Realism in literature of the early 19th century. Realism in literature

Ermak Timofeevich (circa 1540-1584 or 1585) - Cossack chieftain, according to legend, comes from one of the Don villages. The leader of the campaign in Siberia, which marked the beginning of its accession to Russia. In 1582, he defeated the main forces of the Siberian Khan Kuchum on the banks of the Irtysh. On August 6, 1585 (according to other sources - 1584) he was wounded in battle and drowned, trying to cross the Vagai River, a tributary of the Irtysh, in heavy chain mail. Many songs were composed about Yermak among the people, his image formed the basis of literary works. The iconography of Yermak is apocryphal and goes back to one type. It was reflected in paintings and engravings, which were very common, apparently, already from the 17th century. Obviously, Karamzin was guided by one of these portraits, giving a description of Yermak's appearance: “He was noble in appearance, dignified, of medium height, strong in muscles, broad in shoulders; had a flat but pleasant face, dark, curly hair, bright eyes.

Unknown 18th century artist

Portrait of Queen Marfa Matveevna

Marfa Matveevna was born in Moscow in 1664, was the daughter of

Astrakhan Governor Boyar Matvey Vasilyevich Apraksin from his marriage to Domnaya Bogdanovna Lovchikova. In 1682, the mortally ill Tsar Fedor Alekseevich married her, whose first wife died of childbirth shortly before. Two months later, Marfa Matveevna was widowed, but retained the title of queen and her place in the royal family. She was respected by her brother-in-law Peter I, who was served by her three brothers, they bore the title of room steward, participated in all the undertakings of the young tsar. She died on December 31 in St. Petersburg, was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. Marfa Matveevna is depicted in the brocade dress of the Russian empress of the 17th century, on her head is a kokoshnik embroidered with pearls with precious stones.

Unknown artist of the late 17th - early 18th century (?)

Portrait of Prince Ivan Borisovich Repnin

Prince I. B. Repnin (161.-1697) - steward, then a close boyar and butler to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. He was governor in Mogilev, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk and Tobolsk. He held high government positions: he was a judge (chief) in several orders, the central government bodies of the Moscow State - Vladimir, Yamsk and Local, as well as the Siberian and Kazan Palace orders. The father of Field Marshal Nikita Ivanovich Repnin, one of the associates of Peter I. This type of portrait, usually called parsuns, marked the beginning of Russian portraiture.

Unknown artist of the second half of the 17th century (?)

Portrait of Metropolitan Dimitry of Rostov

Metropolitan of Rostov and Yaroslavl Dimitry (1651-1709) - a native of Ukraine, one of the most educated people of his time. He spoke many languages, collected the richest library, was the author of theological writings, poems and plays.

.. This man had a sharp mind, great enlightenment... he had a great penchant for science...

In 1757 he was canonized. The portrait of Dimitri of Rostov is one of the numerous examples of a posthumous portrait-icon. The portrait is characterized by a combination of elements of naturalness - it goes back to the lifetime image of Demetrius - with the traditions of the parsuna and the old Russian icon (stiffness of the pose, frontality of the figure's turn, enhanced decoration).

The portrait was often repeated and copied, several of its variants have come down to our time.

Unknown artist of the second half of the 18th century

Portrait of Andrey Besushchiy by Andrey Matveyevich Apraksin. 1690s

A.M. Apraksin (1663-1731) - brother of Tsarina Marfa Matveevna, steward of Tsar John Alekseevich. Oberschenk of Peter I, from 1724 - Count. He was a member of the "Most drunken, extravagant cathedral of the most joking prince-pope." This clownish community was created by Peter I from people belonging to his inner circle. The participants of the cathedral appeared in all court entertainments and festivities. Most of them had nothing to do with matters of state administration.

The portrait belongs to the so-called Preobrazhenskaya series (by the name of the palace located in the suburbs where these portraits were originally kept). It can be dated to the 1690s, since the character is still depicted with a beard, the wearing of which was later strictly forbidden by Peter.

