Leading features of classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism. Literary trends (theoretical material)
CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic direction that originated in the Renaissance and continued to develop until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its main signs were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise "Poetic Art" (1674). Classicism was seen as a direction oriented towards ancient art. In the definition of classicism, they singled out, first of all, the desire for clarity and accuracy of expression, alignment with ancient models and strict obedience to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of the “three unities” (“unity of time”, “unity of place”, “unity of action”) were obligatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in dramaturgy. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this trend understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, immutable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmonious composition, a set of certain themes, motifs, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although such prose genres as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance in it, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of "good taste", developed by the so-called "good society". The taste of classicism prefers brevity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity to extravagant - decent. The main law of classicism is artistic plausibility, which depicts things and people as they should be in accordance with the moral norm, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which should turn them into universal universal types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, the semantic fullness of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; fr. - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism got its name after the publication of the novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" by the English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimentalist writers is on the life of the human heart; the outer world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in the emotional sphere and the experiences of an individual. The sublime beginning, fundamental in the works of theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of touching, sympathy for one's neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated as early as the 18th century and enjoyed great readership and had a significant influence on Russian writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its peak in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, Boyar's Daughter”, “Letters from a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravieva, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitriev.
ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant trends in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide distribution and discovered many gifted artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be called the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a lofty, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between the ideal and reality, the feeling of a gap between them and at the same time the thirst for their reunion is the defining beginning of romantic art.
Romantics have always been attracted by fantastic plots and images, folk tales, parables, fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, the heroic turning points in historical epochs, the fertile and bright world of wildlife, in which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed high and low, tragic and comic, real and fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - a historical novel, a lyrical epic poem, a fairy tale story. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change the prevailing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyrics. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.
In conditions other than Western European, Russian romanticism arose and developed, which became the main event in literary life in the 1820s. Its most important signs were the less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of the emergence of the romantic trend in Russia falls on 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a great influence on subsequent literature. The years of 1816-1825 became a time of intensified development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity of the Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delvig. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering the years 1826-1840, romanticism is most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this trend was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev, early works of N.V. Gogol. In the future, the impact of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and in the 20th century. Romantic traditions persist to this day.
REALISM(from late Latin - material, real) - the leading literary trend of the XIX-XX centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human person in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory have become a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the distinct manifestation of certain “non-realistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a full-fledged, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (though not necessarily) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged rather late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is undergoing constant changes and updates, while revealing a natural “survivability” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.
MODERNISM(from French - the latest) - an aesthetic concept that developed in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of the revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of the artistic culture of the 19th century, which took place during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and trends as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, all of them are united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible change, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, which make it possible to speak of a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, and in dramaturgy, and in prose.
POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - a term that has been used in recent decades, but still has not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is multi-valued and multi-level, influenced by national-historical , social and other circumstances, a complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, due to the specifics of the worldview, attitude and assessment of the cognitive capabilities of a person, his place and role in the world around him. The emergence of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of World War II, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its essence, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he tries to resist. In this regard, the concepts used by theorists of this direction are not accidental: "the world as chaos", "postmodern sensitivity", "the world as a text", "consciousness as a text", "intertextuality", "crisis of authorities", "author's mask", “parodic mode of narration”, fragmentary narration, meta-narrative, etc.
Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- vanguard) avant-garde- a generalizing name for trends in world art, primarily in European art, that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The prominent representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:
Futurism - Alexei Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;
· Expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.
Dramaturgy
The pioneer of the avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and attitude are fixed in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hoffmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama is enriched with the techniques of the literature of the absurd. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrovich, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received their final expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, absurdist motifs were developed in their dramas by F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel.
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Samples of low genres |
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comedy, fable, epigram, satire |
Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by D. I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth", "Brigadier", fables by I. A. Krylov) |
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Topics and tasks |
The comedy depicts the life of "ordinary" people: burghers, servants. Human vices are shown, which are always overcome by virtue, the language of comedy and fable is “reduced”, ordinary. The task of the comedian and fabulist is to expose and ridicule vice, to affirm virtue, to lead the viewer-reader to a clear conclusion, to formulate "morality" |
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Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism (from the French sentiment - feeling) - a trend in the literature and art of Europe and Russia in the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and a heightened emotional attitude to the world around. The innovation of sentimentalism lies in the exclusive attention to the state of mind of the individual and the appeal to the experiences of a simple, humble person. Works written within this artistic direction emphasize the reader's perception, that is, the sensitivity that arises when reading them. The hero in sentimentalism is individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around.
