depicted with great accuracy, as is the characteristic rural building visible on the pillars; on the roof, its master depicted kissing pigeons. Such a desire for authenticity is very peculiarly combined in reliefs with traditional conventionality, which manifests itself, for example, in the depiction of trees. Their flattened crowns are ornamental and decorative, but at the same time the artist carefully reproduces the shape of the leaves and fruits, accurately conveying the type of wood.

In the art of Southeast Asia of the first millennium AD. e. Borobudur occupies a special place. There is no other monument that could be compared with it in terms of scale, in terms of the very type of construction, in terms of the nature of the principles of synthesis of architecture and sculpture implemented in it. Even India does not know this kind of buildings. This monument alone, the construction of which required the labor of huge masses of people, high technical organization and, finally, a colossal number of talented artists and experienced craftsmen, gives an idea of ​​the state power and height of the artistic culture of the Indonesian state of Srivijaya.

The best examples of statuary sculpture from the period of the Shai-Lendra dynasty include the statue of Buddha from Chandi Mendut. Extremely strict in its compositional structure, seemingly extremely generalized in its modeling, this majestic sculpture is nevertheless distinguished by a special fullness of plastic masses, which imparts to the image something of the vital fullness of the relief plastics of this time.

A monument of exceptional artistic height is the portrait head of a Javanese prince originating from Chandi Sevu, represented in the form of a Buddhist deity (ill. 165). In Java, there was a custom of intravital and mainly posthumous images of rulers in the images of Buddhist and Brahmin deities. In this case, the prince is depicted as one of the incarnations of Buddha, with a shaved head, and this motif is skillfully used by the sculptor in figurative and plastic terms. An unusually compact volume, an exceptionally keen sense of constructive construction, a greater than usual severity of sculptural masses - all this is in accordance with the sense of spiritual composure that forms the basis of the figurative content of this work. These qualities are perceived not as a conditional Buddhist scheme of internal self-deepening, but as real traits of a human character, which is why this work is immediately, with all the ideality of the type and generalization of the plastic language, perceived as a portrait, and not as a monument of cult purpose. The skill of the sculptor is amazing: there is not a single line in this head - it is built on subtle transitions of plastic forms, the finest nuances of which are enriched by the roughness of the porous stone, which gives the chiaroscuro a soft, slightly shimmering character.

The next stage in the history of Indonesian art is associated with the period of the liberation of Java from the power of the Shailendra dynasty and the emergence of the Central Javanese state of Mataram, which existed from 860 to 915. The state of Mataram was close to the kingdom of Srivijaya that preceded it, both in economic structure and in the nature of its culture. This is evidenced by the main monument of the period under consideration - created at the end of the 9th century. the Loro Jonggrang temple complex in Prambanam, now largely in ruins. Hinduism became the dominant religion during this period, and the Loro Jonggrang temple is known as the largest Hindu religious building in Java. The whole ensemble consisted of eight temples located on high terraces and surrounded by small temples and two concentric quadrangles of walls. The three largest temples located in the central part of the complex are dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva; the largest of them is the Shiva temple. This is a cruciform temple, standing on a stepped pyramid-shaped base with stairs in the middle of each of its three sides leading to the three portals of the temple. Inside the temple cella there is a statue of Shiva. The terraces of the three main temples are decorated with relief compositions depicting episodes from the Ramayana and the Tale of Krishna.

The general pictorial principles of the reliefs of the Loro Jonggrang temples are close to those of Borobudur. These are also frieze compositions with strongly pronounced narrative elements. The same great attention is paid to the real environment surrounding the characters; the very types of actors, especially the episodic ones, their attire, the features of the life of the royal court are shown here, perhaps with even more specificity than in Borobudur. Vegetation-trees, bushes are depicted more lively, less subordinate to the ornamental scheme; everywhere an abundance of animals and birds. At the same time, symbolic compositions are found here more often than in the reliefs of Borobudur. The reliefs of the Shiva temple are also characterized by a sensual fullness of images, characteristic of Javanese art, but with a touch of greater refinement: the emphasized grace of the contours of naked female figures is striking, in their movements conventional grandeur often gives way to life observation. The general spirit of the relief compositions is also somewhat different: there are more noticeable features of drama, internal excitement, dynamics; contemplation was replaced by efficiency, peace - by movement; in visual means, strict architectonics gives way to picturesqueness and freer dynamic constructions. If in Borobudur the frieze was divided into a number of complete compositions with the help of ornamental frames, then the relief frieze of the Shiva temple is an uninterrupted stream of figures, in its individual segments acquiring a particularly rapid character. The plasticity itself here is freer and more energetic.