Portrait of Yakov Fyodorovich Turgenev

No later than 1695

Ya.F. Turgenev (16..-1695) was also one of the persons who made up the supreme .. The most drunken, extravagant cathedral of the most joking prince-pope. "In his circle, he bore the title of" an old warrior and a Kyiv colonel ". During the maneuvers of 1694 near Kozhukhov near Moscow, he commanded a company. Soon after this, Turgenev's jester's wedding was played, which cost him his life.

The execution of the portrait should be attributed to the last goals of Turgenev's life. The flatness of the image, the locality of color, sharp contours speak of the traditions that connect it with the techniques of ancient Russian painting. However, natural observations already dominate the basis of the master's artistic vision. They affect the skillful transfer of material and details of clothing, but most of all - in the expression of the face and pose of the person being portrayed.

Unknown artist, late 17th century

Portrait of Peter the Great

Peter 1 - Emperor of All Russia, son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In 1697, as part of the Great Embassy, ​​he traveled to Western Europe incognito, under the name of constable Pyotr Mikhailov. From the Latin inscription on the back of the canvas, it can be assumed that the portrait dates back to the time of Peter I's stay in Koenigsberg in May 1697.

Unknown artist, late 17th century (?)

Portrait of Anastasia Naryshkina with children Alexandra and Tatyana

AL. Naryshkina, nee Princess Myshitskaya, is the wife of Kiril Alekseevich Naryshkin, the last kravchey, chief commandant of Dorpat and the first commandant of St. Petersburg, and since 1719 - the Moscow governor. Her daughter Alexandra probably died in childhood, as she is not mentioned in the published genealogies of the Naryshkins. Another daughter, Tatyana, later became the wife of General-Admiral Prince Mikhail Mikhailovich Golitsyn.

They are depicted in magnificent robes and headdresses of the European type, which came into fashion among the nobility at the beginning of the 18th century.

Unknown artist, early 18th century (?)

Portrait of Vasily Ivanovich Maikov

IN AND. Maykov (1728-1778) is a bright figure of the 18th century. Rich

a nobleman who served in his youth in the guard, involved in the philosophical and moral searches of the Masons, he was a gifted poet. Maykov was a member of M.M. Kheraskov, collaborated in the journals of N.I. Novikov. Maikov's satirical "heroic" poems "The Ombre Player" (1763) and "Elisey, or the Irritated Bacchus" (I771) were the most famous. The latter described the adventures of the daring coachman Elisha with rude humor. and kind.

The portrait can be dated to the 1750s, since Maikov is depicted in the uniform of the Life Guards of the Semyonovsky Regiment. It is known that his military service began in 1747, and on December 25, 1761, he was retired captain of the guard.

Unknown artist mid 18th century

Portrait of Ataman Fyodor Ivanovich Krasnoshchekov. 1761

F.I. Krasnoshchekov (? -1764) - a marching ataman of the Cossack regiments, the son of the famous Don hero, who frightened the enemies with his courage, "wild appearance" and a face completely covered with scars. F.I. Krasnoshchekov himself became famous for his courage. He was a member of the Seven Years' War (1756 —l763) ​​During which.. roaming with his Cossacks, "had to disturb the enemy in every possible way"In the battles, Krasnoshchekov showed courage, courage and fearlessness, received the rank of brigadier, then major general. He was awarded the award established for the Cossacks - a gold medal "lined with diamonds" to be worn around the neck. Cunning and intelligent, he was known among the Cossacks as a sorcerer. The people composed songs about Krasnoshchekov, calling him "a dashing rider" and "a glorious hero."

Depicted in the colorful attire of a Cossack ataman, on his chest - an award medal; according to J. Shtelin, Antropov painted this portrait for the "hetman" Razumovsky.