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occurrence |
Formed in the second half of the 18th century in England, then spread throughout Europe |
Formed in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century |
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Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence |
Appearance sentimentalism is associated with the Enlightenment, it reflected the growth of democratic sentiment in society |
The emergence and development of sentimentalism in Russia is associated with the penetration and spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russian society |
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Main features |
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Main features |
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Writers and works |
L. Stern "Sentimental Journey", J. Thomson "Winter", "Summer", T. Gray "Rural Cemetery", S. Richardson "Pamela", "Clarissa Garlo", "Sir Charles Grandison" France: Abbé Prevost "Manon Lescaut" J.-J. Rousseau "Julia, or New Eloise" |
N. M. Karamzin “Poor Liza”, “Letters from a Russian Traveler”, A. N. Radishchev “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” |
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Roman-journey |
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Romanticism
Romanticism (from the French gotapIvte (medieval fr. Jotap) - novel) is an ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the inherent value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At first
2) SentimentalismSentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion for the human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at about the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterbalance to the harsh classical theory that prevailed at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of the spiritual qualities of a person, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention, regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the environment, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest value of man.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P.K. de Chamblain de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. W. Goethe, J. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and “Poor Lisa” by N.I. Karamzin.
3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterweight to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated a departure from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it the bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. The main conflict of romanticism was the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure, the spiritual devastation of the individual was going on. Romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics were disappointed in the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly seen in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the entire work the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, and E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the work of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, E. P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the French Revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin during the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles, the romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
fantasy story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of duality is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. Realism lacks this concept. The idea of duality has two modifications:
escape to the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in a lyrical tone;
aesthetic purposefulness towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the internal state of the hero to the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
ultimate expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; romantics denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; the reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on the creative imagination of the artist.
4) Realism
Realism is a literary trend that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of the facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers put their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world around influences the personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation", which is close to him in meaning. Realism then saw a resurgence during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the content motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who could fight with circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of the characters. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, while the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.
5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. as a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
The main distinguishing feature of modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek to realistically or allegorically depict reality, as it was in realism, or the inner world of the hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared divergence from the theory and practice of realism;
orientation to an individual, not a social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, and not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form over content.
The major currents of modernism were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, the impression that some object or phenomenon has on the author is important, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed familiar images and words with mystical meaning. Art Nouveau promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially brightly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of the personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imaginism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, the Russian poets N. Gumilyov, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, the English writer O. Wilde, the American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.
6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. 19th century and especially widely deployed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical justification of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, which develops into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, to a high level of technology and increased exploitation, and on the other hand, to the growth of self-consciousness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific character, objectivity, apoliticality in the name of "universal truth". Literature must stand at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on that science which does not negate the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, which gives advantages to one over the other), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a series of reforms to be carried out in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers as naturalists. Zola attributed the French realists to the immediate predecessors of naturalism: O. Balzac and Stendhal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theoretician understood this trend. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was joined for a time by writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groups. It is characteristic that the unifying moment was not the artistic method, but the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only a partial recognition of the set of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. So did the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belshe and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism began. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of the processes of capitalization creates more and more cadres of intelligentsia, who by no means always find a use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science penetrates their midst. Gradually, hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are shattered.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is entirely a transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the German people" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. It usually centers on some problem, social or physiological, around which facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Shlyaf. Their basic principles are outlined in Goltz's pamphlet Art, where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes nature according to the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is occupied by a story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also replaced by a drama and a poem, which French naturalists treated extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptman, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies intensively developed action, gives only a catastrophe and fixation of the characters' experiences ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism has not received any development. The early works of F.I. Panferov and M.A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.
7) natural school
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an epoch of ever more acute contradictions between the feudal system and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The very term "natural school" appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school, in the extended use of the term as it was used in the 1940s, does not denote a single direction, but is a concept to a large extent conditional. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers in terms of their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
The most common features on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school were the following: socially significant topics that captured a wider circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "low" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, the realism of artistic expressions, who fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the "truth", and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school addresses itself not to ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude towards reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: it is to N. V. Gogol - the author of "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", "The Overcoat" - as the ancestor, the natural school was erected by V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers who belong to the natural school experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of N.V. Gogol's work. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as C. Dickens, O. Balzac, and George Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of the nobility's reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor estate. Representatives of this current of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 1940s, infringed, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and, on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor people", "Double" and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "raznochintsy", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the most clear expression of the tendencies that contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) associated with the name of the natural school and opposed noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Tangled Case”) should be attributed to the same group.