The feeling of excitement is already evident in the three-figure scenes that fill the panels of the balustrades, where the deities are depicted in a state of ecstatic dance. In these figures of the traditional warehouse, there is still a closeness to Indian iconographic patterns. The multi-figured relief compositions of the main frieze are incomparably more original. Here, emotional elation is manifested in the predominant choice of dramatic situations in which the sublime and the ordinary side by side with each other, because the gods and heroes are presented as acting in a real life environment. Such are the episodes from the Ramayana - for example, the scene of the abduction of Sita, the wife of the god Rama, by the demon Ravana, who took the form of a Brahmin. The vicious Ravana attacks the desperately resisting Sita; a woman sitting on the floor, one of Sita's close associates, having witnessed the abduction, throws up her hands in horror, and in this movement, as in the whole appearance of the court, there is a shade of purely everyday character. Immediately, the dog greedily eats the contents of the overturned cauldron. In the episode of Rama's battle with the demon Kabandha (ill. 174), the viewer's attention is drawn not by the ideally elevated images of Rama archery and his brother Lakshmana or the huge Kabandha with a frightening mask on his stomach, but by images, so to speak, of the earthly plane, in particular a warrior with with a wide knife, looking in amazement at the feat of Rama. The rough features of his very peculiar ethnic type of face, bulging eyes, mouth half-open in surprise, some strange sideburns, a headdress, a clumsy squat figure - all these details, especially in contrast to the imperturbable expression of faces and the ideal beauty of Rama and Lakshman, testify about the great sharpness of the artist's powers of observation and his courage in juxtaposing images so different in character.

The contrast is no less striking in the episode of Vishnu's reincarnation, where the images of other deities, witnesses of the miracle, are compared with the hieratically conventional image of the many-armed Vishnu sitting on the snake Ananta. These deities form a group of amazing beauty and lively ease; their images are distinguished by an even more vivid sense of vital fullness than similar images of Borobudur (ill. 175). The female deities have beautiful faces of the Malay type, full, but at the same time flexible figures, their movements are free and natural.

With great skill, the authors of the reliefs depict animals, in particular monkeys, appearing in many compositions. The plot of the Ramayana itself opens up favorable opportunities for this: in search of Sita, Rama was helped by the leader of the monkeys Hanuman. Particularly effective is the episode depicting monkeys throwing blocks of stone into the mouths of huge fish.

Compared to the reliefs of Borobudur, the reliefs of the Loro Jonggrang temple represent the next stage in the evolution of Javanese sculpture. The classical harmony of the images of Borobudur has been largely lost in them, but they have a wider scope of reality, the figurative characteristics have become brighter and more concrete, the gamut of conveyed feelings is fuller, the artistic language is freer and richer in terms of means.

The Mataram state collapsed, probably due to some natural disaster - an earthquake or an epidemic, since after 915 Central Java became depopulated. Since that time, East Java has become the main area for the development of Indonesian culture. A period of mutual struggle of the largest feudal rulers began. By the middle of the 11th century. Erlanga> one of these rulers, gathered under his rule most of the island. Having also captured significant territories outside Java, he created a strong state. This state collapsed immediately after the death of Erlanga himself (he ruled from 1019-1042), and a period of feudal civil strife began again, which lasted until the beginning of the 14th century. By this time, one of the Javanese principalities - Majapahit, gradually intensified, captured most of Java, as well as other areas of the Malay Archipelago. The state of Majapahit maintained its power for two centuries. In the 16th century as a result of the separatist struggle of its principalities, mostly Muslim (Islam began to penetrate the Sunda Islands in the 14th century), the Majapahit state disintegrated, and separate Muslim principalities were formed in Java. In the same 16th century, the Portuguese appeared on the islands of the Malay Archipelago, who soon established their trading hegemony in this region of Southeast Asia. From the end of the 16th century the Dutch began to penetrate the archipelago, ousting the Portuguese and subsequently turning Indonesia into their colony.