Portrait of Countess Anna Karlovna Vorontsova. 1763

Countess A.K. Vorontsova (1722-1775) nee Skavronskaya,

held a high position at court. She was a relative and favorite of the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, Chief Chamberlain and Cavalry Lady of the Order of St. Catherine. At the same time, she had the privilege, putting on a sash and a star, not to wear the badge of a state lady - a portrait of the empress. The wife of State Chancellor Mikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov, she constantly made acquaintance with foreign envoys and knew many diplomatic secrets. According to one of her contemporaries, the countess was a charming woman, but she liked to drink. A big winder, a fashionista and a dandy, she is presented in a magnificent order dress and, according to the fashion of that time, with a powdered and heavily rouged face.

Alexey Petrovich Antropov. 1716-1795

Portrait of Dmitry Ivanovich Buturlin. 1763

A.P. Antropov is the son of a soldier who was engaged in metalwork. He studied painting with L. Caravacca and A. Matveev. In 1739, Gotu was appointed to the staff of the "painting team" at the Office of Buildings. He participated in the decorative paintings of the Winter Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo palaces, in the 1750s he worked in Kiev on the iconostasis of St. Andrew's Cathedral, and later held the position of painter at the Synod. In 1750-1760 Antropov came to the fore as a portrait painter, in whose work the features of the baroque style were combined with the traditions of folk art, which were most evident in the brightness and strength of color sound.

DI. Buturlin(1703-179 °) - collegiate assessor, Moscow nobleman, owned many villages and villages, including the famous village of Palekh, an ancient center of icon painting.

Alexey Petrovich Antropov. 1716-1795

Portrait of an unknown woman in a Russian headdress. 1769

the inscription in the cartouche - " wrote 1769 Maia". Perhaps the portrait is one of the first samples of the so-called female "merchant" portrait, which later became quite widespread. Undoubted natural features, the individual and very Russian appearance of the model speak of the artist's desire to conscientiously record the similarity. He did not resort to faceless embellishment, which was often accepted at that time character and did not follow the rule that in portraits of women "all shortcomings must be corrected"

Unknown artist of the second half of the 18th century

Portrait of Savva Yakovlevich Yakovlev. 1767

S.Ya. Yakovlev(Sobakin. 1713-1784 - a major industrialist and farmer. A simple Ostashkov tradesman, he came to the capital "with a half in his pocket" and quickly amassed a millionth fortune.

He owned ironworks in the Urals and linen factories in the Yaroslavl province, he also had wine farms. In 1761, Yakovlev received the rank of collegiate assessor, which gave him the rights of hereditary nobility. He was known for his cruelty and tyranny: objectionable to him "little people" he beat or kept on a chain . Tradition says that the 500-pound bell with its tongue locked in the lock, which he donated to the St. Petersburg Church of the Savior on Sennaya, could ring only with the permission of the donor.

Unknown artist of the second half of the 18th century. (Possibly - Mina Lukich Kolokolnikov. Around 1714 - 1792)

Portrait of Pyotr Dmitrievich Eropkin

P.D. Eropkin (1724-1805) began his service in 1736, participated in the Seven Years' War, for which he was promoted to lieutenant general, but soon "due to poor health" was dismissed and appointed a senator. During the plague epidemic in 1771, he was instructed to.. to protect "Moscow" from the plague infection ". After twelve years of resignation, in 1786, he was again appointed Moscow commander-in-chief, but soon "he was exhausted by illnesses" forced him to leave this post. Eropkin was hospitable and hospitable in the old fashioned way, his appearance and manners were distinguished by old-fashioned dignity; he rode with a trumpeter who blew when Yeropkin stopped the carriage. He died suddenly at a game of rocambole.

P.D. Eropkin is depicted with the orders of St. Andrew the First-Called, Vladimir I degree, Alexander Nevsky and Anna I degree

Unknown artist of the second half of the 18th century

Portrait of Dmitry Martynovich Martynov

D.M. Martynov - Ataman of the Don Cossacks. In 1772, for participation in the first Turkish war, being a colonel, he was awarded a nominal gold medal of 30 chervonets “for being worn around the neck.” In 1796, he was a holder of the Order of Anna and a lieutenant general. diamonds" a gold medal with a profile of Catherine II and with the orders of Anna of the 1st degree and Vladimir of the 2nd degree, while the orders were assigned later. The habit of adding newly received orders to previously executed portraits was very common in the 18th century.