8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that the aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was later adopted by functionalists and functionalist-constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), highlights the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art. and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the basic thesis of constructivism. So, in France and Holland, constructivism expressed itself in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), Corbusier's aestheticizing formalism (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, and I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal trend, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin departed from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class", in the construction of socialist culture. From here arises the constructivist attitude to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: "The intelligentsia in the revolution and construction." With particular attention to the image of an intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), the constructivists, first of all, put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific gravity and significance under construction. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is opposed by the incompetent communist Krol, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article by the main theorist of constructivism Kornely Zelinsky "Constructivism and socialism", where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era in transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being lived through. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period are replaced by Zelinsky by the struggle of man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous propositions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that nourishes constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the greatest poet of constructivism) of the first period, an image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly found.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and instead of it, the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), whose task is the gradual transition of writers-fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning former mistakes of constructivism, although retaining its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag progress of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here too. Selvinsky's poem "Declaration of the Poet's Rights" testifies to this. This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved its tasks.
9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism literally means "that which follows modernism" in German. This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information richness of modernity.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective story, a thriller, a fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art was over. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to the elite reader and to the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for their own works (a large number of quotations, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodernist works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism of mass culture. Postmodernism tries to blur the line between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented, and they only had to play with words, take ready-made (sometimes already invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it means a juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Yu. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly emerging text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotations. Modernism is characterized by quotation thinking.
Intertextuality- the presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architextuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurry form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
take the hero into the shadow: the hero is not brought to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
The prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barthes, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, J. Cortazar, M. Pavic, J. Joyce and others.
Before talking about specific ones, you first need to learn about literary trends. They are historical embodiments of artistic knowledge and reproduction of the world, manifested in the ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers.
In the history of literature, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism and postmodernism are distinguished.
The literary direction is a special synthesis of the way of knowing reality through art and the individual style of the creator. Any literary direction includes a set of works that have common features. Within a literary period, several literary movements may appear, for example, during the Enlightenment - classicism and sentimentalism, as well as rococo. The name of the dominant trend often becomes the name of an entire period in literature, and its time frame may go beyond clear limits. Literary trends can form currents or schools.
Periodization of the main literary trends:
- classicism (XVIII - early XIX centuries);
- sentimentalism (second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries);
- romanticism (second half of the 18th - early 20th centuries);
- realism (second half of the 19th century);
- modernism (late XIX - XX centuries): impressionism, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, etc.;
- postmodernism (since the 1980s of the XX century).
| Literary directions | The main features of the literary direction | Representatives of literature |
| Classicism | Landmark for the aesthetics of ancient art. The undeniable priority of reason over feelings is affirmed. The authors proclaim the principle of rationalism: art should be reasonable, logically verified. The fleeting is rejected, the essential properties of things are emphasized. The civic theme in the work has a form in strict creative norms according to the canonical model. | G. Derzhavin, M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky, I. Krylov, D. Fonvizin |