History of Indonesian art 10th-15th centuries does not present such a relatively complete picture as in previous centuries. The centuries-long internecine struggle between individual principalities, the emergence of centralized states and their collapse, wars with neighboring countries - all these events affected the cultural development of Indonesia. For architecture and the fine arts, the successful development of which in the conditions of a feudal society required the expenditure of great labor and resources, as well as the uninterrupted continuity of the artistic tradition, the conditions turned out to be less favorable in this sense; in 10-15 centuries. in Indonesia, monuments of such magnitude and grandeur were not created, as in the first millennium. It is also obvious that a considerable number of works were destroyed and have not survived to our time. Hence the fragmentation of our information about this art, the fragmented nature of the monuments themselves. Nevertheless, during this period, the cultural development of the country did not stop. From the 11th century rise of Indonesian literature. Sanskrit has lost its position in the literary language; Javanese Kawi became the language of Epic poetry. The Javanese translations of the Indian epic date back to Erlanga's reign. At the same time, obviously, the famous wayang, the Javanese shadow theater, arose.

Architecture and fine arts acquired the conditions for their rise to a greater extent in the 14th-15th centuries, during the period of the rise of the Majapahit state. In terms of scale, this state can be compared with the kingdom of Srivijaya. The scope of the Majapahit merchant fleet extended from the coast of Africa to China. Extensive international connections have given their imprint to the art of the Majapahit period, in which, along with features of proximity to the art of India, some elements are captured that go back to the art of China.

The temple architecture of the 10th - 15th centuries does not reach the scale of religious buildings of the 8th - 9th centuries. The type of a small temple - chandi - becomes predominant again. To the best architectural monuments of East Java in the 10th century. refers to the Shaivist Chandi Jabang. Relatively small in size, it begs comparison with the Central Javanese chandi of the 7th - 8th centuries. Chandi Jabang attracts attention with the unusualness of his type. Instead of the former cubic cella and the general balance of volumes, we see here a vertically elongated round volume, set on a high cruciform base. The rapid rise of a slender cella raised on a steep multi-tiered pedestal, the combination of its curved surfaces with unusually plastically inscribed strict rectangular portals into them from four sides, the contrasts of smooth steves with multi-layered profiles of the socle and cornice - everything here manifests a sense of the dynamics of the architectural image, unknown to previous architects. centuries. This building is also distinguished by the sophisticated artistry of design and execution, the beauty and sophistication of proportions - both in the general silhouette and in the consonances and contrasts of individual motifs and forms. Without congestion, without excessive detail, the impression of great richness of the architectural image is created. ornamental and decorative elements, in particular large masks of demons above the portals, are economically but extremely effectively used. Chandi Jabang has no analogues in the Indian architecture of this period; on the contrary, it rather opposes it with a clearly expressed rational basis of the artistic image, which is perceived as a natural result of the development of the characteristic features of Javanese architecture of the 7th - 8th centuries.

Another type of architectural constructions of the period under consideration was the princely tombs erected on the slopes of the mountains with pools decorated with sculpture, intended for ritual ablutions. The most interesting monument of this time is a sculptural group from the pool at the tomb of Erlanga in Belahan, depicting Erlanga himself in the guise of the god Vishnu. This work is characterized by a peculiar mixture of cult and secular elements. Erlanga is represented as a four-armed deity seated in a pose established by the canon on the giant mythical bird Garuda. The fantastic appearance of Garuda with his bestial muzzle and widely spread wings, wriggling snakes, complex framing around the figure of the deity are called upon to bring in the image of the ruler the features of intimidation, inaccessible greatness. However, the face of the deity is treated with an unexpected portraiture, essentially contradicting the conventionality of the general design and the pompous decorativeness of the entire composition. With unadorned truthfulness, the appearance of the ruler is reproduced - his somewhat puffy face with an overhanging forehead and a wide flat nose, even an expression of strength and volitional tension is conveyed. In the sense of conveying specific features of a separate individuality, the image of Erlanga surpasses the previous images of rulers.

The last major monument of Hindu architecture, the Panataran temple complex, belongs to the Majapahit period. Unlike the Central Javanese temples of the 8th-9th centuries, the Nanatarana ensemble was not built according to a single plan; its constituent buildings were erected at different times, during the 14th and the first half of the 15th century. The complex does not constitute an integral planning system; there is no strict axial arrangement of buildings - the principle of free placement of buildings has become dominant. From the main temple, only the plinth, decorated with reliefs on the plots of the Ramayana and the Tale of Krishna, has now been preserved.

