Baroque history of origin. What is baroque? Baroque of northern Europe: examples

Today let's deal with the most interesting baroque art style. Its emergence was influenced by two important events of the Middle Ages. Firstly, this is a change in worldview ideas about the universe and man, associated with the epoch-making scientific discoveries of that time. And secondly, with the need for those in power to imitate their own greatness against the backdrop of material impoverishment. And the use of an artistic style that glorifies the power of the nobility and the church was most welcome. But against the background of mercantile tasks, the spirit of freedom, sensuality and self-awareness of a person as a doer and creator broke into the style itself.

- (Italian barocco - bizarre, strange, prone to excesses; port. perola barroca - a pearl with a vice) - a characteristic of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". opposed to classicism and rationalism.

In the 17th century, Italy lost its economic and political power. Foreigners, the Spaniards and the French, begin to manage on its territory. But exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its position - it still remains the cultural center of Europe. The nobility and the church needed everyone to see their strength and viability, but since there was no money for new buildings, they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. This is how the baroque appeared in Italy.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, the desire for grandeur and splendor, to combine reality and illusion. During this period, thanks to the discoveries of Copernicus, the idea of ​​the world as a rational and constant unity, as well as of man as a most rational being, changed. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by the dynamism of compositions, the “flatness” and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are catchy flamboyance and dynamism. A vivid example is creativity with their riot of feelings and naturalism in the depiction of people and events.

Caravaggio is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, painted on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which the rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity.

In Italian baroque painting, different genres developed, but mostly they were allegories, a mythological genre. Pietro da Cortona, Andrea del Pozzo, the Carracci brothers (Agostino and Lodovico) succeeded in this direction. The Venetian school became famous, where the genre of veduta, or urban landscape, gained great popularity. The most famous author of such works is the artist.

Rubens combined in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque achieved international recognition -. With the work of Rubens, a new style came to Holland, where it was picked up and. In Spain, Diego Velasquez worked in the style of Caravaggio, and in France, Nicolas Poussin, in Russia, Ivan Nikitin and Alexei Antropov.

Baroque artists opened up to art new methods of spatial interpretation of form in its ever-changing vital dynamics, and activated their life position. The unity of life in the sensual-bodily joy of being, in tragic conflicts, is the basis of beauty in baroque art. The idealization of images is combined with turbulent dynamics, reality with fantasy, and religious affectation with emphasized sensuality.

Closely associated with the monarchy, the aristocracy and the church, baroque art was intended to glorify and promote their power. At the same time, it reflected new ideas about the unity, infinity and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability, interest in the environment, in the human environment, in the natural elements. Man appears no longer as the center of the Universe, but as a multifaceted personality, with a complex world of experiences, involved in the circulation and conflicts of the environment.

In Russia, the development of the Baroque falls in the first half of the 18th century. The Russian baroque was free from the exaltation and mysticism characteristic of Catholic countries, and possessed a number of national features, such as a sense of pride in the successes of the state and people. In architecture, baroque reached majestic proportions in the city and estate ensembles of St. Petersburg, Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo. In the visual arts, freed from medieval religious fetters, they turned to secular social themes, to the image of a human figure. Baroque everywhere evolves towards the graceful lightness of the Rococo style, coexists and intertwines with it, and from the 1760s. superseded by classicism.

At the end of the 16th century, a new style appeared - baroque. It is about him that will be discussed in this article.

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “excessive”, port. perola barroca - literally "pearl with vice") is a style in art in general and architecture in particular.

Baroque era

It is conditionally considered (like all historical periods) that the Baroque era continued during the 16th-18th centuries. Interestingly, it all started with, which by the 16th century began to noticeably weaken in the international arena in economic and political terms.

The French and Spaniards actively pursued their policies in Europe, although Italy still remained the cultural center of European society. And the strength of culture, as you know, is determined by its ability to adapt to new realities.

So the Italian nobility, having no money to build rich palaces that demonstrate their power and greatness, turned to art in order to create the appearance of wealth, strength and prosperity with its help.

This is how the Baroque era began, which became an important stage in the development of world art.

It is important to emphasize that the life of people at this time began to change fundamentally. The baroque era is characterized by a lot of free time. Citizens prefer knightly tournaments (see) horseback riding ("carousels") and playing cards, pilgrimages - walking in the park, mysteries - theaters.

Old traditions based on superstition and prejudice are falling away. An outstanding mathematician and philosopher (see) derives the formula: "I think, therefore I exist." That is, society is being rebuilt to a different way of thinking, where it is healthy not what some authority said, but what can be mathematically accurately explained to any rational being.