| Sentimentalism | Instead of the strictness of classicism, feeling is sung here as an essential feature of human nature. The hero (sometimes the heroine) is not afraid to feel and open to the reader his emotional world, which is diverse and changeable. It is recognized that regardless of his class, everyone has a rich inner world. | Ya. M. Karamzin, young V.A. Zhukovsky |
| Romanticism | The method of romantic duality dominates. The author creates a conflict of opposing the hero's ideal to his environment. The incompatibility of this ideal and reality is realized in leaving for the world of legends and legends, dreams, fantasies, exotic countries. Personality excites romantics in the light of her loneliness and disappointment. The hero does not let go of the understanding of the tragedy of life, at the same time he expresses the rebelliousness of the spirit. | A. S. Pushkin. M. Yu. Lermontov, V.A. Zhukovsky, F.I. Tyutchev, M. Gorky, |
| Emphasis on literature as a means of knowing the world. Her ability to objectively reflect reality rises. The subject of artistic research is the relationship between character and circumstances, the authors show the formation of character under the influence of the environment. However, the ability to fight and defend the right to self-determination is not canceled. Reality is shown in constant development, presenting the typical in a uniquely individual incarnation. | I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin |
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| Critical Realism | An offshoot of the entire 19th century. It bears the main signs of realism, but differs in a deeper, always critical, even sarcastic author's look | N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin |
| Modernism | It unites many trends and schools with different aesthetic concepts. One thing in common is the rejection of realism and the rigid connection of characters and circumstances. At the head of the self-worth of the individual and its self-sufficiency. Causes and effects are tiring and overthrown as unnecessary. | |
| Symbolism | The first significant modernist movement. The origins of the direction in romanticism with its duality. Refusing to cognize the world, the Symbolists construct it. Particular emphasis on subconscious contemplation, knowledge of the secret contained in symbols. | V. Bryusov, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub, A. Blok, V. Ivanov, L. Andreev, A. Bely, |
| A reaction to the imperfection of symbolism, its insistence on perceiving reality as a parody of higher beings. Acmeists master the diverse external world, proclaiming culture as the highest value. Poetry is characterized by stylistic balance, clarity of images, well-balanced composition and details. | N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam |
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| Futurism | The main feature of this avant-garde trend is the overthrow of the traditions of the past, the destruction of the old aesthetics, and the creation of a new art of the future. The authors believed in the principle of "shift", reflected in the lexical and syntactic renewal of the poetic language: vulgarisms, neologisms. Oxymoron... | V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, V. Mayakovsky, |
| Postmodernism | Aesthetic and ideological pluralism gave rise to an anti-hierarchical text that denies worldview integrity and speaks of the impossibility of mastering reality with a single method or language. The writers emphasize the artificiality of the works, they are not afraid to combine the style of different trends, genres and eras. | A. Bitov, D. A. Prigov, Sasha Sokolov, V. Pelevin, V. Erofeev |
In addition to these main areas, there are often:
- Impressionism (the last third of the 19th - early 20th century), with the desire to convey the first fleeting impression, captures the riot of feelings and emotions in the focus of attention. The composition of the work is clearly fragmented. Attention is directed not to the general, but to the special and singular. Guy de Maupassant, M. Proust are worthy representatives of this trend.
- Expressionism (1910 - 1920s) combines critical pathos and horror of the cruel picture of being. The death of man and humanity, the attraction to abstractness and the grotesque are features of some works by L. N. Andreev and F. K. Sologub.
- Existentialism (mid-twentieth century) gives a sense of the collapse of all values. The tragedy of human existence is insurmountable. A lonely man in a familiar society was seen by J.P. Sartre, A. Camus.
LITERARY TRENDS classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism Galina Gennadievna Bogacheva, secondary school № 21, Vladimir
LITERARY DIRECTION unites writers of the same historical era, connected by a common understanding of life values and an aesthetic ideal, creates its own type of hero, has characteristic plots, its own style of speech and favorite genres, and has something in common with other types of art. classicism sentimentalism romanticism realism
REPRESENTATIVES OF TRENDS IN LITERATURE classicism realism G. R. Derzhavin M. V. Lomonosov D. I. Fonvizin Molière N. Boileau F. M. Dostoevsky A. N. Ostrovsky L. N. Tolstoy N. V. Gogol A. S. Pushkin I. S. Turgenev sentimentalism romanticism N. M. Karamzin A. N. Radishchev K. F. Ryleev V. A. Zhukovsky M. Yu. Lermontov Byron
Classicism In Russia Establishment of the 18th century of absolute monarchy at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century Peter I Elizabeth Ekaterina II Petrovna Comprehension in Russia of the results of revolutions, opposition to Realism, the search for real noble and, from the 30s of the 19th century, raznochinno-democratic ways of recreating cultures of reality HISTORICAL AGES Folk. In Russia, liberation wars in Europe and America. 1773 - 1775 - Pugachev revolt second half of the XVIII - Bourgeoisie - new and its suppression beginning of the XIX century social force December 14, 1825 - Insurrection in Russia Patriotic War of 1812 powerless. A feeling of disappointment, and the XVIII - early XIX - the end of the century - the end of the disappointment of the century of dissatisfaction in its results in Russian society.
