A story about an architectural monument of ancient China. Ancient China - architecture

Chinese architecture reached its highest achievements during the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties (7th-13th centuries). Monumental architecture was distinguished by clear harmony, festivity and calm grandeur of forms. Cities were built according to a clear plan. They were powerful fortresses surrounded by high walls and deep ditches.

(1) In ancient China, the most typical construction of a house was considered to be frame-and-pillar, using wood for this. Wooden poles were installed on an adobe platform, on which longitudinal transverse beams were attached, and on them - a roof covered with tiles. Such a frame system not only allowed Chinese architects to freely design the walls of the house, but also helped to prevent the destruction of the house during earthquakes. (2) For example, in the northern province of China, Shanxi, there is a Buddhist temple over 60 meters high, the frame of which was wooden. This pagoda is more than 900 years old, but it is very well preserved until today.

(3) Compared to palaces, living quarters in southern China are very modest. The houses are covered with dark gray tiled roofs, their walls are covered with white flowers, and their wooden frames are in dark coffee color. Bamboo and bananas grow around the houses. Similar premises still exist in the southern provinces of Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian and others.

tombs

The numerous complexes of tombs of the nobility, created at the turn of our era, are perfectly preserved, which are large underground structures, to which the so-called alleys of spirits guarding the graves led. They were framed with sculptures of animals and stone pylons. The complex also included ground-based sanctuaries - tsytans. The reliefs on the walls of the burial structures depict guards in long robes, phoenixes, dragons, turtles, and tigers. The reliefs of the burial of Ulyantsy in Shandong (II century) tell about the creators of the earth and sky, about legendary heroes, about solemn processions, about the struggle between kingdoms.

The reliefs are friezes. A new scene is shown on each slab, and an inscription is placed next to it explaining the image. Gods and people are dressed alike, but gods and kings are bigger than ordinary people . (4, 5) An example of a different style is the reliefs from Sichuan, which are distinguished by simplicity and liveliness of images, attention to everyday subjects (harvest scenes, wild duck hunting, theater and circus performances, etc.). Increasing importance is attached to the image of nature.

the great Wall of China

(6) The Great Wall of China is a unique monument of fortress architecture. It began to be built in the IV-III centuries. BC, when the Chinese states were forced to defend themselves against the raids of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia. The Great Wall, like a giant serpent, winds its way through the mountain ranges, peaks and passes of Northern China. (7) Its length exceeds 3 thousand km, approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers with embrasures. The distance between the towers is equal to two arrow flights, it was easily shot through from each side, which ensured safety. The upper plane of the wall is a wide protected road, along which military units and wagon trains could quickly move.

Pagodas

(8, 9) The pagoda as a type of structure dates back to Indian architecture. Early pagodas are reminiscent of Indian tower-shaped temples with their soft curvature and roundness of lines. In Buddhist monasteries, pagodas served as repositories of relics, statues, and canonical books. Many Chinese pagodas are huge and reach a height of 50 m. The best of them amaze with almost mathematically precise and proportionate proportions, they seem to embody the spirit of Confucian wisdom. Later pagoda towers, built in honor of Buddhist saints, are characterized by slightly upward curved, pointed roof edges. It was believed that thanks to this form, they reliably protect against evil spirits.

More favorable conditions for the development of architecture developed in the 15th-18th centuries, when it took a leading position among the arts. By this time, the construction of the Great Wall of China was completed. (10, 11) Such large cities as Beijing and Nanjing were built, wonderful palaces and temple ensembles were built. According to ancient rules, all buildings were facing south, and the city was crossed from south to north by a straight highway. New forms of architectural ensembles and cities are being developed. In Minsk pagodas, decorative features, fragmentation of forms, overload with details begin to prevail. With the transfer of the capital in 1421 from Nanjing to Beijing, the city was strengthened, palaces, temples and monasteries were built. The largest architectural structure of this time is the palace ensemble erected in the Forbidden City.

The identity of China's architecture

The architecture of China has a number of traditional features inherent only to it, and the nature of decoration makes it possible to recognize Chinese buildings all over the world.

Most of the buildings of Ancient China were built of wood, which was typical for residential buildings and for the imperial palace. The construction consisted of wooden pillars, which were connected to each other by beams, which in turn served as the foundation of the building, and the roof, covered with tiles, completed the construction. The openings were filled with bamboo, clay, bricks.

One of the first to use the "flow method" in architecture was the ancient Chinese. The peculiarity of the method was that, based on the standard size of the structure, it was possible to accurately determine the size of its remaining parts, which allowed builders to manufacture separately from the general structure of the building, and then assemble the parts on site. This method of construction allowed Chinese builders to significantly reduce the time for building a building.

Remark 1

Examples of this are the Forbidden City in Beijing - the imperial residence, 720 thousand square meters of which were built in just 13 years, while it took about three decades to erect the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.

Possessing flexibility and elasticity, wooden buildings, unlike stone ones, were more resistant to earthquakes. However, for many advantages, wooden structures turned out to be relatively short-lived and fire hazardous. Many architectural monuments were damaged or not preserved at all as a result of lightning strikes or fires.

The architecture of China is distinguished by its bright originality. Its main principles and style developed in the third century BC. Like other countries of the East, it is characterized by adherence to once found and fixed by tradition forms, known for conservatism.

Buildings in China could be periodically rebuilt, accurately reproducing the forms of the previous structure. The main material for construction was wood. Although China is a large country with diverse climatic zones, various building materials may have been used in different regions. Pile structures were typical for the humid southern regions, while brick was common in the north. It depended on the purpose of the building (pagodas were built of stone), as well as on the social status of the owner. The emperor in China was elevated to the rank of a deity, and secular power was endowed with great power. Unlike India, temple buildings were rare in Chinese architecture.

Traditional Chinese structures are post-and-beam structures with wooden infill. The wall is a partition of insignificant thickness and does not carry a tectonic load. Despite the presence of a post-and-beam frame, revealed in the external forms of the structure, Chinese architecture is atectonical: traditional Chinese palaces and temples are characterized by high roofs with a strong overhang. But this is precisely one of the main features of traditional Chinese architecture and is one of its most attractive features.

Such forms of the roof are associated with a love for the decorative interpretation of forms, as well as with climatic conditions - an abundance of rain. The buildings were distinguished by a picturesque bizarre silhouette, with roofs arranged in several tiers. For pagodas, this was a characteristic feature. In secular buildings, several tiers of roofs spoke of the high social position of their owner.

Remark 2

The architecture of Ancient China is characterized by color combined with decorative elements.

The architectural forms are dynamic, the dougongs echo the silhouettes of the roofs. Picturesque and sculptural images of dragons were considered symbols of renewal, the protector of Chinese land and imperial power. The masters of China loved figurativeness, similitude and comparison, which is also characteristic of the art of other peoples of the East. So, the shape of the roof can be compared with the spread wings of a flying crane. At the same time, the natural motif is exposed to a frankly decorative interpretation.

The transition from beams to roofing was carried out with the help of a complex system of carved brackets arranged in several tiers - dougong, which are an important and original element of traditional Chinese architecture. Light, openwork also removed the feeling of heaviness of the architectural masses, the pressure of the ceilings. Dougongs, brightly colored and covered with carvings, performed not only a constructive, but also a purely decorative function (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Architectural painting of He Xi in the Forbidden City. Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Basically, the structure of Chinese buildings is extremely simple. As a rule, this is a regular-shaped quadrilateral with beam ceilings. From individual cells of this type, more complex structures were formed. They could be supplemented by external porticoes. Along with the form of the roof mentioned above, they contributed to the connection of buildings with the natural environment. This relationship, as well as the significant role of space in the architectural image, is an important component of the style of Chinese architecture.

In the palace ensemble, vast free spaces create an atmosphere of solemnity, their paved surfaces contrast with elegant palace buildings. The most significant buildings are distinguished by their scale and the shape of the roofs (two-tier four-pitched roofs, which were supposed to be only for the most important buildings). The main chambers of the Gugong palace complex (Fig. 2) are the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Complete Harmony and the Hall of Preservation of Harmony.

Figure 2. The Forbidden City in Beijing (Gugong). Author24 - online exchange of student papers

Architectural landmarks of China

The richness and unique style of architectural structures in China is very diverse, among them:

• palace architecture(Forbidden City, Mountain refuge from the summer heat)
• Temples and altars(Temple of Heaven, Temple of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Cereals, Residence of Heavenly Guides, Longmen Cave Temples, Fengxian Cave Temples, Mogao Caves, Yungang, Putozongcheng, Nanyue Damiao, Palace of Supreme Purity, Daqin Pagoda, Baochu Pagoda, True Unity Temple, Six Pagoda Harmonium, Porcelain Pagoda, Iron Pagoda, Tianning Temple).
• Memorial buildings(Temple of Confucius, Temple of Baogong, Pailou, Steles (on a turtle pedestal)
• tombs(Ming Dynasty Tombs, Hanging Coffins, Ming Changling Tomb, Qin Shi Huang Tomb)
• Bridges(Anji Bridge, Lugou Bridge, Baodai Bridge, curved bridges "moon bridge")
• Fortifications(The Great Wall of China, City Walls - Beijing (demolished), Nanjing (partially preserved), Wanping Fortress in Beijing)
• residential buildings(Siheyuan residential complex, serf-type residential complexes - tulou (Fujian), fortified mansions of diaolou (Guangdong), a typical peasant house of northern China - fanza, heated bench - kang).