An interesting fact is that in the professional environment around the very word "Baroque" there is more controversy than about the era as such. From Spanish, barroco is translated as an irregularly shaped pearl, but from Italian, baroco means a false logical conclusion.

This second option looks like the most plausible version of the origin of the controversial word, since it was in the Baroque era that some kind of ingenious absurdity was observed in art, and even quirkiness, striking the imagination with its pomposity and grandeur.

baroque style

The baroque style is characterized by contrast, dynamism and tension, as well as a clear desire for pomp and outward grandeur.

It is interesting that representatives of this trend very organically combined different styles of art. In short, the Reformation and teaching played a key role in laying the foundation of the Baroque style.

If it was typical for the Renaissance to perceive a person as the measure of all things and the most reasonable of creatures, then he already understands himself differently: “something in between everything and nothing.”

baroque art

Baroque art is distinguished, first of all, by the extraordinary splendor of forms, originality of plots and dynamism. In art, flashy flamboyance prevails. In painting, the most prominent representatives of this style were Rubens and.

Looking at some of the paintings of Caravaggio, one involuntarily marvels at the dynamism of his subjects. The play of light and shadow incredibly subtly emphasizes the various emotions and experiences of the characters. An interesting fact is that the influence of this artist on art was so great that a new style appeared - caravaggism.

Some followers managed to adopt naturalism from their teacher in transferring people and events to the canvas. Peter Rubens, studying in Italy, became a follower of Caravaggio and Carraci, mastering their technique and adopting the style.

The Flemish painter Van Dyck and the Dutchman Rembrandt were also prominent representatives of Baroque art. This style was followed by the outstanding artist Diego Velasquez, and in - Nicolas Poussin.

By the way, it was Poussin who began to lay the foundations for a new style in art - classicism.

Baroque in architecture

Baroque architecture is distinguished by its spatial scope and complex, curvilinear forms. Numerous sculptures on the facades and in the interiors, various colonnades and a lot of rafters create splendor and a majestic view.

Architectural ensemble "Zwinger" in Dresden

Domes acquire complex shapes, and often have several tiers. An example is the dome in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the architect of which was.

The most significant works of baroque in architecture are the Palace of Versailles and the building of the French Academy in. The largest baroque ensembles in the world include Versailles, Peterhof, Zwinger, Aranhues and Schönbrunn.

In general, it must be said that the architecture of this style has spread to many European countries, including in, under the influence of Peter the Great.

Style "Peter's Baroque"

baroque music

Speaking about the Baroque era, it is impossible to ignore the music, since it also underwent significant changes during this period. Composers combined large-scale musical forms, at the same time trying to contrast choral and solo singing, voices and instruments.

Various instrumental genres are emerging. The most prominent representatives of baroque music are Bach, Handel and.

Summing up, we can say with confidence that this era gave rise to geniuses of world significance who forever inscribed their name in history. The works of many of them are still decorated with the best museums in different countries.

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The origin of the style is associated with Italy of the 16th century. During this crisis period, the country lost its economic and political significance, but remained the cultural center of Europe. The church and the nobility, trying to demonstrate their power and solvency in tense financial conditions, turned to art. The desire for illusory luxury and wealth gave rise to the Baroque movement.

Baroque is radically opposed to rationalism and classicism. Among the characteristic features are:

• Dynamism of images;
• Combination of real and illusory;
• Contrast;
• Affectation;
• tension;
• Hyperbolized splendor and volume;
• The pursuit of greatness.

Baroque in painting

(Nicola Lancre "Dancing in the Pavilion")

Baroque painting was influenced by the popularity of the theatrical movement. Shakespeare's words: "The whole world is a theater, and the people in it are actors" eloquently describe many famous works of that time. The brightest example is the paintings by P. P. Rubens "Three Graces" and "Versavia", in which realistic landscapes are complemented by velvet red curtains.

(Raphael "Portrait of Maddalena Doni")

Portrait becomes the predominant genre. All European monarchs are eager to perpetuate their greatness on the canvases of famous masters. And every eminent artist practices portrait painting, including Raphael, Holbein, Titian, Leonardo, Dürer and others. The skill of the creator is judged by his portrait skills, invited to serve as a portrait painter.

(Diego Velazquez "Las Meninas")

The work of Diego Velasquez fell on the golden age of Spanish painting. Serving at the court of the king, he paints a series of portraits of the royal family. Each new work is distinguished by the use of various techniques and technical complications. Velazquez's favorite part of the images is the mirror effect, which expands the boundaries of the canvas. It can be observed on the canvases "Menin", "Venus in front of a mirror".