Unknown artist, late 18th century

Portrait of Countess Elizabeth Petrovna Konovnitsyna as a child. 1800s

Countess H.P. Konovnitsyna (1801 or 1804-1867) - the hero's daughter

Patriotic War of 1812 P.P. Konovnitsyn. The year of her birth is usually indicated as 1801, however, in the inscription on the back of the portrait, made by her maternal grandfather, it is mentioned that his "grandson" was born in 1804. The Decembrist A.E. Rosen wrote about her arrival in Chita in 1827: “She was 23 years old; the only daughter of a hero-father and an exemplary mother, nee Korsakova, she meant everything in her home, and everyone fulfilled her desires and whims. Konovnitsyna sang well, played music and drew. In 1823, she married a Decembrist, a member of the Northern Society, Mikhail Mikhailovich Naryshkin. In 1827 she followed her husband to Siberia, lived in Chita, from 1830 in the Petrovsky factory. From 1833 - after he entered the settlement - she lived in Kurgan, helped local residents a lot with money and medicines

She died in Moscow, where she spent the last years of her life.

Unknown artist, early 19th century

Portrait of an elderly merchant

The woman depicted is dressed in a national festive dress, which, following a long tradition, was worn by women from the merchant class at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The painter with virtuoso brilliance conveyed the ornamental sophistication of the headdress formed by the lacy interweaving of pearl threads, the multi-tiered earrings, characteristically “deployed” towards the viewer, the fabulous variegation of the woven pattern along the wide edge of the shawl. The stern, intelligent and imperious face of the merchant, her expressive hands with thin fingers do not lose their figurative power in the environment of everything “dolichny”. The whole figure as a whole effectively stands out against an even monophonic background.

Unknown artist of the first half of the 19th century

Portrait of Matvey Ivanovich Platov on a horse

M.I. Platov (I751-I8I8) - cavalry general, ataman of the Don Cossacks. He fought in the troops of Suvorov, participated in the assault on Ochakov and Izmail, where he showed exceptional courage. During the Patriotic War of 1812, he commanded a Cossack detachment of twenty thousand sabers, became famous in battles, was awarded numerous orders and the title of count. Platov accompanied Alexander 1 on a trip to England, where he was awarded exceptional honors. London presented him with a precious saber. Oxford University - Honorary Doctor of Science degree. Newborns were named in his honor, the ladies begged locks of hair from Platov to wear them in medallions “for good luck”.

Portrait of a militia officer in 1812

An article by V.M. was devoted to the portrait of a young officer. Glinka. where he wrote: Before us is a teenager dressed in a black Cossack-style uniform with chief officer gold epaulettes. He is in full combat readiness - with a casserole over his shoulder, equipped with a ramrod and two hairpins - "treaters" on chains (served to clean the pistol mechanism), his left hand rests on a saber with an officer's lanyard ... His form is closest to the uniform of the cavalry regiment of the Tula militia , formed in 1812". In the circle of museum workers, the portrait for many years bore the symbol "portrait of Petya Rostov", the hero of the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", who died in battle as a fifteen-year-old boy. The age of junior officers during the Napoleonic wars of 1805-1814 was often very young. A.N. Raevsky and N.N. Raevsky, P.Ya. Chaadaev, A.S. Griboedov, many of the future Decembrists began military service at the age of 15-16.

Unknown artist of the first quarter of the 19th century

Portrait of the Benois family

Around 1816

In the center sits the head of the family, Leonty (Louis Jules) Benois -

pastry chef of the Duke of Montmorency, who moved to Russia and became the court head waiter. Nearby is his wife Ekaterina Andreevna. Their children (by seniority) are Jeannette, Mikhail (in cadet uniform), Leonty, Alexandrina, Elizaveta, Elena, Nikolai and Francois. A.N. Benois recalled: The whole family of grandfather is depicted in its entirety in a picture painted by some "friend of the house" by last name, if I'm not mistaken, Olivier. This is a completely amateur work, over which in the old days it was customary to make fun of us ... since the amateur character of this picture in subsequent years (when the cult of all primitivism in art began, and strict academic precepts began to be gradually forgotten) aroused the delight of my guests. Some of them did not pay attention to anything else on the walls, except for this portrait ... "