One of the small pan-ataran temples that has come down to us intact, dating back to 1369 (ill. 176), testifies to new features characteristic of the architecture of the Majapahit period. It is a square building with an accentuated vertical silhouette. Above a small cella, decorated on four sides with strict portals with traditional magnificently decorative demon masks and crowned with a very strongly extended cornice, rises a high multi-stage roof, forming an unusual hipped silhouette. The cella, therefore, turns out to be narrower and lower than the roof, which violates the principles of tectonic balance. Therefore, although the architectural forms of the temple themselves are distinguished by purely Javanese strictness of lines, and the creeping carved ornament does not destroy the plane anywhere, the building no longer gives the impression of a clear architectural logic and harmony of forms, and in general the temple is devoid of a sense of tectonic regularity inherent in the best Javanese buildings. In the emphatically vertical solution of the volume, in the multi-tiered roof, each ledge of which is decorated at the corners with carved acroteria, which makes the corners of the tiers seem to be bent upwards - these features, perhaps, are influenced by examples of Chinese architecture, in particular multi-tiered pagodas, reinterpreted, however, in their own way. fret.

The type of temple building with a small cella and a high roof, worked out in the Pan-Taran complex, was preserved for many centuries, up to the 18th century. - on the island of Bali, which remained the center of Hindu culture in Indonesia after the establishment of the dominance of Islam.

In the sculpture of the Majapahit period, internal contradictions are revealed even more clearly. There are several different trends here. The most conservative of them is represented by the famous statue of the goddess of higher wisdom Prajnaparamita from the Leiden Museum (13-14 centuries) (ill. 177). The goddess is depicted as a bodhisattva with strict observance of all forms of the Buddhist canon. In this work we find in its own way a subtle disclosure of the image, however, neither the sophistication of the silhouette, nor the beautiful drawing of the face, as well as other signs of the undoubted skill of the sculptor, can hide the absence in this image of that radiation of vitality that distinguished the earlier works of the Javanese statuary and relief sculpture.

Another line of Indonesian sculpture is characterized by works in which the quirkiness and fantasy of the image are complemented by the original compositional structure and the widespread use of ornamental and decorative decorations. This includes numerous statues of the elephant-like deity Ganesha, for example, the statues of Ganesha in Bar (13th century). Similar trends are found in the sculptural group depicting the victorious struggle of the goddess Durga, the wife of the god Shiva, with the buffalo-like demon Mahisha (ill. 178). With all the conventionality and angular lapidarity of the images, this sculpture has a dramatic element, and the modeling of the figures is distinguished by great energy. Durga's attire is completely covered with ornaments, and the very composition of the group, skillfully unfolded in a plane, produces a certain decorative effect.

To the greatest extent, the departure from conventionality and the approximation to nature are found in the third direction of the Javanese sculpture of the period under consideration. It is represented mainly by sculptures decorating the ritual pools at the tombs of the rulers. So, for example, two figures of young women with jugs originating from Mojokerto (now in the museum in Jakarta) (ill. 179) give the impression of complete freedom from the traditional ideal canon both in the reliable transfer of the Malay type of their faces, characteristic hairstyle, and in the immediacy of the plastic motive, posture, movements. In animated faces, in slightly exaggerated angular movements, the great observation of the artist, his inherent real sense of life, manifested itself.

Finally, reliefs from the Panataran temple form their own special line. They mean, in essence, a complete rejection of the figurative system and artistic language developed in Indonesian art as a result of consistent centuries-old development. One of these reliefs, depicting Sita, the wife of Rama, yearning in captivity, with her maid, attracts attention with its conventionality. This is a planar openwork stone carving, where figures with distorted proportions and exaggerated gestures are endowed with both schematism and grotesque features, and plants and household items have turned into a kind of ornamental signs. The former plastic expressiveness of volumes gave way to a graphic effect - the ratio of light and dark spots, the expressiveness of angular contours. The pictorial techniques of such reliefs, as well as the nature of the images themselves, are reminiscent of figures from wayang - Javanese shadow theater, and, like the wayang itself, bear a reflection of the influence of Far Eastern art.

Later, with the establishment of the dominance of Islam, which forbade images, the opportunities for the fruitful development of sculpture disappeared in Indonesia. Only on the island of Bali were the old artistic traditions preserved, but even here there were no conditions for their truly creative continuation. The process of primitivization that began in the Majapahit period also affects the art of Bali. The impossibility of developing the classical artistic tradition within the restrictive prescriptions of Islam, and then under the conditions of cruel colonial oppression, led to the fact that the main achievements in the Indonesian art of subsequent centuries were found mainly in the field of folk crafts.