The distinctive features of Spanish art in a general sense are the dualism of the ascetic and the corporeal, the sublime and the mundane, the idealistic and the real, as well as decorativeness, color saturation, and intricacy of forms.

Baroque in architecture

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Cathedral of St. Petra in Rome)

The basis of the Baroque ideology was the opposition of various creeds against the backdrop of a split in the church (into Catholics and Protestants), the opposition of feudal tendencies to bourgeois ones. The spiritual power of religion is weakening, which leads to disagreements between the secular society and the religious one. In the current dramatic circumstances, a new look at architecture is being formed. The style, the beginning of which protested the oppression of force, over time, radically changed its motives. Wealthy customers appreciated the wide variety of plastic forms. As a result, the ideological forms expressed only compositional techniques.

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Palace of the Conservatives in Rome)

At the origins of the style was the painter and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti. The greatest master of plastic art brought to life the design of the Medici chapel, while working on the vestibule of the Laurentian library (1520-1534). These works are recognized as the first architectural works of the Baroque.

The most famous baroque masters of the 17th century are L. Bernini and F. Borromini. Their creative views diverged. Borromini inherited the architectural spirit of Michelangelo with its dynamic tension, massiveness of space, expression, emphasized contrasts. The main direction of Bernini's work is a frank expression of majesty and undisguised luxury.

In addition to differences, the works of these masters show similar features inherent in most representatives of the style:

• Effectiveness achieved by the fullness of space;
• The splendor of forms;
• Exaggerated pathos;
• Plastic fractures, deflections;
• Complexity, not always fully justified.

Baroque spaces have complex constructions. Unlike the Renaissance, where preference is given to regular geometric shapes (square, circle), in the Baroque, the favorite figure is the oval, which gives uncertainty and fantasy to the overall volume. But this form is often complemented by characteristic curves of lines, the walls have convex and concave sections. The configuration of the plan is complicated by contiguous volumes, the boundaries between which are barely perceptible, adjacent elements are perceived as one. The dynamics of space is emphasized by the distribution of light and shade. Darkened areas contrast with brightly lit accents. One of the most commonly used techniques is a beam of light from half-open openings, which cuts the air medium pointwise.

(Zwinger, Dresden 1719)

Religious construction gained a second wind during the Baroque. Of great importance to the religious world was the completion of the protracted construction of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. The main Catholic church was a centric volume with a grandiose dome at the head. Most of the work on the building was carried out by Michelangelo, and after the revision of the layout, Bernini finished the work. He framed the cathedral square with a group of majestic columns.

(Great Catherine Palace in Russia in baroque style)

Baroque architecture, so popular in Italy, did not appeal to countries with Protestant views, such as Scotland, England, northern Germany, Scandinavia. But in the 17th century, the Austrians, after the consolidation of imperial power, often invited Italian masters to work on palaces.

(The Winter Palace was also built in the Baroque style)

By the beginning of the 18th century, baroque architecture had undergone some changes. Straight lines were replaced by broken and winding ones. Stucco molding, sculpture, large mirrors, flowerpots were widely used. At this time, large-scale projects were developed and implemented, ensemble construction techniques were used for the first time.

Conclusion

Baroque as a stylistic direction was developed at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. - 18th century The historical course of that time assumed the emergence of a culture of contradiction between church and secular. At the junction of the tastes of two significant components of society, the deliberate luxury and wealth of the Baroque was born. The boundless flow of the imagination of the masters saturated this style with solemnity, magnificent forms, impulsiveness, variety and an abundance of decorative elements. The art of this style, despite the obvious signs, is developing and saturated with new techniques to this day.