Olivier (?) painter of the first half of the 19th century

Winter landscape

(Russian Winter). 1827

N.S. was born Krylov in a poor family. As a young man with an artel of icon painters, he painted village churches. There he was seen by A.G. Venetsianov and took him as a student. In 1825 Krylov moved to St. Petersburg, lived and studied with Venetsianov, while attending classes at the Academy of Arts. Died young. The history of the creation of the painting is known. In 1827, the young artist had the intention of painting a winter view from nature. According to Krylov's choice of a place on the banks of the Tosna River, near St. Petersburg, one of the wealthy merchant-patrons built him a warm workshop there and gave him a table and maintenance for the entire time of work. The painting was completed within a month. She appeared at an exhibition at the Academy of Arts, and contemporaries noted " charmingly grasped winter lighting, the nebula of the distance, and all the differences of the cold that is well remembered".

Nikifor Stepanovich Krylov. 1802-1831

Portrait of Ekaterina Ivanovna Novosiltseva with children. 1830(?)

E.I. Novosiltseva (? -1864) - born Countess Apraksina,

wife of Nikolai Petrovich Novosiltsev. Her husband's family was not ancient, its founder, Pyotr Novosiltsev, from the Oryol philistines, began his service as a clerk, rose to the post of St. Petersburg vice-governor and received hereditary nobility. Let us refer once more to Vigel: It was impossible not to fall in love with Mr. Novosiltsev for his rare mind and extraordinary talents: they opened the way for the crooked clerk to the degree of a statesman and gave his family a certain right to nobility.". His son, Nikolai, became a senator and deputy minister of internal affairs and was able to marry Countess Apraksina. They had children: Ardalion, later colonel (? -1878), Vasily, Peter (?); Ivan (?), Maria, maid of honor (?—1865) and Ekaterina, who since 1838 became the wife of Marshal Emmanuil Dmitrievich Naryshkin.

Unknown artist of the first third of the 19th century

duck hunting

Landscapes with hunters were common in the painting of the 1830s-1850s, making it possible to combine landscape and genre motifs. Some details bring the picture closer to the landscapes of I.S. Shchedrovsky, but its author, not being a professional, is quite original in his approach to nature. With captivating naivety, the same silhouettes of shooters are repeated twice, ducks flying over the lake and dogs rushing towards them are painted, and the trophies lying on the ground near each hunter are shown with special care.

Unknown artist, second quarter of the 19th century

Ostankino. General view of the estate

Ostankino is the famous Sheremetev estate near Moscow. The palace is depicted from the side of the pond, to the left of it is the Trinity Church of the late 17th century, built by the architect P. Potekhin. The palace was built in the 1790s from wood in the forms of Russian stone classical architecture. Its builders were serf architects P. Argunov, A. Mironov, G. Dikushin, P. Bizyaev and numerous serf masters who decorated the interiors of the palace. The main attraction of the estate was its theater. Part of the house was occupied by an auditorium that could turn into a ballroom, many rooms of the palace were used as foyers and even lodges. The Ostankino troupe consisted of serf singers, musicians and dancers. The fabulous luxury with which the performances were staged amazed the audience. Particularly famous was the production of the opera Samnite Marriages, in which more than three hundred people took part.

Nikolai Ivanovich Podklyuchnikov 1813-1877

Still life

The painting is signed "Wolves", but it is not clear to which of the many artists who bore this name in the 19th century the still life should be attributed. According to the shape of the glass with an “arched” edge, it can be dated no earlier than the middle of the 19th century, most likely the picture was painted a little later.