Development architecture in China happened much earlier than in most European countries. Architects designing temples and buildings in the traditional Chinese style, back in the first millennium BC. e. created real masterpieces, with innovative, at that time, design solutions. The most famous example is the Forbidden or Imperial City located in Beijing, which has survived to this day.

The influence of social and geographical conditions on the architecture of China

In the II millennium BC. e. in the North of China, slaveholding relations began to emerge, replacing the tribal ones. More efficient, bronze tools and the widespread construction of irrigation facilities contributed to the emergence of the first slave states. Evidence of the development of Chinese architecture of that time are the buildings destroyed by time near the city of Sanyang, the archaeological excavations of which allowed scientists to present to the world the palace and temple platforms, the bases of stone columns.

Despite the fact that there are many deposits of marble, limestone, and granite in China, Chinese architects gave the greatest preference to wood. Weymouth pine, bamboo, Korean cedar were especially often used. There was also an abundance of ordinary forest in China. Therefore, not all the unique buildings of the past have been preserved. The architecture of the Shang, Zhou and other eras can now be judged only by a few surviving stone structures.

Confucianism, Taoism, Chan Buddhism had a strong influence on the formation of the Chinese style in architecture. Wars and natural disasters were the main reason for the destruction of ancient monuments. However, the surviving buildings, dating from the feudal period, demonstrate a variety of architectural forms and decor used for decoration. Their construction began in the II millennium BC. e.

Folk traditions in Chinese construction have developed thanks to the Taoist practice of Feng Shui (“wind and water”). With its help, experts determined a suitable place for buildings and outbuildings, so that the flows of qi energy, favorable for humans and living beings, had a positive effect on them. Based on this, the main facades of the buildings faced south, thereby providing the most comfortable temperature in the interior. Taoist soothsayers created a separate science - geomancy and tied together the terrain, magnetic fields, cosmic forces, as well as the five original elements, heaven and Earth. Only with a positive result of the analysis, the selected site was suitable for construction.

traditional chinese architecture

Geometric figures formed the basis for the planning of various buildings and large-scale architectural complexes. Usually it was a square and a circle. The types of structures were legalized in accordance with religious canons. All parts of the building were also designed according to centuries-old traditions, the observance of which imposed a number of restrictions on the work of architects. The cities of Beijing, Luoyang, Chang'an have such a layout. There are several important features characteristic of ancient cities:

• The city walls of the ancient cities of China were oriented to the cardinal points, just like individual buildings, rooms.
• The height of the buildings depended entirely on the social status of the homeowner. The higher his rank, the closer to the city center he could settle. Commoners could only build a one-story house.

There was a strict division of cities into districts - residential, administrative and commercial. Recreation areas - parks - were allocated.

Roofs were subjected to especially strict regulations, the color of which should be as follows:

• golden yellow (only the roofs of the imperial palaces were painted in this color);
• blue (at the main religious buildings, symbolized heavenly purity);
• green (near temples, pagodas, court houses);
• gray (near the houses of ordinary citizens).

Ancient buildings of China

An example of a traditional layout is the city of Changyang 长安, founded by Emperor Liu Bang in 202 BC. e. In which, in 2 AD. e. already lived at least 500,000 people, 9 markets worked. But later the city fell into decay, and after the crisis, in 582, it was abandoned altogether. Its excavations have been going on since 1956, and it is located on the site of the city.

Researches of scientists confirm that the planning of the city was carried out strictly according to the plan. City walls oriented to the cardinal points. In each wall there are three gates with three passages 6 m wide. The main streets originated from the gate. The streets were divided into three parts. In the central part, 20 m wide, the emperor with his retinue, his messengers and the nobility could move. Two side lanes, 12 m wide each, served as roads for commoners. The residential quarters were rectangular.

There were a lot of palace complexes in Chang'an, since at a certain period of time the emperor lived in the city. In the 1960s, the most famous palaces of Changle Gong and Weiyang Gong were excavated. The Changle Gong complex was the first building in Chang'an. Built in 200 BC. e. It was the residence of the emperor, then the empress. This palace was located in the southeast. The wall that surrounded it was 10 km long, and the width of its base reached 20 m. The area was about 6 km². The complex occupied one sixth of the city, it included residential and public buildings.

The main places of worship in ancient China were oriented along the north-south axis. In accordance with the basic urban planning principles, all auxiliary buildings were located along the perimeter, symmetrically to each other. Buildings erected on an axis are always taller than others. An example is the Songyuesi Pagoda, built in Henan Province, on Mount Songshan in 520 AD. e.

Chinese style decoration

Stone reliefs from the Han period testify to the fact that ancient builders two millennia ago could build multi-storey palaces with multi-tiered roofs. The tile was cylindrical and on the edges of the roof was decorated with circles with wishes and drawings. The southern façade has always been considered the main façade. They installed the front door and windows along the entire plane of the wall. Only the pillars were the carriers. Traditionally, no windows were installed on the facade that faced the street.

The curved roof was like the branches of trees, the wing of a flying bird. It was believed that evil spirits could not move along it. Figurines of animals, heads of dragons served as protection against various evil spirits. But the roof served other functions, more practical. This fixed the deflections of the truss beams with hinged supports, and also protected the walls from getting wet. The interiors were decorated with wooden lattices, the stone walls were covered with drawings and landscapes. Window openings were covered with oiled paper, their shape was different - in the form of leaves, flowers, vases.

All decorations in the form of animals had their own meaning:

• The crane is a symbol of happiness.
• The flower represented purity.
• The figurine of a turtle meant longevity. It was believed that the bisi tailed turtle carries the universe.

In the art of China, a real cult of animals has always reigned. The fox, tiger, phoenix were especially revered. Elephants, camels and lions decorated the burials.

The traditional architecture of China has not disappeared even today. Ancient palaces have been converted into museums, folk festivals are held in ancient parks, and cultural recreation is organized. The number of tourists coming to China is growing every year, and the industry brings significant income to the state. The urban planning art of the Middle Kingdom still continues to influence architects in all countries of the world.

The appearance of buildings can be very different, however, the architecture of Ancient China is united by common aesthetic aspirations and building ideas that are unique to this nation. The most typical construction of the house is frame-and-pillar; wood was used to create it. Pillars made of wood were installed on the adobe platform, then transverse beams were attached to them. The top of the house was covered with a tiled roof. The strength of the buildings was ensured thanks to the pillars, so many buildings withstood numerous earthquakes. For example, in the province of Shanxi, a wooden one whose height exceeds 60 meters is still preserved. It was built almost 900 years ago, but has survived to this day.

The architecture of ancient China is characterized by a holistic composition
buildings, which are combined into a single complex, consisting of many
structures. Free-standing buildings in this country are still a rarity:
palaces and private houses are always surrounded by auxiliary buildings. And
courtyard buildings are absolutely symmetrical and evenly removed from the main
building.

Many examples of ancient architecture are included in the World Cultural Heritage Fund. These include Lijiang, which is located in Yunnat Province, Beijing's Yiheyuan Park, the Temple of Heaven and the Gugong Palace. The architecture has characteristic features that are unique to this country. For example, the roofs of buildings have always been made in a concave shape. Drawings of plants and animals were usually carved on cornices and beams. Similar patterns and ornaments also adorned wooden poles, doors and windows.

Architecture widely uses various natural dyes to decorate homes, and China is no exception. The roofs of the palaces, as a rule, were covered with golden glazed tiles, the cornices were painted with blue-green paint, the walls and pillars with a reddish tint. The floors in ancient palaces were covered with white and dark marble, which gave them majesty and monumentality.

The architecture of Ancient China reached its heyday during the reign of the Sunn and Tang dynasties (VII-XIII centuries). Cities were built in those days according to a clear plan with a clear geometry. The settlements were surrounded by deep ditches and high walls and were well-fortified fortresses.

Many pagodas of those times have been preserved, which resemble Indian temples with their roundness. In ancient Buddhist monasteries, pagodas were repositories of canonical books, statues and relics. The sculpture of Ancient China has much in common with the Indian. Some of the statues are up to 10 meters high. The aspirations of Chinese masters for harmony were embodied in proportionate forms and mathematical accuracy of the sculptures.

The first monuments were discovered in the 20s of the last century. These were artifacts from the Yangshao Dynasty (mid-3rd millennium BC). They are characterized by a special artistic style, unlike all the others. The unusually decorative and at the same time very solemn artistic style reflects the philosophical spirit that is inherent in all Chinese people.