Baroque is one of the trends in art and literature of the 17th century, preserved and developed in some countries (Germany, Austria, Italy, Russia) and during the Enlightenment. The word "Baroque" existed in several languages- Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Spanish - long before this period and had several different meanings (one of the figures of the syllogism in scholastic reasoning, a type of financial transaction, an irregularly shaped pearl), each of which included the figurative meaning of "strange, wrong, extravagant" and had a disparaging connotation. Baroque began to be applied to the phenomena of art (music, architecture) already in the second half of the 18th century, and in the 19th century the first works of art critics appeared (J. Burckhardt, 1865; G. Wölfflin, 1888), in which the baroque was regarded as a phenomenon that arose at sunset Renaissance, but no longer interpreted absolutely negatively. In the 20th century, the aesthetic rehabilitation of the Baroque began as a direction in architecture, painting, and music. For quite a long time, the term "Baroque" was not applied to literary phenomena or was used only sporadically, in a few studies (D. Carducci, 1860; E. Porembovich, 1893). The final legalization of the concept of Baroque, not only in the field of art history, but also in the history of literature, was carried out in the 1930s, and in the 1950s-60s, a scientific fashion for the Baroque appeared in literary criticism. Its appearance is obviously associated with a certain echo of the artistic worldview of the "catastrophic" 20th century with the worldview of people of the turbulent, military 17th century - the beginning of the New Age, in which our contemporary recognizes himself more quickly and easily than in the art and literature of earlier stages. The feeling of closeness, similarity of the spiritual atmosphere of the period of development of Baroque literature to the intellectual and psychological climate of the 20th century gives rise to works in the so-called neo-baroque style throughout its entire course, explains the popularity of the word itself, sometimes appearing even in the titles of works (“Baroque Concerto”, 1975, A. Carpentier), reveals the pattern of research interest in the Baroque.

However, modern scholars are forced to state that “a huge number of works on the Baroque that have appeared by the present period have only cast a fog into his theory.” Many specialists understand the term "Baroque" very broadly. One concept, dating back to the work of E. d'Ors, considers the baroque as a constant of any style, as its final crisis stage, highlights the Hellenistic, medieval, classic, romantic baroque - more than 20 types in total. Another concept, put forward by G. Gatzfeld, considers the baroque as a generalizing category, which includes subspecies: mannerism, classicism and baroque (rococo). Studies in which baroque acts as a historical concept localized within certain chronological frameworks are also quite contradictory. The dates of the existence of the Baroque range from extremely wide (1527-1800) to rather narrow (1600-50). Baroque is understood either as an artistic style, the direction of a certain historical and cultural period (B.R. Vipper. Art of the 17th century and the problem of the Baroque style Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966), or as a “style of the era”, i.e. designation of a cultural period as a whole, as a type of culture. Sometimes these definitions enter into each other, sometimes they are considered as mutually exclusive: according to A.V. Mikhailov, “baroque is not a style at all, but something else. Baroque is not a direction either... It is possible to speak of baroque as a "style of the era".

Researchers define the connection between Baroque art and literature and religious movements of the 17th century in different ways: in some works, the Baroque is a product of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, even specifically the “Jesuit style”, “the art of the Council of Trent”, in others, on the contrary, it is an artistic phenomenon that opposes the Counter-Reformation ideology. (this is how the baroque was interpreted in those Soviet studies that aimed at the ideological rehabilitation of the direction), thirdly, the baroque develops both among Catholics and among reformers, without having a certain confessional attachment, but rather growing on the basis of that religious - both political and social - the conflict that marked the end of the Renaissance. The art and literature of the Baroque are developing more actively in those periods of the New Age, when the crisis state of society intensifies (in general, this is mainly the last third of the 16th - the first half of the 17th century, more specifically 1580-1660) and in those countries where political and social stability less durable or broken (Spain, Germany).

Baroque is the product of a deep historical, ideological, sociocultural, moral and psychological crisis during the transition from the Renaissance to the New Age. It grows on the basis of an acute inner experience of external cataclysms, a rethinking of the old picture of the world, a reassessment of human capabilities, familiar ideas and values. In the artistic vision of the Baroque, not only is the Earth not the center of the Universe (a consequence of the Copernican picture of the world deeply assimilated and developed in the 17th century), but man is not the crown of creation (new religious movements such as Protestantism and Jansenism contribute to the criticism of this idea). The world and human life in the world appear as a series of irreconcilable oppositions, antinomies, they are in constant struggle with each other and are constantly changing, turning into an illusion. The reality surrounding a person turns out to be a dream, and the most dramatic thing is that he cannot catch the boundaries between these states, understand what position he is in at one time or another (play by P. Calderon “Life is a dream”, 1636).

The unknowability of the mobile, disharmonic, chaotic reality in which a person lives - a "thinking reed" left to worldly storms, an "atmosphere of doubt" in which he is immersed, arouse an avid interest in the mysterious, magical, mystical, which obviously have no final solution. A baroque man is tormented by a sense of fragility, inconstancy, and the variability of life, he turns either to the tradition of ancient stoicism or epicureanism, and these principles are not only antinomically opposed, but also paradoxically merged in a pessimistic sense of life as a path of troubles. Baroque literature finds figurative and stylistic correspondences to the new worldview, “avoiding speaking too clearly”, colliding and contaminating the tragic and the comic, the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the low, “to be” and “to seem”, using metaphors and paradoxes, having a passion for the image metamorphoses, transformations and disguises. Baroque often depicts the world as a theater: directly introducing theatrical scenes into works (including stage scenes - the technique of "theater in the theater"); resorting to decorative and lush visual means (stringing sophisticated metaphors, creating emblem images, hyperbolization and exaggeration of linguistic contrasts). The word itself in the Baroque primarily carries the function of "representation", and metaphors and allegories are "a way of forming a special structure of consciousness."