Volkov. Artist of the middle - second half of the 19th century

Portrait of Lydia Nikolaevna Milyukova. Second half of the 1840s

L.N. Milyukova (1832–?), the eldest daughter of the landowner N.P. Milyukova, lived and was brought up in Ostrovki - the estate where Grigory Soroka lived and worked as a serf. Artist A.G. Venetsianov, a neighbor and friend of Milyukov, often mentions her and her younger sister in his letters, sending greetings and expressing a desire to admire the curls of Elizabeth Nikolaevna and the braids of Lydia. "In 1853, Lydia Milyukova married Lieutenant SV. Safonov. In her second marriage was to N. G. Leventhal, had a daughter, Natalya, married to Krasenskaya, to whom Ostrovki passed.In the portrait by Soroka, she poses, innocently looking at the viewer.

Grigory Vasilievich Soroka. 1823-1864

Office in Ostrovki, the estate of N.P. Milyukov

Depicted is the office of Nikolai Petrovich Milyukov in his estate Ostrovki, Vyshnevolotsky district, Tver province. The study is furnished in accordance with the taste of its owner - a fairly educated and comfort-loving person. Long sofas upholstered with damask - the work of serf craftsmen - create an atmosphere of comfort. The interior is decorated with objects fashionable during the late Romantic years - a Catholic crucifix, a statuette of Napoleon, a human skull and a "Gothic" ink set. On the clerical accounts, the number -1844 - the year the painting was executed, was postponed. Sitting on the sofa, immersed in reading, the boy is the nine-year-old son of the landowner Konon Milyukov. He owned an album with portrait sketches of Milyukov peasants, made by Soroka in 1842. On the wall of the office hangs Soroka's painting "Outbuilding in Ostrovki", now located in the Russian Museum.

Grigory Soroka. 1823-1864

self-portrait

1840s - early 1850s

G.V. Magpie is an outstanding artist, a man of tragic fate. He was a serf of the landowner N.P. Milyukov, acted as a painter and gardener in his Ostrovki estate. In the early 1840s, he became a student of A.G. Venetsianov, who had friendly relations with Milyukov. However, all attempts by Venetsianov to achieve the release of Soroka were unsuccessful. The artist remained an unknown village painter. In the early 1860s, he was sentenced to corporal punishment for participating in peasant unrest and committed suicide on the eve of the execution of the sentence.

In Russian art, Self-Portrait "Magpie - one of the most sincere, probably the artist painted it "for himself." The portrait remained in his family, where it was kept for more than a hundred years. In 1976, at the opening of an exhibition dedicated to Soroka's work, the artist's great-grandchildren donated it to the Russian Museum.

Platon Semenovich Tyurin. I8I6-1882

Family picture (On the balcony)

F.M. Slavyansky - a serf of the landowner A.A. Semensky in the village of Vyshkovo, Vyshnevolotsky district, Tver province. Around 1838 he became a student of A.G. Venetsianov, who organized an art school for young men from poor classes in his estate Safonkov. Through the efforts of Venetsianov, he was redeemed from serfdom. He attended classes at the Academy of Arts, in 1845 he received the title of artist, in 1851 - "appointed", in 1852 - academician of portraiture. and children Kronid, Eugene and Lydia.For this picture and for two portraits in 1851, Slavyansky received the title of "appointed".

Fyodor Mikhailovich Slavyansky. 1819 or 1817-1876

At the tea table

The picture was painted in the estate of G.S. Tarnovsky Kachanovka Chernihiv province. The estate is famous for the fact that in 1838 the composer M.I. Glinka, who then wrote the opera Ruslan and Lyudmila. Voloskov depicted a room called .. Flashlight, with gothic motifs fashionable for that time in the decoration.

Among the persons sitting at the table on the left is the owner of the estate, Grigory Stepanovich Tarnovsky, a patron of the arts, the owner of a large art collection; leaning on the back of his chair, stands Vasily Vasilyevich Tarnovsky, a prominent public figure on the peasant question, at the table is his wife Lyudmila Vladimirovna. The girl in a white dress is Yulia Vasilievna Tarnovskaya, the subject of the artist P. A. Fedotov’s woeful passion in the last years of his life.