Approved values of life Classicism Classicus (Lat.) - exemplary - the primacy of state interests over personal ones; Ш cult of moral duty; Ш cult of reason, rationalism Ø the highest value is a person, not a state; ø nature is the measure of all values; Ø the idea of moral equality of people Realism Realis (lat.) - material, real Ø desire for knowledge of man and the world; Ø the discovery of the laws of the existence of man and society Romanticism Romantique (fr.) - mysterious, unreal Ø rejection of the lack of spirituality of real life; escape from the existing reality and the search for an ideal outside of it; Ø affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, attention to the inner world of a person; SH freedom
Classicism Realism Strict adherence to the rule of "three unities" to reasonable rules, Simplicity, harmony, in dramaturgy: eternal laws, logic (1 house) of the place of composition created on the basis of the study of time (1 day) of the work of the best examples of action (1 conflict) of ancient literature Loyalty to reality , Psychologism; Image of life The principle of conveying the high nationality of historicism, its development, the artistry of the essence of life, the significance of ideas Aesthetic ideal Sincerity, simplicity, Naturalness, devotion to "nature", poetry, organic connection emotionality, tenderness and sadness with nature Sentimentalism Nature as an expression Freedom, power, Image indomitability, the spontaneous beginning of the desired - a stormy impulse of life, the freedom of the world of dreams Romanticism
C L A S I C I Z M S E N T I M E N T A L I Z M 1. A clear division of heroes into positive (makes a choice in favor of reason) and negative 2. The main heroes are kings, generals, statesmen figures Mitrofan 3. The selection of one and Prostakov's leading features from the comedy in the character of the hero D. I. Fonvizin (miser, braggart, fool) "Undergrowth" 1. The division of heroes into positive (commoner endowed with a rich spiritual world) and negative (hard-hearted representative of power) 2. The main character of the work is O. A. Kiprensky. ordinary person. Poor Liza 1827 R E A L I Z M Typification of characters (fusion of typical and individual). New types of heroes: "little man" type (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin); type of "extra person" (Onegin, Kukryniksy. Oblomov); Pechorin, P. Sokolov. Illustration of the hero type Illustration of the novel "new" to the novel by A. S. Pushkin to the story "The Overcoat" and Children "by I. S. Turgenev. Bazarov) (nihilist "Fathers of N.V. Gogol" Eugene Onegin "Exclusiveness R O of a romantic hero: M 1. Strong personality, man A of high passion, living with a desire for freedom N 2. Internal split T 3. Loneliness I 4. Tragic fate Z 5. Search for the ideal Demon M. Vrubel and dreams M 6. Embodiment of the romantic K. Bryullov L. Pasternak Mtsyri's confession of rebellion against reality Fortune-telling Svetlana T I P GER O Ya
Classicism Plots from ancient and Russian history. Heroic destinies. A duel of passion and duty. A. P. Losenko. Farewell of Hector to Andromache, 1773 Sentimentalism Separate situations of everyday life. Days in labor in the bosom of nature. Depiction of peasant life (often in pastoral colors). A. G. Venetsianov. On the arable land. Spring Realism STORY Detailed and objectively recreated pictures of national life. Depicts the relationship between man and the environment. Human character is revealed in connection with social circumstances. I. E. Repin. Barge haulers on the Volga I. Shishkin. Pine Forest Romanticism The conflict between the hero and society. The duel of personality and fate. Actions of the Hero in Unusual, Exceptional Circumstances: Exotic Countries, Uncivilized Peoples, the Other World K. Bryullov. The last I. Aivazovsky. rainbow day pompeii
CLASSICISM REALISM High: ode, epic poem, tragedy Story, essay, story, novel, Middle: scientific poetry, poem, drama, epic novel, elegy, sonnet, epic poem message, epic cycle (The goal is a comprehensive depiction of the world) Low : comedy, fable, epigram, satire GENRES Family romance, diary, confession, letters, travel notes, memoirs, elegy, message, sensitive story (written in the 1st person) SENTIMENTALISM Novel, story, novel in letters, elegy, idyll, romantic poem, thought, ballad (The goal is self-disclosure of the inner world of a person, a story about an individual fate) ROMANTISM
Picturesque portrait of V. A. Zhukovsky romanticism D. Levitsky. Catherine II classicism V. Borovikovsky. Catherine II sentimentalism I. Repin. Portrait of A. Rubinstein realism
HISTORICAL AGE Classicism late 17th - early 19th century Establishment of absolute monarchy In Russia 18th century Peter I Elizabeth Catherine II Petrovna
Approved values of life Classicism Classicus (Lat.) - exemplary - the primacy of state interests over personal ones; Ш cult of moral duty; W cult of reason, rationalism
Classicism Strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature Simplicity, harmony, logical composition of the work Aesthetic ideal The rule of "three unities" in dramaturgy: places (1 house) of time (1 day) of action (1 conflict)
REPRESENTATIVES OF CLASSICISM IN LITERATURE N. Boileau D. I. Fonvizin Molière M. V. Lomonosov G. R. Derzhavin