The creative task of the baroque writer is to excite and surprise the reader (“The poet’s goal is the miraculous and amazing. Whoever cannot surprise ... let him go to the hoarder.” D. Marino. Sonnet, 1611). At the same time, the baroque seeks to express the complexity of the world in its entirety: the cumbersome composition of many works, the abundance of characters, storylines, conflicts, events, the variety of “scenery” in which they occur, the extensive scholarly comments that often accompany the texts of novels (“The Mad Shepherd” , 1627-28, S. Sorel, "Assenat", 1670, F. von Cesena), dramas ("Papinian", 1659, A. Gryphius), are designed to turn these works into a kind of universal encyclopedia. The baroque world of the “encyclopedia”, both as the Book of Genesis and as the book itself, consists of many separate fragments, elements, “headings” that combine into contradictory and unexpected combinations, creating a “deliberately dizzying” narrative labyrinth. The "rational extravagance" of the Baroque is due to the fact that this is a rhetorical art, which does not set itself the task of a direct, direct reflection of reality. Baroque always takes into account, although it varies unexpectedly, even paradoxically, the literary tradition. This literature uses the "ready-made word" - both in its "high", ethical-philosophical, love-psychological, "tragic" line (P. Calderon, O. d'Urfe), and in the "grassroots", moralistic, burlesque-satirical , "comic" line (F. Quevedo, Sorel, H. Ya. Grimmelskha uzen). Baroque is represented in European literature not only by these two main stylistic lines, but also by many currents: cultism (gongorism) and conceptism in Spain, Marinism in Italy, libertinage and precision in France, the metaphysical school in England, "secular" and "religious" baroque . This direction has certain national characteristics in each country: the Spanish baroque is the most philosophically tense, confused, the French is the most analytical and intellectual, the German is the most emotionally affected. Baroque is an art that is not inclined to create a coherent system of artistic laws, "rules". There are few literary and aesthetic works that can rightfully be called program baroque, although T. de Vio, Sorel in France, J. Donne in England, D. Marino in Italy, Grimmels Hausen in Germany. Baroque aesthetics are most fully represented in Italy (“Aristotle's Spyglass”, 1655, E.Tesauro) and Spain (“Wit, or the Art of a Sophisticated Mind”, 1642, B. Graciana): both theorists focus on the concept of "sharp mind" as the basis of the ingenuity of the artist of the word, and affirm the role of intuition in artistic creativity. The system of genres in the Baroque does not have completeness and harmony, as in classicism, however, the genre preferences of writers are quite clear: these are pastoral poetry, dramatic pastorals and a pastoral novel, a gallant-heroic novel with a historical theme, an allegorical novel, philosophical and didactic lyrics, satirical, burlesque poetry, comic novel, tragicomedy, philosophical drama.

Details Category: A variety of styles and trends in art and their features Published on 07/24/2014 18:16 Views: 6591

As soon as this style was not called! “Weird, exuberant, preposterous, pretentious, unnatural…

At first, these characteristics sounded like a mockery. And all this only because the new style did not correspond to the canons of ancient art, on the basis of which a work of art should be built and which later used classicism and rationalism. That is, only this way and not otherwise.

But, as you know, there is nothing permanent in the world: everything flows, changes and acquires new qualities and priorities. And now the new XVII century was marked by a new style. This style subjugated all kinds of art: from interiors and clothing to music. But the time will come - and it will be replaced by a different style ...
In which country did the baroque originate? Of course, in Italy. It was Italy that was the center of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, and from here the triumphal procession of baroque throughout Europe began. In each country, the baroque had its own special national features.