The architects of China were at the same time builders, thinkers and poets with a heightened and sublime sense of nature and all living things. All palaces and residential complexes were built as if they were an extension of the landscape. The natural relationship between architecture and landscape was even described in numerous treatises that were characteristic of that time. The ancient monuments of Chinese architecture capture the entire history of this amazing country. The unique masterpieces of architecture, created many centuries ago, amaze with their perfection and harmony.

The earliest monuments of architecture in China belong to the Neolithic period (III - the beginning of the II millennium BC), when the population changed its nomadic lifestyle to a settled one. Such structures of the Neolithic period are round in plan, semi-dugouts of frame-rack construction covered with branches and grass. The earthen floor was covered with several layers of clay, which was fired for strength. The walls were built from vertically placed poles, also plastered with clay. The sloping entrance to the dwelling was on the south side.

A more complete picture of the Neolithic culture gives open in 1953-1965. ancient settlement in the village of Banpo near the city of Xi'an, located on the banks of the Chan River. The remains of 40 dwellings had a rectangular square and round plan. Quadrangular, with rounded corners in plan, the buildings were erected in loess pits 1 m deep. The ground parts of the adobe walls were reinforced with a wooden frame. The walls have retained a careful clay coating with an admixture of straw. Log rafters were also coated with clay: the coating consisted of poles and fired tiles. The entrances were located on the south side, which later became a tradition of Chinese architecture. Inside the buildings, one - four wooden pillars with a diameter of 15-20 cm supported the roof.

Among the buildings of Banpo, a large rectangular building (12.5 x 20 m) stands out. Its massive adobe walls, about a meter thick, were strengthened by a wooden frame. The roof was supported by four powerful wooden pillars (0.5 m in diameter). It is assumed that this building served as a meeting place for members of the clan or was the dwelling of the leader of the tribe.

In Banpo, round and oval buildings were also found, with a diameter of about 5 m, some of which were not buried in the ground. The walls were about 20 cm thick and consisted of vertically placed wooden poles smeared with clay, reinforced with pillars driven into the ground. The wooden parts of the walls and roof were tied with hemp or grass ropes. The covering was supported by two to six internal pillars. The entrances of the building protruded forward like a vestibule.

During the Late Neolithic, buildings with lime coating appeared, in which a layer of white lime was carefully applied to the earthen floor of semi-dugouts, which served as the name of this type of dwelling.

In the south, in the Yangtze River Delta, ground-type dwellings with roofs made of bamboo mats were discovered.

There is no doubt that the Neolithic culture that developed in the Yellow River basin communicated with other centers of early Chinese culture, located not only in the north, but also in the southern regions of the country.

Architecture of the Shang Yin period (XV-XII centuries BC)

By the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. development of agriculture in the area of ​​the river basin. The Huang He led to the formation of tribal associations, among which the most significant were the Shang (yin) tribes. Having subjugated the weaker tribes, the Shan by the 16th century. BC e. becomes a dominant tribe, ancient Chinese legends attribute to him the creation of a dynasty and a state. Around the end of the 16th century BC e. the early slaveholding state of Shang, known in later chronicles as Yin, was formed. The state of Yin, located along the middle reaches of the river. Huanghe, in its heyday, covered with its influence the modern provinces of Henan, Shanxi, partly Shaanxi, Hebei, Shandong and part of the river valley. Huai. Due to frequent natural disasters and constant raids by nomads, the Yin people moved their capital at least six times.

During the Shang Yin period, large settlements and cities arose. Excavations at the site of the former capital of Ao in the territory of the modern city of Zhengzhou (Henan Province), which existed until the end of the 14th century. BC e., show that the city was large. The surviving remains of powerful adobe walls (about 16.5 m thick at the base) extend far beyond the walls surrounding the modern city of Zhengzhou.

Even more important are the excavations at the site of the modern village of Xiaotun, in the northwestern part of Henan province, where in the middle of the XIV century. BC e. The new capital of the Shang kingdom was founded - the city of Yin.

On the banks of the Huanypuy River, a city was discovered that occupied more than 2.5 km 2. From the raid of nomads and neighboring tribes, it was protected by a high adobe wall and a moat filled with water.

The reflection of the class stratification of society is revealed by the remains of the buildings of the city of Yin. The buildings along the paved road in the city center were built on solid stone foundations and, obviously, served as the dwellings of the slave-owning nobility, and simple adobe buildings with a wooden frame, in which the ordinary population lived, were built on rammed earth without a foundation.

In the northern part of the capital in the center were the temple and the palace of the rulers - the Vans. Handicraft quarters were located on both sides of the palace, and closer to the palace were bronze casting workshops under the jurisdiction of the state and the Van, and quarters where carvers of valuable rocks worked. Large palace buildings have also been found in other parts of the city. The quarters of the nobility had running water. Water was supplied to large buildings from a special reservoir along wooden gutters, covered with boards on top and plastered with clay at the joints. Sewer drains were also found.

On the site of the largest building - the palace of the rulers, an earth platform, rectangular in plan, covered with pebbles (27 x 9 m) has been preserved. Traces of burnt wood indicate the existence of pillars arranged in three rows at an equal distance from each other and supporting the beams and the roof. The bases of the column shafts made of a flat round boulder or in the form of bronze discs have been preserved. A staircase was also found that led to a basement under the building, intended for slave servants or storage of supplies.

Judging by the images of buildings on fortune-telling bones, the palaces had a gable high roof with pediments at the ends. Skeletons of buried people were found in the foundation of the ancestral temple.

This fragmentary information allows us to recreate the general compositional scheme of the building of the Shang Yin period, on the basis of which the subsequent classical architectural traditions were formed.

The remains of ground structures of the Shang Yin period, as well as the underground tombs of the rulers in the vicinity of the last capital and in Wuguancun, allow us to conclude that China's architectural forms developed early in the following centuries.

Architecture of the Zhou period (XI-III centuries BC)

In the XII century. BC e. on the northwestern border of the Shang kingdom, a powerful alliance of nomadic tribes led by the Zhou tribe is strengthening. Contact with the higher culture of the Yin people contributed to the gradual transition of the Chou people in the 12th century. BC e. to a sedentary lifestyle.

In the XI century. BC e. The Shang kingdom was significantly weakened by long wars with nomadic tribes. The Zhou, together with the nomads, invaded the kingdom of Shang Yin, and in the middle of the 11th century. BC e. it fell under their blows.

The Zhou rulers - the Vans founded their state in the Wei River basin with the capital Haojing, located west of the modern city of Xian. One of the capitals of the "Western Zhou" - Fengjing was founded on the western bank of the Fenghe River.

In the initial period, the state of Zhou achieved considerable power in the field of economics and political relations. Agriculture became the main occupation of the population, which was facilitated by the use of the achievements of the conquered Yin people. Trade and crafts gained great importance.

During the first period of the Zhou rule, known as the "Western Zhou" (1027-771 BC), the territory of the state expanded significantly, reaching the modern province of Gansu in the west. In the south, the border ran along the southern bank of the Yangtze.

Information about the architecture of the "Western Zhou" is very scarce. It is known from written sources that palaces and temples were built in Haojing, Wangchen and other cities, which indicates the further development of architecture, the basic principles of which were formed in the previous Shang Yin period. The capitals were surrounded by adobe walls to protect the population from nomadic raids.

Near Xi'an and in other settlements that existed during the "Western Zhou" period, gray tiles decorated with fine geometric ornaments were found. It can be assumed that such tiles were used only in the construction of palaces and temples.

In the 8th century BC e. continuous wars with nomads forced the rulers of the Chou in 770 BC. e. flee to the east, where a new capital, Loi (or Dongdu, the eastern capital), was founded on the site of the city of Wangcheng. It was located near the modern city of Luoyang on the northern bank of the Luo River and existed until 509 BC. e.

Since the transfer of the capital of the Zhou people to Loi, the period of "Eastern Zhou" (770-256 BC) begins. In connection with the appearance in the VI century. BC e. Iron developed agriculture, built dams and irrigation canals.

During this period, the rise of the economy causes a significant development of science and art. During the Eastern Zhou period, the two most famous and significant philosophical systems of China, Taoism and Confucianism, also developed.

Confucianism - the ethical and political doctrine got its name from the name of its founder - the philosopher Kung fu-tzu (teacher Kun), in the European transcription of Confucius, who lived in 551-479. BC e. At the heart of his teaching was the defense of the morality of the slave-owning aristocracy and the assertion of the power of the higher over the lower in society and the family. The teachings of Confucius gradually to the II century. BC e. turned into a state doctrine, the dominant ideology of the nobility, which determined the development of social thought, science and art in the next 2000 years. Confucianism had a significant impact on the architecture of China, expressed in the addition of stable principles of architectural structures, subject to the rules of strict regulation according to the social status of the owner of the house. This to a certain extent limited the creativity of architects.

Information about the architecture of the Eastern Zhou period was preserved only in written sources, which indicate the existence of large cities with numerous streets, on which palaces of the nobility and temples were located.