HERO TYPE D. Levitsky. Catherine II CLASSIC AND CIZM 1. A clear division of heroes into positive (makes a choice in favor of reason) and negative 2. The main characters are kings, generals, statesmen 3. Identification of one leading feature in the character of the hero (miser , bouncer, fool) Mitrofan and Prostakova from D. I. Fonvizin's comedy "Undergrowth"
SUBJECTS Classicism Plots from ancient and domestic history. Heroic destinies. A duel of passion and duty. A. P. Losenko. Hector's farewell to Andromache, 1773
GENRES CLASSICISM High: ode, epic poem, tragedy Middle: scientific poetry, elegy, sonnet, epistle Low: comedy, fable, epigram, satire
HISTORICAL EPOCH Sentimentalism second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries People's liberation wars in Europe, America. The bourgeoisie - a new social force in Russia 1773 - 1775 - Pugachev rebellion and its suppression
Affirmed life values Sentimentalism Ø the highest value is a person, not a state; ø nature is the measure of all values; III idea of moral equality of people V. Borovikovsky. Catherine II
Sentimentalism Naturalness, devotion to "nature", organic connection with nature Aesthetic ideal Sincerity, simplicity, poetry, touching, tenderness and sadness
TYPE OF THE HERO SENT I M E N T A L I Z M 1. The division of heroes into positive (a commoner endowed with a rich spiritual world) and negative (a hard-hearted representative of power) 2. The protagonist of the work is an ordinary person O. A. Kiprensky. Poor Liza 1827
Plots Sentimentalism A. G. Venetsianov. On the arable land. Spring Separate situations of everyday life. Days in labor in the bosom of nature. Depiction of peasant life (often in pastoral colors).
GENRES Family romance, diary, confession, letters, travel notes, memoirs, elegy, message, sensitive story (written in the 1st person) SENTIMENTALISM
HISTORICAL EPOCH Romanticism late 18th - early 19th century In Russia, the Patriotic War of 1812 The people - the true hero of the war - were enslaved and deprived of rights. Feeling of disappointment, dissatisfaction in Russian society. The Great French Revolution and disappointment in its results December 14, 1825 - the uprising on the Senate Square
Affirmed life values Byron V. A. Zhukovsky K. F. Ryleev Romanticism Romantique (fr.) - mysterious, unreal III rejection of the lack of spirituality of real life M. Yu. Lermontov; escape from the existing reality and the search for an ideal outside of it; Ø affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, attention to the inner world of a person; SH freedom
Romanticism Depiction of the desired - the dream world Freedom, power, indomitability, stormy impulse Aesthetic ideal Nature as an expression of the elemental beginning of life, freedom
T I P M. Vrubel. Demon GER O Ya L. Pasternak. Mtsyri's Confession Exclusivity K. Bryullov. Fortune-telling Svetlana Exclusivity R O of a romantic hero: M 1. Strong personality, person A of high passion, living with a desire for freedom N 2. Internal duality T 3. Loneliness I 4. Tragic fate Z 5. Search for an ideal and dream M 6. The embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality
PLOT Romanticism K. Bryullov. The last day of Pompeii I. Aivazovsky. Rainbow Conflict between the hero and society. The duel of personality and fate. Actions of the hero in unusual, exceptional circumstances: exotic countries, uncivilized peoples, the other world
GENRES Novel, story, novel in letters, elegy, idyll, romantic poem, thought, ballad (The goal is self-discovery of the inner world of a person, a story about an individual destiny)
HISTORICAL EPOCH Realism since the 30s of the 19th century In Russia, the confrontation between noble and raznochin-democratic cultures Comprehension of the results of revolutions, the search for real ways to recreate reality
Affirmed life values Realism Realis (lat.) - material, real AS Pushkin LN Tolstoy AN Ostrovskiy FM Dostoevsky III striving for knowledge of man and the world; III discovery of the laws of existence of man and society I. S. Turgenev N. V. Gogol
Realism The principle of nationality Loyalty to reality, the transfer of the essence of life, the significance of ideas The principle of historicism Depiction of life in its development Psychologism; high artistry
R E A L I Z M Typification of characters (fusion of typical and individual). New types of heroes: "little man" type (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin); type of "extra person" (Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov); type of "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov) Illustration for I. S. Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" T I P G E R O Ya Kukryniksy. Illustration for the story "The Overcoat" by N. V. Gogol P. Sokolov. Illustration for the novel by A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"
Realism Detailed and objectively recreated pictures of national life. Depicts the relationship between man and the environment. Human character is revealed in connection with social circumstances. FOOTAGE I. E. Repin. Barge haulers on the Volga I. Shishkin. Pinery
GENRES REALISM Story, essay, short story, novel, poem, drama, epic novel, epic poem, epic cycle (The goal is a comprehensive image of the world)