Features of the Baroque style

The most important features of the Baroque are its desire for pomp and grandeur. Baroque was also characterized by dynamism, contrast, which greatly distinguished it from Renaissance harmony.
If we talk about the era and the people who lived at that time, then you can see a special passion for entertainment, card games, it was at this time that masquerades, fireworks, frilly women's hairstyles, corsets, unnaturally extended skirts on frames, and powdered wigs for men became popular. , shaved face, etc. As you can see, a strong departure from natural life, which was rejected as savagery and arrogance. One has only to remember how much effort Peter I applied to "ennoble" the Russian society of that time. In the collection “Honest Mirror of Youth”, prepared at his direction, the second part of it is completely devoted to the rules of conduct for “young boys” and girls of the nobility. In fact, this is the first etiquette textbook in Russia. The young nobleman was recommended to learn first of all foreign languages, horseback riding, dancing and fencing. The virtues of the girl were recognized as humility, respect for parents, diligence and silence, chastity. The composition regulated almost all aspects of public life: from the rules of conduct at the table to public service. The book formed a new stereotype of the behavior of a secular person who avoids bad company, extravagance, drunkenness, rudeness and adheres to European secular manners.

Baroque in painting

The same features of the Baroque in painting: pomp of forms, catchy dynamism and brightness, originality of subjects. The most famous representatives of this style in painting were Rubens and Caravaggio.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)

A South Dutch (Flemish) painter who embodied the mobility, unbridled vitality and sensuality of European Baroque painting.

P.P. Rubens "Self-portrait" (1623)
His paintings are exceptionally diverse, especially in terms of composition: he uses a diagonal, an ellipse, a spiral. His palette is also varied; the richness of colors is a distinctive feature of his paintings. "Rubensian" women are usually somewhat ponderous, but they attract with their overweight female form.

P.P. Rubens "The Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus" (1618)
The plot of this painting by Rubens is the myth of the brothers Castor and Pollux (sons of Zeus and Leda), who kidnapped the daughters of King Leucippus, Gilair and Phoebe. In this story, Rubens was fascinated by the very dramatic moment of the abduction, which provides rich opportunities for plastic solutions. The picture miraculously conveys the dynamics of movement. Movement in the understanding of Rubens carries both an emotional impulse and a plot meaning.
Rubens is considered an innovator in the depiction of hunting scenes, which are also distinguished by their dynamics, unexpected composition and richness of colors.

P.P. Rubens "The Hunt for the Hippo" (1618)

baroque architecture

Baroque architecture strikes primarily with its complexity and scope. An abundance of complex, usually curvilinear forms, large-scale colonnades. On the facades of buildings and in the interiors - an abundance of sculpture. Often multi-tiered domes of complex shapes. Endless repetition, duplication of the same techniques.

Cathedral of St. Petra (Vatican)
I. Grabar writes about the Roman architecture of the Baroque era: “Neurasthenic enthusiasm doubles and triples all means of expression: there are already few individual columns, and where possible they are replaced by paired ones; one pediment seems insufficiently expressive, and they are not embarrassed to tear it apart in order to repeat another, smaller scale in it. In pursuit of a picturesque play of light, the architect does not immediately reveal all the forms to the viewer, but presents them gradually, repeating them two, three and five times. The eye gets confused and lost in these intoxicating waves of forms and perceives such a complex system of rising, falling, leaving and approaching, now emphasized, now lost lines, that you do not know which of them is true? Hence the impression of some kind of movement, an uninterrupted run of lines and a flow of forms. This principle reaches its highest expression in the method of “unfastening”, in that multiple fragmentation of the entablature, which causes a whimsically curving line of the cornice at the top of the building. This technique was erected by the masters of the Baroque into a whole system, unusually complex and complete. This should also include the reception of group pilasters, when the pilasters receive more half-pilasters on the sides, as well as the reception of flat frames framing the intervals between the pilasters. By such means in architecture, instead of the Renaissance ideal of a clear, stable and complete harmony in itself, a “ghostly feeling” was created.

Distinctive details of the Baroque -Atlanteans(telamones), caryatids- to support the arches, playing the role of columns;mascarons(view of the sculptural decoration of the building in the form of a human or animal head from the front).

Perhaps it is in baroque architecture that it is presented in its entirety and diversity. It is difficult even to list all the architects of this style, let's name just a few names: L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Poland.
In Italian architecture, the most famous representative of the Baroque was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629). His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603).

Santa Susanna (Rome)
The sculptor Lorenzo Bernini was also an architect. He owns the design of the square of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome and interiors, as well as other buildings.

Square of the Cathedral of St. Petra in Rome
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth (Poland). At the beginning of the XVIII century. in France, its own style appeared, a kind of baroque - rococo. It prevailed not in the external design of buildings, but only in interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was distributed throughout Europe and in Russia. But we will talk about it later. Now let's focus on the Russian baroque.