The capital of Loi was built according to a plan, the basic principles of which are reported in the chapter Kao-gun-tzu (on technology) of the book Zhou-li (The Rites of Zhou), written in the 3rd century BC. BC e. The text indicates that the capital was designed according to the established plan. The city had a square plan, each side of which was 9 li (about 2.25 km) long. It was surrounded by a fortress wall, which had three gates on each side. Loi was crossed by nine latitudinal and nine meridional streets, with a width of 9 chariot axes (23 m). In the center of the city was the palace of the ruler with the royal court in front. On the right side of the palace there was a temple of the deities of the earth and cereals, and on the left - a temple in honor of the ancestors of the ruler - van. Behind the palace premises was a market. The system of symmetrical planning of cities, which developed in ancient times, was preserved for two millennia.

The construction of dwellings of ordinary citizens, as excavations show, was carried out, as before, using a frame system, with layer-by-layer tamping of clay walls.

Architecture of the Warring States period (403-221 BC)

The process of the formation of feudal relations in China proceeded for a number of centuries in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Warring States period (Zhanguo) is usually seen as a time of complex political events and major social upheavals. By the V-IV centuries. BC e. The Zhou kingdom finally lost political prestige and occupied only an insignificant area with its capital in Loi. During this period, seven large kingdoms (Qin, Chu, Qi, Zhao, Wei, Han and Yan) and a number of small kingdoms developed on the territory of China, which waged continuous wars among themselves.

In the V-III centuries. BC e. Significant changes are taking place in the class structure of Chinese society: the hereditary slave-owning aristocracy is losing its dominant position. New forces come to power, sometimes coming from the lower strata: large landowners, merchants who own large valuables and many slaves, usurers. Crafts and trade develop, cities grow. According to the chronicles, individual cities at that time reached unprecedented sizes.

In recent years, Chinese archaeologists have discovered ancient cities that were known from written sources. Majestic palaces and temples were built in each of the capitals of individual kingdoms. The enrichment of the slave-owning nobility and merchants also contributed to the construction of rich dwellings.

Excavations at the site of the capital of the kingdom of Qi (Shandong Province) revealed the remains of powerful adobe walls and individual ruins. Like other large cities, Linzi was built according to the traditions that developed back in the Zhou period, but at the same time its layout is distinguished by its originality; thus, the walls enveloping it on four sides form roundings at an angle of 70 ° on the south side.

In the province of Hebei, the remains of the walls of the second capital of the kingdom of Yan, the city of Xiadu, were found, reaching 8 m in height. In the central part of the city, adobe foundations of palaces of the nobility were discovered in more than 50 places, which indicates a large scale of construction.

Excavations at the site of the capital of the Zhao kingdom in the city of Handan revealed the ancient city walls (7 m high), which closed the city on four sides, each of which was over a kilometer long. There are also traces of two or three gates on each side of the city. The central wide stone-paved street ran from south to north; temples, palaces and dwellings of the nobility were located on it. High earthen platforms-stylobates lined with hollow bricks with relief ornamental drawings on one of the sides served as the basis for the front buildings. The height of the base of one of the palaces reached 18 m. The palace building consisted of a number of separate rooms connected by a long corridor. The wooden pillars of residential buildings and the remains of adobe walls have been preserved. Roof tiles covered with a brownish-red glaze were found.

Evidence of the development of architecture during the Warring States period are the surviving descriptions of magnificent palaces and their interior decoration. Information about the construction of multi-storey buildings and nine-tiered towers has been preserved.

The architecture of the period under consideration is also illustrated by images of various buildings and structures on bronze vessels. At the bottom of a large bronze bowl, a complex three-storey structure was thinly engraved, built using a post-and-beam structure, consisting of a number of pillars (Fig. 1). Topped with intricately carved corbels, the pillars support the heavy gable-tiled roof. With this design, the walls did not carry the weight of the roof and served only as light partitions between the pillars. The ridge of the roof is decorated on both sides with figures, obviously associated with magical beliefs. Chinese scientists suggest that in the middle of the Zhou period, a special type of capital in the form of brackets, dougong, was already created.

On bronze vessels, images of two- and three-story open-type buildings (a kind of pavilions for festivities) have been preserved. These images of various structures, laconic in nature, but accurate in design, also give an idea of ​​the existence of developed architectural forms during the Warring States period.

The beginning of the construction of one of the famous monuments of antiquity - the Great Wall of China ("The Wall of Ten Thousand Li") also dates back to the time of the "Wrestling Kingdoms". Separate sections of the wall appear along the northern borders as early as the 4th century. BC e., when large trading cities and settlements began to grow and develop on the plain of central China, which were often attacked by nomadic cavalry raiding from behind the Yinshan mountain range.

The most powerful kingdoms - Zhao, Yan, Wei and Qin, located near the northern border, began to build adobe protective walls along the mountain range. Around 353 BC. e. The Wei kingdom built a wall along the border with the Qin kingdom. Around 300 BC e. walls were erected in the kingdoms of Qin and Zhao, and around 290 BC. e. a wall was built in the state of Yan. Later, all these parts of the adobe walls were combined into one.

The remains of surviving structures and written sources containing information about large cities and various buildings during the Warring States period testify both to the intensive development of building technology and the addition of the basic principles of Chinese architecture that developed in the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. based on earlier traditions and achieved significant progress and high artistic significance.

Architecture of the period of centralized empires

The existence of separate kingdoms on the territory of China, their rivalry among themselves and constant wars - all this greatly hampered the development of the country, not creating conditions for a wide exchange of goods and carrying out various transformations throughout the country: the construction of irrigation facilities, laying roads, unifying the monetary system and a number of others. events.

At the end of the IV century. BC e. among the individual kingdoms, the kingdom of Qin in the northwest of the country reached great political power, the economy of which developed successfully, which was also facilitated by trade with the northern nomadic peoples. In the Qin kingdom in the 4th century. BC e. Significant reforms were carried out in the field of economy and public administration. The most important reform was the establishment of private ownership of land with free sale and purchase of land plots, which contributed to the ruin of communal landowners. In general, the reforms led to an increase in the military power of the Qin kingdom.

Even in the IV century. BC e. Qin troops made a number of successful campaigns against individual kingdoms. The conquests continued into the 3rd century. BC e., as a result of which most of the territory of ancient China was under the rule of the Qin kingdom. The policy of uniting the country into a single powerful state was completed at the end of the 3rd century. BC e., when Ying Zheng, who proclaimed himself in 221 BC, was at the head of the kingdom. e. Emperor with the title of Qin Shi Huangdi (First Qin Emperor). The Qin Despotate was a slave state.

During the Qin period (221-207 BC), further expansion of the state's borders continued, especially in the south, where it reached modern Vietnam. In this regard, the sphere of influence of Chinese culture is expanding.

Under Qin Shi Huangdi, the borders of the former separate states were liquidated, and in 215 BC. e. the old fortress border walls and separate fortifications within the state were destroyed.

In order to further centralize the state, Qin Shih Huangdi carried out a number of administrative reforms. First of all, the administrative division of the empire into 36 regions was carried out. From 221 a single coin was introduced. Uniform legislation and writing are also introduced, measures of length, weight and volume are unified. Under Qin Shih Huangdi, the construction of main roads began, which reached a width of 50 steps and were lined with trees. New cities were built, in which the development of crafts and trade was strongly encouraged. Irrigation canals were built, new lands were developed. All these activities were carried out in the interests of the new ruling elite - large landowners, which caused discontent among the old aristocracy, which had lost its dominant position.

The struggle of ideologies led to the fact that in 213 BC. the burning of Confucian books and historical records of all kingdoms was carried out, and the defenders of Confucianism were exterminated.

The architectural monuments of this short but eventful period have almost not survived to our time, but thanks to their description, preserved in the “Historical Notes” (“Shiji”) of the historian Sima Qian (146-86 BC), one can compile an idea of ​​the monumental architecture of this period. "Historical notes" contain numerous information about the grandiose buildings of the Qin period, about the construction of palaces and the burial of Qin Shi Huangdi.

The unification of the country into a powerful empire created great opportunities for the development of construction and architecture.

In order to prevent the conspiracies of the former rulers of the kingdoms and the nobility, 120 thousand noble families from six large kingdoms were transported to the capital Xianyang to be under the constant supervision of the imperial court. All the palaces of the rulers in the capitals of the kingdoms, which were distinguished by local features, were dismantled and transported to Xianyang, where they were restored, and all the local features and details of the structures were preserved.

In an effort to consolidate his conquests, to show the power and strength of the empire, Qin Shih Huangti built numerous palaces, which significantly exceeded the palaces of the rulers of individual kingdoms both in scale and in the variety of construction methods.