Alexey Yakovlevich Voloskov. 1822-1882

Trinity Day in Krasnoye Selo near Moscow

The festivities in Krasnoye Selo, which became part of Moscow in the 18th century, are depicted. In the XVII-XVIII centuries there was the royal Krasnoselsky Palace. To the south-west of the village was the Red, or Great, pond, one of the oldest in Moscow. The Church of the Intercession, built in the 18th century, has been preserved. The picture is filled with everyday figures and scenes: here is a cheerful dance in the circle of spectators, and a little boy climbing into a cart, and tipsy men, and a peasant woman leading a harnessed horse by the bridle.

Portrait of a young woman in a white dress with pink ribbons

D.P. Malyarenko - a serf landowner Musina-Pushkina, who received a vacation pay in 1848. Volunteer student of the Academy of Arts. In 1850 he received the title of a non-class artist of portrait and historical painting, in 1855 he was recognized as "appointed" for a portrait from nature of the "negotiant Simonson", in 1857 he received the title of academician for a portrait of Comrade Minister of the Interior Levshin. The portrait was considered to be the work of an unknown artist; Malyarenko's signature was discovered during the restoration of the painting in the Russian Museum in 1969.

Dmitry Petrovich Malyarenko (Molyarenko). 1824-1860

Study in the house of Prince Dolgorukov in Moscow

The decoration of the study is peculiar with draperies and daggers on the walls and a desk covered with a carpet. Probably, in such a decor, the romantic tastes of the owner of the office found expression. The picture conveys the impression of comfort and ease: this is facilitated by the small size of the office, the owner's dressing gown and the figures of the children who are located here. On the wall hangs a portrait of the owner's ancestor, Senator Prince Yakov Dolgorukov (oval), famous for his civic courage and incorruptibility: in the presence of Peter 1, he publicly tore up the emperor's decree, which seemed unfair to him.

Unknown artist of the middle of the 19th century

An office in the estate of Count D.A. Tolstoy Znamenskaya, Voronezh province

1870-188o-e

Count Dmitry Andreyevich Tolstoy (1823-1889) - Senator, Minister of Public Education, Minister of the Interior.

The painting is known as “Count D. A. Tolstoy’s Study.” Meanwhile, this interior is more reminiscent of a ladies’ living room than a minister’s office. trinkets.

Unknown artist of the middle of the 19th century

Briefly about the representatives of realism in world and Russian literature is presented in this article.

Representatives of realism in literature

What is realism?

Realism is a trend in art and literature that realistically and truthfully reflects the features of reality without distortion or exaggeration. It originated in the 30s of the nineteenth century. Main characteristics:

• life-affirming start
• the plot may have a tragic conflict
• description of reality in its dynamics of its development
• description of new psychological, social and relationships
• the main characters make their conclusions and discoveries, spend time in deep introspection

Foreign representatives of realism in the literature of the 19th century - 20th century

The initial stage of the formation of European literary realism is associated with the works of Berenger, Flaubert, Maupassant. In France, he was a prominent representative, in England - Thackeray, Gaskell, in Germany -. Realism developed under conditions of increasing tension between the labor movement and the bourgeoisie, the rise of bourgeois culture, open in biology and natural science. At the beginning of the 20th century, with the advent of new non-realist trends - impressionism, naturalism, decadence, aestheticism, the idea of ​​realism was also changing, acquiring new features.

The authors describe the social phenomena of real life, describe the social motivation of a person's character, reveal the fate of art and the psychology of the individual. Artistic reality is based on philosophical ideas, the author's attitude towards intellectually active perception, and emotions. The dramatic line gradually deepens and intensifies.

Classical representatives of realism— (“Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krul” and “Magic Mountain”), dramaturgy, Robert Kohler (“The Strike”), Scot Fitzgerald (“Tender is the Night”, “The Great Gatsby”), Theodore Dreiser, John Steinbeck, Anna Zegers, William Faulkner , Romain Rolland, .