Baroque in Russia

Baroque appeared in Russia at the end of the 17th century. (it was called "Naryshkin baroque", "Golitsyn baroque"). During the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine Baroque” (more restrained) was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, it flourished in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

Peter's Baroque

This term is used by art historians to characterize the artistic style approved by Peter I and widely used for the design of buildings in the new Russian capital of St. Petersburg.
It was an architectural style based on examples of Swedish, German and Dutch civil architecture. Although it is possible to reduce the whole variety of architectural solutions of Peter's architects to baroque only with a certain degree of conventionality, because here there are features of classicism and gothic.
The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by simplicity of volumetric constructions, clarity of articulations and restraint of decoration, and a planar interpretation of facades. Unlike the Naryshkin Baroque, which was popular in Moscow at the time, the Petrine Baroque represented a decisive break with the Byzantine traditions that had dominated Russian architecture for nearly 700 years. Golitsyn Baroque was similar to Italian and Austrian designs.
Among the first builders of St. Petersburg are Jean-Baptiste Leblon, Domenico Trezzini, Andreas Schluter, J. M. Fontana, Nicolo Michetti and G. Mattarnovi. All of them arrived in Russia at the invitation of Peter I. Each of these architects brought into the appearance of the buildings under construction the traditions of their country, the architectural school that he represented. Supervising the implementation of their projects, Russian architects, such as Mikhail Zemtsov, assimilated the traditions of European baroque.

Petrovsky assemblies

They were the prototype of a noble ball. Peter I introduced assemblies into the cultural life of Russian society in December 1718.
The idea was borrowed by Peter from the forms of leisure he saw in Europe. They were held in all seasons, in the summer - in the open air. The program of the assemblies included food, drinks, dancing, games and conversations. According to the decree, visiting the assemblies was obligatory not only for the nobles, but also for their wives, which was closely monitored by the “king of balls” Yaguzhinsky. Yesterday's boyars tried in every possible way to evade participation in the assemblies, not wanting to dress in the new fashion and considering such a pastime indecent. Participation in the amusements of women also caused dissatisfaction. To prevent “truancy”, Yaguzhinsky looked through the lists of those invited to the assemblies and calculated the “netchikov”. That's how hard European fashion took root (in this case, the Baroque style) in Russia.

Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734)

Italian born in Switzerland. From 1703 he worked in Russia, becoming the first architect of St. Petersburg. Trezzini laid the foundations of the European school in Russian architecture.

Peter and Paul Cathedral - one of the most famous works of Domenico Trezzini
His other works:
Project of the complex of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (1715)
Anichkov bridge (1721). Rebuilt to increase the capacity of the crossing. The new project is a wooden 18-span bridge with a drawbridge in the middle. The construction was carried out by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.

Anichkov bridge (modern view)
The Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712-1733) was erected on the site of the wooden church of the same name. The spire of the bell tower with the figure of a flying angel was erected by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.
Trezzini House (1721-1726). The design was carried out by Trezzini himself, the construction was carried out by M. Zemtsov.
Expansion of the Winter Palace of Peter I for Catherine I (1726-1727)

Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli (1700-1771)

OK. Pfandzelt "Portrait of Rastrelli"
Russian architect of Italian origin, academician of architecture of the Imperial Academy of Arts. The brightest representative of the so-called Elizabethan Baroque.
His works:

Rundale Palace (Latvia). It was built in the Baroque style according to the project of F. B. Rastrelli for E. I. Biron in 1736-1740).
Mitava Palace (Latvia). Built in the 18th century. designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli as the front city residence of the Dukes of Courland and Semigallia in their capital Mitava (now Jelgava).
Grand Palace (Peterhof). Located on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland.

Andrew's Church (Kyiv). Orthodox church in honor of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called; built in the Baroque style by Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1754.
Smolny Cathedral (1748-1764), Vorontsov Palace (1749-1757), Great Catherine Palace (1752-1756) - all in St. Petersburg; the Grotto pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo (1753-1757), the Hermitage pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo (1744-1754), the Tsar's Palace in Kiev (1752-1770), the Stroganov Palace and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg (1753-1762) .

Winter Palace (Hermitage)
Only the surviving buildings of this architect are listed. Unfortunately, not everything created by Rastrelli has survived to this day.

Baroque in sculpture

The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century. was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini.

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)

D.L. Bernini "Self-portrait"
The most famous of his sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpina by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. This sculpture with clouds carved out of marble and the clothes of the characters fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the position of the sculptors of this era.