The capital of Xianyang, founded in the middle of the 4th century. BC e. on the northern bank of the Wei-he River (10 km northwest of Xi'an), was significantly reconstructed during the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi and began to be considered one of the largest cities of antiquity. Excavations have established that the river washed away the southern part of the city, while the northern part was preserved on an area of ​​more than 10 km2. For 1.5 km, remains of adobe city walls were discovered, reaching a height of 7 m, as well as traces of a drainage system, earthen stylobates of buildings and bricks that served as floor cladding in front buildings. The city had a length of about 300 li (75 km). As Sima Qian points out, along the entire bank of the Weihe River, "palaces and houses were crowded, covered galleries and mounds-transitions between them stretched." The city consisted of many streets, green parks and alleys, among which were the palaces of the nobility, the dwellings of the townspeople, as well as trade and craft quarters.

During the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi, 270 palaces were built in Xianyang and its environs. In total, according to Sima Qian, 700 palaces were built in the empire.

According to the excavations, the palaces of the nobility and large public buildings, as before, were built from valuable imported wood species on high earthen platforms-stylobates.

According to the records, the palaces of Xianyang were erected as large ensembles, consisting of a number of buildings connected by courtyards and long two-tiered galleries that served as passageways. Such ensembles appeared in the architecture of China during this period and persisted until the end of the 19th century.

With the collapse of the Qin Empire, the city of Xianyang was burned and destroyed. Among the fragments of buildings preserved in the ground, bronze animal masks richly inlaid with gold were found, which testifies to the splendor of the decoration of the palaces. Of particular interest are fragments of yellow, blue and black wall paintings found inside one of the buildings, which are the earliest examples of Chinese wall painting.

Fragments of tiles covering the roofs of palaces and ceramic decorations of a round or semicircular shape, which completed the lower edge of the roof slope and were decorated with relief images of dragons, deer and turtles, are also found in Xianyang and its environs. A rare example of such a round tile was found near the burial of Qin Shi Huangdi. This is a large circle (51.6 cm in diameter), only half preserved, made of light gray clay and decorated on the front side with a relief geometric pattern (Fig. 2). The pattern is close to the ornamental forms of woodwork and lacquerware from the Warring States period.

The most significant building of the Qin period, according to the description of Sima Qian, was the majestic Efanggun Palace - a grandiose complex consisting of 100 different buildings and structures. Construction began in 212 BC. e., continued until the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 207 BC. e. and was not completed, and the constructed buildings were destroyed by fire.

Efanggong Palace was located on the south bank of the Weihe River, which isolated it from the city blocks of Xianyang, located on the north bank. For its erection, a special construction duty was established, and hundreds of thousands of people participated in the construction of buildings, walls and parks.

Separate palace buildings were located in such a way as to recreate the location of the stars in the sky in their overall composition. On the main axis of the ensemble, which traditionally ran from south to north, the main building was built - the "Hall of the State" in the form of a pavilion, which stood on a high earthen stylobate and had a length of more than 800 m from west to east and about 170 m from north to south. Banners 16 meters high were placed in the hall of the Efangun Palace, and about 10 thousand people could be in it at the same time. To this pavilion from the foot of a high embankment there was a passage surrounding it - a gallery for chariots, which, gradually rising, led to the entrance tower on the South Mountain.

At present, near the village of Efan-tsun (15 km west of Xi'an), a dilapidated earth embankment, 7 m high and 1000 m long, has been preserved, which, obviously, was the stylobate of the main building of the Efang-gun palace. The embankment consists of densely compacted earthen layers about 4-5 cm thick. Lines and embankments have also been preserved that define the contours of the entire grandiose structure of antiquity, which rightfully received the name “City of Palaces” in the history of China.

A bridge was thrown from the Efangong Palace across the Weihe River, connecting it with the city on the left bank. The bridge was built in the form of a two-story covered gallery and was considered a marvel of architectural craftsmanship. Poets compared it to a gallery built in the skies of the Milky Way.

No less grandiose and significant in scale was the burial of Qin Shi Huangdi, located not far from the modern city of Xianyang, at the northern foot of Mount Linshan. Sima Qian's notes preserved a detailed description of this underground palace and the majestic mound above it, in the construction of which, which lasted 37 years, 700 thousand slaves, soldiers and forced farmers took part. A high earthen hill has been preserved, the outlines of which resemble a pyramid, reaching 34 m in height, 560 m in length and 528 m in width, while records indicate that the height of the tomb hill reached 166 m with a perimeter of 2.5 km. Thousands of diggers dug a complex drainage system deep into the earth to drain groundwater, as evidenced by fragments of pentagonal ceramic pipes.

Sima Qian's description indicates that Qin Shi Huangdi's underground burial was built of stone, and the seams were filled with molten copper to make it waterproof. The burial consisted of a large hall where the ashes of the emperor rested, and 100 various auxiliary rooms. The location and purpose of the premises of the tomb corresponded to the layout of the palace interiors.

The walls of the premises were plastered with lime mortar mixed with rice water. A detailed description of the interior decor of the main central hall has been preserved. The floor was arranged in the form of a land relief with mountains, valleys, rivers and seas. The ceiling imitated the vault of heaven, on which numerous stars made of precious stones and pearls twinkled, shimmering. Whale blubber burned in the lanterns illuminating the hall. Many rooms of the tomb were filled with jewelry and art objects. In one of the halls, 100 sculptures depicting officials of various ranks were installed. Many servants, slaves and imperial concubines were buried with Qin Shi Huang. So that the secret of the location of the doors was not disclosed, thousands of dead builders were attached to them. To preserve the tomb, automatic crossbows were installed at its doors.

In IV-III centuries. BC e. there is progress in engineering and construction technology. The use of blocks and various lifting devices made it possible to erect monumental stone structures: watchtowers, fortress walls and other defensive structures.

The unification of China into a single empire caused an even greater need than in the previous period to build powerful fortifications to fight the nomads advancing from the north and northeast. In 221 BC. e. By order of Qin Shih Huangdi and under the leadership of the commander Meng Tian, ​​the construction of the Great Wall of China began along the Inynan mountain range. For this, the already existing border walls, built in the 4th century BC, were used and combined into a single whole. BC e. and earlier.

The Great Wall of China was built over 10 years in a desert mountainous area where good roads did not exist. Some of its sections were built in places where there was no water, and the builders constantly experienced severe hardships. Written sources indicate that about 300 thousand soldiers, slaves and free farmers took part in the construction of the wall.

The wall in places runs along a mountain range with high peaks and deep gorges and always follows the bends and slopes of mountain spurs. It either rises rapidly to the peaks, or descends steeply, merging into one whole with the harsh mountain landscape.

During the Qin period, the Great Wall of China ran somewhat further north than at present, from Liaodong Bay in the east to Lintao in Gansu Province. Parts of the wall from the Qin period have survived in places. An exact measurement of the wall was not made. It is generally accepted that it has a length of over 4000 km.

The material for the construction of the eastern part of the wall during the Qin period was large stone slabs, which were tightly fitted to each other and shifted with layers of well-packed earth. In other areas, especially in the west (in the modern provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi), where there was no stone, the wall was a massive earthen mound. Later, the Great Wall of China was faced with stone and gray brick. The building was repeatedly completed and restored.

The height of the wall is not the same everywhere, on average it is about 7.5 m. Together with the jagged parapet on the northern (outer), higher side, it reaches about 9 m. The width along the ridge is 5.5 m, and at the base - 6 .5 m. The massive battlements of the parapet with viewing slots and loopholes have a simple rectangular shape. Along the entire wall, after 120-200 m, at the distance of an arrow flight, there are towers in which there were soldiers guarding the border. Stone towers, rising 3.5-4 m above the wall, differ in architectural forms. The most common is a two-story tower, rectangular in plan, the upper floor of which looks like a platform with a superstructure and large arched embrasures. Every 10 km, in addition to the towers, signal towers were erected on the wall, on which fires were lit when enemy detachments appeared.

It is possible that some of the towers, smaller than the wall, were built before the construction of the wall, which later absorbed them. These towers are not as evenly spaced as later ones. It is possible that they were built on the border as sentinel or signal towers (Fig. 3).

There are 12 gates in the wall through which the roads to the north (now leading to Mongolia) passed. Later, fortress outposts surrounded by additional walls were built near these gates.

The majestic Chinese Wall, despite its defensive purpose, is a remarkable monument of China's ancient architecture. Its calm monumental forms harmoniously merge with the mountain landscape. The wall is, as it were, an inseparable whole with the harsh nature surrounding it. The strict outlines of the towers accentuate the high points of the mountain range, completing the ascents and emphasizing the general monumental character of the fortification.

In 210 BC. e. after the death of Qin Shi Huangdi and the accession to the throne of his son Er Shi Huangdi, the ruin of the community members and the concentration of land in the hands of large landowners intensified even more. This led to the first popular uprising in Chinese history, led by Chen Sheng, Wu Guang, and Liu Bang, which engulfed the entire country in 209-206. BC e. The rebels-communists were joined by aristocrats - immigrants from the former kingdoms. At the head of the nobility was a descendant of the commanders of the Chu kingdom, the commander Xiang Yu. Another rebel detachment was commanded by Liu Bang, who in 207 BC. e. conquered Xianyang. The Qin dynasty ended. Xiang Yu's detachments plundered and burned the capital. The fire destroyed magnificent palace ensembles and residential areas.

In 202 BC. e. Liu Bang achieved the final victory and assumed the title of emperor (known in history as Gao Zu). He laid the foundation for the new Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 8 AD). The second, or "Eastern Han", reigned from 25 to 220 AD. e. There was a new unification of the country, which collapsed after the collapse of the Qin dynasty, into a single empire.

The capital of the new dynasty was originally Luoyang, and then the capital became Chang'an ("Eternal Peace"), in the valley of the Weihe River near Qin Xianyang.

During the Han period, the country's borders again expanded significantly. Broad economic ties, as well as the development of culture - all this created great prestige for China among other peoples of the ancient world. There is an addition of feudal relations. The hereditary landownership of the old aristocracy was even more swallowed up by the bureaucratic bureaucracy, landowners and merchants, whose fields were cultivated by impoverished farmers and partly by slaves, and later by sharecroppers.

Trade and crafts achieved great development in the cities. At the end of the II century. BC. the caravan route to the West, called the Great Silk Road, was mastered, along which caravans with silk, ceramics, iron, varnishes and other valuable products were sent from the capital Chang'an to the distant states of Central Asia. This route passed through the regions of nomadic tribes united in the Hunnic tribal union, and the caravans were constantly attacked by the nomads. A number of campaigns against the Huns (Xiongnu) at the end of the II century. BC. strengthened the position of the Silk Road. Through Parthia and Syria, which had ties with the Hellenistic world, Chinese goods reached Alexandria and Rome.

In the 1st century BC e., after the capture of a number of southern regions by China, in addition to the land route, the sea route to India was also opened. The Han Empire, thanks to its successful campaigns and the development of trade relations, turned into a powerful state and China first entered the world stage.

Agriculture achieved significant success thanks to the construction of canals and the spread of new iron tools. There was a flourishing of culture and art. The invention of paper in the 2nd century BC e. led to the further development of writing.

After the collapse of the Qin dynasty, Confucianism, which met the interests of large landowners, again occupied a dominant position in the field of ideology. Confucian dogmas about the divine nature of imperial power and about honoring elders in the family and in rank became the indispensable basis of the feudal ideology of China.

In the 1st century BC e. Buddhism began to penetrate from India through Central Asia to China, in the 2nd century BC. n. e. The first Buddhist temple was built in Luoyang.

Along with idealistic philosophical systems, new materialistic teachings also appear. The atheistic treatise "Lunheng" ("Critical Reasoning") by the materialist philosopher Wang Chun, which proclaimed the fight against mysticism and superstition, has been preserved.

In art and architecture, the traditions that had developed during the period of individual kingdoms continued to develop. Reflecting the views of the new class elite, many of whose representatives came from the people's environment, art and architectural decor almost completely lose their cult character.

In the I-II centuries. the main features of the national style of Chinese art and architecture begin to take shape, thanks to trade relations with Central Asia, Iran and other countries, new motifs and images are enriched.

According to written sources, as well as ceramic models and images of various structures on stone reliefs, the architecture of the Han period was rich and varied. Fortress walls were erected, multi-storey pavilions of palaces and temples were built, galleries, stone and wooden bridges, high towers and solemn stone pylons, as well as rich underground tombs, which consisted of many rooms, were built.

The Han period refers to the use of a modular system in the construction of dwellings. The social status of the owner of the house was also taken into account, obliging architects to build structures according to the rank of the homeowner. In the development of wooden structures and in the decoration of front buildings, the influence of folk architecture was manifested. The experience of the people was expressed in a special system of "feng shui" (wind-water), according to which the choice of a place for a building or burial took place. It was necessary to know well the terrain, the movement and direction of the wind, the level of the river; there was supposed to be a river in front of the house, and mountains behind. The facade had to face south so that the sun's rays warmed the house in winter. The feng shui system, although it contained a number of superstitions associated with the pseudoscientific theory of geomancy, was based on popular observations and experience.

During the Han period, there were many cities and settlements. Of greatest interest are the excavations of the capital city of Chang'an, located in the center of the Guanzhong Plain, on the right bank of the Weihe River, near Xi'an. The capital existed from 202 BC. e. to 8 A.D. e.; later Luoyang became the capital again.

Chang'an was a large city, its perimeter occupied more than 25 km (Fig. 4). In the southeast corner, the wall of the city formed a recess, and its northwestern part had a bend in accordance with the bend of the bank of the Weihe River, which flowed nearby. According to historical information, the walls of the capital were built under the second emperor - Hui-di (195-188 BC), of the Han Dynasty, who was unhappy that the palaces built earlier were not enclosed by city walls. For the construction of fortress walls (which had 12 m in height, a base width of 16 m, a length of about 26 km), 290 thousand peasants and slaves and more than 20 thousand prisoners were rounded up.

Each of the four sides of the wall had three gates with three separate passages, up to 8 m wide, so that 12 wagons could pass at the same time along the road laid from the gate to the city center. The city walls consisted of layers of rammed earth, with wooden towers above the gates. On one of the reliefs of this time, the image of the city gates with towers has been preserved (Fig. 5). In addition to powerful walls, Chang'an was surrounded by a huge moat filled with water, through which stone bridges 19 meters wide led to the gates.

The streets were laid out according to the traditional planning scheme. Nine streets crossed the city from south to north and nine - from west to east, forming 60 separate quarters "li" (later, from the Tang period, such city quarters became known as "fan"), enclosed by adobe walls, which had gates on each of the four sides. closed at night.

Large palaces and administrative buildings were located freely. As the mounds of stylobates indicate, the five main imperial palaces were not in the center, but in the southeastern and southwestern parts of the city, while other palaces, about 40 in number, were also randomly embedded in the structure of the city. The city had 9 markets and quarters of artisans.

In Chang'an, pentagonal ceramic water pipes and roof tiles with herringbone grooves were found, as well as round decorations of roof slopes covered with images of animals, flowers and inscriptions. Large hollow bricks decorated with relief images were found.

The main material in the construction of public buildings and ordinary dwellings was wood. During the construction of buildings, a stylobate was erected, on which wooden poles were installed to carry the roof. Stylobates, the height of which depended on the rank of the owner of the house, were built from the ground, along which a layer of small pebbles was laid to protect the tree from dampness. Pillars divided the pavilion into three longitudinal naves (xian), narrow passages were formed on the sides of the hall. The walls did not carry roofs, but only played the role of partitions filling the gaps between the pillars, which made it possible to distribute doors and windows depending on the conditions of natural light.

The conjugation of the load-bearing and filling parts of wooden structures was achieved by using a special dougong system, which originally arose in folk construction. Later, the dougong system was allowed to be used only in rich front buildings, and its use was prohibited in people's dwellings. This rational system of post-and-beam structures was combined with the perfect craftsmanship of carpenters who were able to bring out the artistic significance of individual structures and details.

One of the most important parts of the Chinese building was a high gable roof with a large overhang, decorated with a strongly accentuated ridge. A large roof extension protected the house from the hot rays of the sun in summer, and in winter, with a low position of the sun, it did not prevent the heating of the building. In front, rich buildings, the roof was covered with flat and semi-cylindrical tiles, forming concave and convex rows. The edges of the roof were completed with round or semicircular tiled decorations with relief designs. They fit well into the ends of the tiles, forming a wavy line along the edge.

The Han period includes the addition of the main type of building in the form of a rectangular one-story pavilion - "dyan", oriented along the south-north axis.

Usually pavilions - "dian" were one-story, large ceremonial buildings were two- and three-story, as can be seen on the reliefs of the burial of the Wu family (147-168) (in Shandong province; Fig. 6). The same images show support pillars crowned with complex capitals with a double row of dougongs, and supports with caryatids on the sides of the pavilion. Reception halls were located on the upper floors of the pavilions, and utility rooms were located on the lower floor. Stairs without railings, judging by the reliefs of the Wu family burial, rose steeply to the upper floors. The floors of the lower rooms were earthen. Inside, the walls of the pavilions were decorated with paintings, carved jade and tortoise shell, bronze and gold details. The outer walls of buildings were also sometimes decorated with paintings.

The pavilions of the palace and temple ensembles were arranged along the axis one after the other. They were separated by wide courtyards paved with stone slabs, and closed on the east and west by galleries that served as passages between the main buildings. The expansion was carried out by increasing the number of buildings and courtyards.

The bright polychrome painting of individual parts of the building, the pillars sparkling with red lacquer, the glazed roof tiles and the whiteness of the stone-lined stylobate - all this contributed to the harmonious combination of the building with the environment.