D.L. Bernini "The Rape of Proserpina" (1621-1622). Gallery Borghese

D.L. Bernini "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

Baroque literature

In Baroque literature, writers and poets showed a tendency to perceive the real world as an illusion or a dream. Allegorical images, symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, antitheses, and rhetorical figures were often used. There is a noticeable craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life-dream. One of P. Calderon's plays is called: "Life is a dream." The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court cavaliers and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastorals. In poetry - pretentiousness, the use of complex metaphors. The sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals (love-lyrical musical and poetic work) are widespread.
In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich.

Simeon Polotsky (in the world Samuil Gavrilovich Petrovsky-Sitnyanovich, 1629-1680)

Figure of East Slavic culture, spiritual writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator, Basilian monk, court astrologer. He was a mentor to the children of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor.
He was also one of the first Russian poets, the author of syllabic verses in Church Slavonic and Polish. In addition to the poetic transcription of the Psalter under the title "Rhyming Psalter", Polotsky wrote many poems that made up the collection "Rhymologion", in which he sang various events from the life of the royal family and courtiers, as well as many moral and didactic poems that were included in "Multicolored Vertograd". This collection is the pinnacle of the work of Simeon Polotsky, as well as one of the most striking manifestations of Russian literary baroque.
S. Polotsky also wrote two comedies (school dramas) for the emerging theater, the Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son enjoyed particular success.

baroque music

Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of Classicism. Pretentious forms, complexity, pomp and dynamics were also characteristic of music. But many works of the Baroque period have become classics and are performed to this day: fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach, works by George Frideric Handel, The Four Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi, Vespers by Claudio Monteverdi.

E.G. Osman (Hausmann) "Portrait of J. S. Bach"
Baroque music is characterized by musical ornament, which became very sophisticated in the heyday of the style, and ways of playing instruments developed. The boundaries of genres have expanded, the complexity of performing musical works has grown. In the Baroque era, there opera. Many baroque musical terms are still in use today.

F.M. de La Cave "Portrait of A. Vivaldi"

baroque fashion

The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. It was the age of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned at the court. The suit was subject to etiquette. It was France that was the trendsetter in Europe, so French fashion was quickly adopted in other countries: a common fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics were preserved only in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were hardly worn in Russia.
The costume was distinguished by stiffness, splendor, and an abundance of jewelry. The ideal of a man was Louis XIV, the "sun king", a skilled rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.

N. de Largilliere "Portrait of Louis XIV with his family"
Since Louis was crowned at the age of 5, short jackets (bracers) decorated with lace, trousers (rengraves), similar to a skirt, also richly decorated with lace, came into fashion. Justocor - a type of caftan, knee-length, worn buttoned up, over it - a belt. A sleeveless camisole was worn under the caftan. The caftan and camisole will turn into a jacket and vest in 200 years. The collar of the justocor was at first a turn-down, with semicircular ends stretched down, and later it was replaced by a jabot. In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes. Before Louis XIII, boots (over the knee boots) were popular. They even wore boots at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only in military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came out on top. Until 1670 they were decorated with buckles and then with bows. The intricately decorated buckles were called agraph.
Men wore puffy wigs that stuck up high and flowed over their shoulders. Wigs came into use under Louis XIII, who was bald. Later they became much more magnificent. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with a high crown. At the end of the century, they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the 18th century.

Baroque in clothes
The women's dress was lined with whalebone. It gradually expanded to the bottom, a train was worn at the back. A full women's costume consisted of two skirts: the lower one (fripon, light) and the upper one (modest, darker). The underskirt was visible, the top diverges to the sides from the bottom of the bodice. On the sides of the skirt was decorated with draperies. Draperies were also on the edge of the neckline. The waist is narrow, a corset was worn under the dress.
In the 1660s, the Mancini and Sevigne hairstyles were fashionable, and later the fontange hairstyle came into fashion. This is a high hairstyle of many curls.

Umbrellas came into fashion, for women - muffs, fans. Cosmetics were used without measure: all kinds of flies were molded on the face (the black fly created a contrast with powdered faces and wigs). Men and women carried walking sticks.
Popular materials of that time were wool, velvet, satin, brocade, taffeta, moire, camlot, cotton.

Baroque in the interior

Showy luxury is typical here. Wall painting became widespread, although it was popular before.

baroque interior
The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: a ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic, for example, the marble floor, decorated with checkerboard tiles. Abundant gilded jewelry is also a characteristic feature of the Baroque.
The furniture was a piece of art and was intended to decorate the interior. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered with expensive fabric. Huge beds with canopies and flowing down bedspreads, giant wardrobes were widespread.

Mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture material.
Baroque style is suitable only for large rooms, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large amount of space. By the way, there is already a trend towards its return - some equip their apartments in this style.