The dwelling of a family with an average income occupied a rectangular area inside an urban rectangular block and consisted of two to four buildings, separated by courtyards and a garden. On one of the reliefs of the burial in Inan (Shandong Province), an image of a residential complex has been preserved (Fig. 7). Wide gates are visible (usually they were located on the south side), leading to the first courtyard, where service buildings were located on two sides - a kitchen, pantries, a porter's room, etc. The gates on the northern side of the first courtyard, covered with a gable roof, led to the second courtyard, where the main building of the complex is a rectangular pavilion, which housed the reception hall and living rooms of the owner and his family. On the eastern and western sides there were also buildings that closed the space of the courtyard. The openings of the complex faced the courtyards, forming blank massifs of walls from the outer side of the city. The walls of the dwellings consisted of a wooden frame filled with broken clay. The roofs were covered with thatch or thatch. The floors were usually earthen. A similar complex developed during the Han period has been preserved in the housing construction of China to the present day.

The dwellings of more prosperous citizens were sometimes built of brick and covered with tiles. When building a house, the architects had to coordinate the dimensions, color and all the details with the accepted system of ranks and ranks of the owners.

Ceramic models of buildings discovered in the burials of the Han period and the depiction of buildings on reliefs give an idea of ​​the different types of architecture of dwellings with their features in different regions of the country. In the north, the buildings differed from the southern buildings in massiveness and more strict forms. Rectangular in plan, the models seem to be two-story, although they do not have intermediate floors. The openings are rectangular. On the main facade at the level of the second floor one can often see balconies with an openwork fence.

The facades of buildings on models of houses that were found in the vicinity of Beijing near Qinghe are decorated with zoomorphic masks of a fantastic animal - “bise”, which protects the house from the invasion of evil forces and misfortunes (Fig. 8).

In central China, in the province of He-nan, excavations unearthed a model of a multi-storey building reaching 155 cm in height (Fig. 9). This tall rectangular building has four floors topped with a small quadrangular tower. There is a small walled courtyard in front of the building. Double gates lead to the courtyard. On the sides of the gate there are high rectangular pylons with protruding hipped roofs. The first two floors of the house are distinguished by massive walls, decorated with paintings on the facades. Two small square windows on the second floor are placed high above the ground. Brackets with two rows of dougong protrude between the windows and along the edges of the façade, supporting the balcony of the third floor, enclosed by light openwork railings, which runs along the main façade. The roof eaves are supported by dougongs coming out of the wall. Obviously, the room on the third floor served as a place to relax on hot days. The fourth floor is smaller in volume than the lower floors. It also has a balcony that goes around the building on three sides. The predominance of straight lines in the architectural appearance of the house is softened by the painting on the facade and the openwork pattern of the balcony railings.

By the richness of decorations and the complex shape of the dougongs, one can assume that such a dwelling could belong only to a representative of the nobility.

The city of Fanyue - modern Guangzhou (Canton) in the Han period achieved great economic development and was a major cultural center. Ships from many countries of the world arrived at the Fanyue port, which also led to the prosperity of the city. In the burials near Guangzhou, many architectural models were found, very different from the models of dwellings found in the north and in the central regions of the country. The earliest models of the 1st c. n. e. imitate rectangular two-story houses with gable straight roofs. The lower floor with openwork lattices instead of walls served as a barn, and the upper, higher one, reaching two-thirds of the height of the entire building, was intended for housing.

The walls of the southern houses, in contrast to the northern ones, are lighter, sometimes on all sides, not only on the first, but also on the second floor, they look like openwork lattices, obviously serving for better air circulation in a hot climate (Fig. 10). This type of house with openwork walls has been preserved in the south to the present day.

The most interesting in terms of composition are the models of Guangzhou estates. From the outside, blank walls with bars in the upper part are visible. Four low square, located at the corners, turrets with hipped roofs protrude above the walls of the estate. From both facades, the gates lead to the inner narrow courtyard, on the sides of which there are residential and office premises. The residential building has two floors. In all rooms of the model there are figures of people, which make it possible to determine the purpose of the rooms.

Models of rectangular and round pile dwellings were also found in Guangzhou.

In the graves of the Han period, various models of barns, pigsties, courtyard wells and high multi-storey towers were also found, which later served as the prototype for pagodas.

Historical records contain numerous information about the existence in the Han period of multi-storey towers - "tai" and "low", which were built near the palaces and served as observation and sentinel towers. On a brick from a burial of the 1st c. in the province of Sichuan, a relief image of a rich estate has been preserved, in the courtyard of which a two-story wooden tower rises (Fig. 11). An idea of ​​this type of structure is given by numerous ceramic models discovered in the burials of the nobility. Of particular interest among them is a four-tiered tower from a burial near Wangdu (Hebei Province) (Fig. 12).

Protruding roofs and bypass balconies with openwork railings give elegance to the simple building, softening the clarity of the segmentation of its facades. Large brackets protruding from the walls support the roof extensions, the ends of the ribs of which are bent upwards. This peculiar shape of the roofs served as the beginning of subsequent building techniques, when the corners of the roofs receive a bend, characteristic of Chinese architecture, similar to the “raised wings of a bird”. The tower was a sentinel, behind small round viewing windows and gratings on the floors, arrows could be placed. Bypass balconies also served for observation.

Written information about the five palace ensembles of Chang'an has been preserved; in total there were about 40 palaces in the city. Intensive construction began in 202 BC, when Chang'an was declared the capital. Palace ensembles already existed before the construction of the city walls. The two main ensembles of Weiyangong and Changlegong in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the city did not follow the traditional axial layout. To the north were less significant palaces.

The palace ensemble of Changle Gong, occupying the ninth part of the city (its perimeter was 10 km), was originally built in the Qin period and was called "Xingle". From the descriptions, it is known that the main pavilion of Changle Gong Palace was 160 m long and 64 m wide. In addition to this majestic building, the palace had seven more pavilions surrounded by a park with a pond and a pool.

More detailed information has been preserved regarding the Weiyangung Palace, which surpassed all previous palace ensembles in its size, richness of architectural techniques and splendor of decor. According to Sima Qian, the construction of the palace began in 200 BC. e. in the southwestern part of the city, where a huge solemn “Hall of the State”, an arsenal and numerous residential buildings, as well as utility buildings were built.

The palace consisted of 43 pavilions - dian. The main pavilion "Hall of the State", intended for solemn ceremonies, stood on an earthen stylobate, the length of the building reached 160 m and a width of 48 m. High walls surrounded the palace buildings and a park with artificial hills and 13 swimming ponds. There were monumental gates flanked by tall towers on the north and east sides of the Weiyangong Ensemble. They were probably close to the image of the front gate on a brick from a burial in Sichuan.

The huge earthen stylobate of the Weiyangung Palace has survived to this day, resembling a rectangular hill. Excavations unearthed simple tiles on the site of the palace and massive round reliefs adorning the slopes depicting animals, birds, flowers and auspicious inscriptions (see Fig. 2).

Later, at the end of the 1st c. BC e. two pleasure palaces were erected near the capital, and one of them "Jian-zhang", according to the story of Sima Qian, located at a distance of 15 km from the city, was connected to the Weiyangung Palace by a two-story covered gallery that passed through the city walls and the moat that surrounded the capital .

The growth of internal contradictions caused by the enrichment of large landowners and the ruin of the peasantry led to an uprising of the masses - the "red-browed uprising" (17-27 years), which caused the death of the Western Han dynasty. The magnificent palaces of Chang'an were destroyed and burned.

In 25, relying on large landowners, a representative of the aristocratic family, Liu Xu, seized power, appropriated the title of emperor and founded a new dynasty (“Eastern Han”, 25-220). During this period, successful campaigns were made. The Huns, who had kept Chinese caravans out of the West for decades, were defeated and trade links with rich countries were restored. The flourishing economy contributed to the rise of cultural life.

The capital from Chang'an was moved to Luoyang, which already in the 8th century. BC e. was the capital of the Zhou Dynasty.

The layout of Luoyang followed the traditions of Chinese urban planning. The city was built in the form of a rectangle with intersecting latitudinal and meridional streets. As in Chang'an, the construction of imperial palaces began in Luoyang already in 25, among which the grandiose Chundedyan and Deyandyan palaces located nearby stood out. The walls of the latter's hall were richly decorated with paintings, jade carvings, and gold details. The splendor and splendor of the palace are sung in the solemn odes of that time.

Judging by the surviving records, the new capital could not be compared with the old one. The palaces and architectural structures of Luoyang were significantly inferior to the magnificent palaces of Chang'an.

In ancient times, in China, in the construction of fortresses, towers, bridges, stylobates, and especially burials, in addition to wood, stone and brick were used. Chapels, pylons that stood in pairs at the entrance to the burial, stands with the biography of the deceased, fences - all this was built of stone and decorated with carvings. Underground tombs were lined with brick or stone.

During the Han period, in the center of the burial field, chosen according to the Feng Shui system, a high truncated pyramid was erected on a square base. All structures of the burial ensemble, according to established traditions, were located along the north-south axis. On the south side, a "road of spirits" led to the burial pyramid, closed on both sides by stone pylons, similar in shape to the towers at the main entrance to the palace ensembles and the pylons flanking the facades of the front pavilions.

Further, the “spirit road” was decorated with figures of lions or tigers standing on its sides, and steles near the pyramid itself. There were also small stone open pavilions in front of the pyramid (Fig. 13). Pavilions in Shandong and elsewhere imitate wooden structures in stone.

Initially, wooden pylons known from records and drawings were built near palaces and rich dwellings. In terms of architectural forms, these pylons are closely adjacent to wooden watchtowers.

So far, 23 stone pylons have been discovered dating from the end of the Han period and beyond. Pylons are divided into funerary and temple ones. Usually their height reaches 4-6 m. There are monolithic pylons and built of large stone blocks.

The pylons are distinguished by exceptional clarity of articulation. They consist of a low rectangular base, a rectangular pillar and a protruding coated cornice. Some have additional adjoining pillars that act as buttresses. Coinciding in shape with the pillar, they are inferior to it in size. The extra pole is called the "pylon baby".

Many pillars are decorated with relief and engraved images, inscriptions and rectangular recesses. The cornices are made up of a number of dougong carved into stone, closely replicating the wooden structures of the Han period. The roofs above the cornices imitate a tile covering with a wavy line along the edges of the slope.

The pylons of the Sichuan province have the greatest artistic value, the composition of which is based on the principle of synthesis of architectural and sculptural forms. An example is the pylon on the road leading to the burial of Zhao Chia-ping (Sichuan Province). The slender, rectangular pillar of the pylon widens slightly downwards and is crowned with a gradually protruding cornice (Fig. 14). Under the cornice there is a kind of frieze with figures of demonic monsters, which, with their long paws, support angular dougongs imitating wooden forms typical for the Han period in the form of two long curved gongs. The latter are located parallel to the wall and visually support the massive upper part with dynamic high-relief images of hunting scenes, racing horsemen, and the struggle of animals.

According to traditions, on the eastern pillar on the south side, in a low relief, a figure of a “red bird of the south” with outstretched wings is carved, other sides of the pylons are decorated with animal figures symbolizing the cardinal points - “blue dragon”, “white tiger”, etc.

Near the village of Yaocai (Sichuan Province) there are monumental pylons of the burial of Gao Yi, the height of which reaches 5.88 m (Fig. 15). In front of the pylons are figures of two winged lions. Here, near the pylons, a high stele (2.75 m high) has been preserved, the inscription on which indicates that the entire burial complex was completed in 209. On the eastern and western sides, buttresses of the same shape, but smaller, are tightly adjoined to the pylons.

Imitating in its upper part the wooden pylons that stood in front of the palaces and had a room for observation instead of a cornice, the builder of the pylon, Gao Yi, made a complex composition in stone in the form of a five-part cornice, the “tiers” of which gradually protrude one above the other. Dougongs under the cornices resemble wooden structures. In general, the pylons of Gao Yi's burial, despite their somewhat restless silhouette, are distinguished by their majestic forms.

Stone pylons are remarkable not only as architectural monuments of the Han period, but also as structures that give an idea of ​​the developed system of wooden structures.

After the Han period, stone pylons were not built at burials and temples, they were replaced by the “hua-biao” columns, preserved at the burials of the 4th-5th centuries.

Numerous underground tombs-crypts of the nobility give an idea of ​​the remarkable skill of the builders of brick and stone structures of the Han period. The tombs were built deep underground and usually consisted of a series of chambers. In the last centuries BC. they were laid out from huge hollow or solid bricks, at the beginning of our era. - from smaller bricks. In early Han burials, bricks were laid flat, and from the end of the 1st c. BC e. placed vertically or mixed masonry was used. At the same time, a wedge-shaped brick for laying vaults appeared.

At the beginning of our era, stone and brick tombs had box vaults, while later ones had stepped hipped ceilings. The earthen floors of the burials are usually tightly packed; in the rich burials they are paved with large stone slabs.

In the stone burials of the nobility of the first centuries of our era, walls, beams, columns, ceilings and lintels of doors were decorated with bas-reliefs or paintings.

Near the city of Baoding in Wangdu County (Hebei Province) is a large brick tomb, richly decorated with murals. According to the inscription found here, the burial in Wangdu was built for the court eunuch Sung-Cheng, who lived during the reign of Emperor Shun-di (126-144).

This large underground structure, stretching from south to north for 20 m, consists of three halls, a number of side rooms and is distinguished by the complexity of the plan (Fig. 16). The burial begins with a narrow passage on the south side, which closes with a double-leaf stone door leading to the first hall oriented from south to north, similar to the conference hall in the service residence of a noble dignitary. From the eastern and western sides of the hall, narrow corridors lead to small side rectangular rooms intended for various items of grave goods: utensils, ceramic figures of people and animals, models of buildings and furniture.

Behind the first hall, a passage in the northern wall leads to the second, the highest rectangular hall, elongated from west to east and also having two small rectangular rooms on the sides. This hall reaches 4 m in height, while the other halls are only 2.5 m high, and the transitions between them are 1.5 m.

From the second, middle hall, where the sarcophagi were located, a wide passage leads to the last hall, elongated along the south-north axis and closed by a small niche on the northern wall.

The solid walls of all the rooms, made of mixed brickwork, bear duct vaults, the arched passage from the first hall to the second has an elevated outline. All entrance openings are blocked in addition to the main arch by unloading arches. The arches of the halls and the walls are covered with a yellowish limestone clatter, on which a painting is made depicting officials going to a reception.

The burial of an unknown noble person in Inan (Shandong Province) was built in a mountainous area. Built of stone, the burial, consisting of a number of rooms, apparently reproduced the house of a noble person of the Han period (Fig. 17). Walls, columns and lintels of doors and passages are covered with reliefs showing the life of the nobility. Particularly valuable are the images of a complex of architectural structures: a residential building, a temple and other buildings.

According to traditions, the burial in Inani (8.7 x 7.55 m) is located along the south-north axis and consists of three halls and five side rooms, two of which are located on the western side, and three on the eastern side. In the center of each there is a column. A rectangular long room in the northeast corner, connected with the central hall, served as a utility room.

The main southern portal (1.43 x 2.6 m) is divided by a quadrangular pillar and decorated with carved slabs. In the center of the front rectangular hall there is a low octagonal column covered with reliefs with a massive base. A cube-shaped dou capital, from which two massive gun brackets emerge in the north and south direction, in the central part has a short square pillar supporting the floor beam together with the divergent brackets. The stepped ceiling of the first hall consists of stone slabs laid in the form of rectangles with rhombuses inscribed in them with squares in the central part, which increases the height of the hall to 2.8 m.

The middle hall (3.81 x 2.36 m) also has entrances separated by pillars from the south and north sides. The side rooms are connected to the main hall. In this hall, an octahedral column with a capital and two branches - gunas, oriented along the main axis of the burial, was also erected in the center. On both sides of the branches adjoin curved sculptural images of winged monsters hanging upside down, which visually form an additional support for the protruding beam of the ceiling, dividing the hall into the western and eastern parts.

Each of the halves of the hall has stepped ceilings, consisting of concentric rectangles with two squares in the center, which made it possible for the builders to raise the hall to 3.12 m.

The third hall (3.55 m long) is a low room (1.87 m high), divided into two parts by an original massive frame, into which a capital with dougongs is inserted, which has two outgoing brackets depicting zoomorphic monsters. Dougong does not have a pillar here, and its capital is placed directly on the bottom of the frame. The ceilings of both halves of the hall are also stepped, they consist of rectangles with three squares in the center, on which lattices in rhombuses and relief multi-petal flowers painted with pink paint are carved. In this hall, divided by a partition, there were wooden sarcophagi.

In the first and middle halls, the floors are paved with stone slabs, and in the back and side rooms, an additional stone flooring 29 cm high has been laid over the stone slabs.

The burial at Yinani demonstrates the great technical knowledge and remarkable grasp of the experience of the past by the builders of the Han period. The tomb, with its numerous images, shows a brilliant synthesis of decor and architectural forms.

In the province of Sichuan, burials were discovered, carved into the hard clay slopes of the mountains (Fig. 18). In some cases in Sichuan, natural caves were used for burial. Some burial vaults are up to 30 m deep and 2 m high. They usually consist of two rectangular chambers located one behind the other. In the main hall (about 4 x 5 m) there is a stone bed of the deceased. Burial chambers adorn architecturally designed passages; the openings are flanked by columns, the dougons of which visually carry the door cornice. Sometimes the pillar in the center of the hall has dougongs, typical for the Han period, with two massive curved brackets.

The brick tombs of Sichuan are covered with vaults, the walls of some of them are decorated to the height of the panel with friezes of large square bricks covered with embossed reliefs depicting scenes from the life of the deceased.

All the architectural monuments of the Han period that have survived to our time testify to the great achievements of the architects of ancient China. Already in this early period, the main types of Chinese architecture were formed with their inherent design features, which were developed in subsequent centuries.

Chapter "Architecture of China" of the book "The General History of Architecture. Volume I. Architecture of the Ancient World. Author: O.N. Glukharev; edited by O.Kh. Khalpakhchna (responsible editors), E.D. Kvitnitskaya, V.V. Pavlova, A.M. Pribytkova. Moscow, Stroyizdat, 1970