Representatives of realism in Russian literature of the 19th century

The founder of Russian realism is. In the works "Eugene Onegin", "The Captain's Daughter", "The Bronze Horseman", "Tales of Belkin", "Boris Godunov" he captures and conveys the essence of the most important events in the life of society in all its colorfulness, diversity and inconsistency. In the literature, the analysis of the emotional experiences of the characters has deepened and their inner complex world is shown.

To the representatives of early Russian realism include (“Hero of Our Time”), (“Inspector General”, “Dead Souls”), (“Notes of a Hunter”, “Rudin”, “Fathers and Sons”, “Asya”),

The emergence of realism

In the 30s of the XIX century. realism is gaining significant popularity in literature and art. The development of realism is primarily associated with the names of Stendhal and Balzac in France, Pushkin and Gogol in Russia, Heine and Buchner in Germany. Realism develops initially in the depths of romanticism and bears the stamp of the latter; not only Pushkin and Heine, but also Balzac experienced a strong passion for romantic literature in their youth. However, unlike romantic art, realism renounces the idealization of reality and the predominance of the fantastic element associated with it, as well as an increased interest in the subjective side of man. Realism is dominated by a tendency to depict a broad social background in which the life of the characters takes place (Balzac's Human Comedy, Pushkin's Eugene Onegin, Gogol's Dead Souls, etc.). In their depth of understanding of social life, realist artists sometimes surpass the philosophers and sociologists of their time.

Stages of development of 19th century realism

The formation of critical realism takes place in European countries and in Russia almost at the same time - in the 20-40s of the XIX century. In the literatures of the world, it becomes the leading direction.

True, this simultaneously means that the literary process of this period is irreducible only in a realistic system. And in European literatures, and - in particular - in the literature of the United States, the activity of romantic writers continues in full measure. Thus, the development of the literary process goes largely through the interaction of coexisting aesthetic systems, and the characterization of both national literatures and the work of individual writers requires that this circumstance be taken into account.

Speaking about the fact that since the 1930s and 1940s realist writers have occupied a leading place in literature, it is impossible not to note that realism itself is not a frozen system, but a phenomenon in constant development. Already within the 19th century, it becomes necessary to talk about “different realisms”, that Mérimée, Balzac and Flaubert equally answered the main historical questions that the era suggested to them, and at the same time their works are distinguished by their different content and originality. forms.

In the 1830s - 1840s, the most remarkable features of realism as a literary movement that gives a multifaceted picture of reality, striving for an analytical study of reality, appear in the work of European writers (primarily Balzac).

The literature of the 1830s and 1840s was fed largely by claims about the attractiveness of the age itself. Love for the 19th century was shared, for example, by Stendhal and Balzac, who never ceased to be amazed at its dynamism, diversity and inexhaustible energy. Hence the heroes of the first stage of realism - active, with an inventive mind, not afraid of a collision with adverse circumstances. These heroes were largely associated with the heroic era of Napoleon, although they perceived his duplicity and developed a strategy for their personal and social behavior. Scott and his historicism inspires the heroes of Stendhal to find their place in life and history through mistakes and delusions. Shakespeare forces Balzac to speak about the novel "Father Goriot" in the words of the great Englishman "Everything is true" and to see in the fate of the modern bourgeois echoes of the harsh fate of King Lear.

Realists of the second half of the 19th century will reproach their predecessors for "residual romanticism." It is difficult to disagree with such a reproach. Indeed, the romantic tradition is very tangibly represented in the creative systems of Balzac, Stendhal, Mérimée. It is no coincidence that Sainte-Beuve called Stendhal "the last hussar of romanticism." Traits of romanticism are revealed

- in the cult of the exotic (Merime's short stories such as "Matteo Falcone", "Carmen", "Tamango", etc.);

- in the writers' predilection for portraying bright personalities and passions of exceptional strength (Stendhal's novel "Red and Black" or the short story "Vanina Vanini");

- in the predilection for adventurous plots and the use of elements of fantasy (Balzac's novel Shagreen Skin or Mérimée's short story Venus Ilskaya);

- in an effort to clearly divide the heroes into negative and positive - the bearers of the author's ideals (Dickens' novels).

Thus, between the realism of the first period and romanticism there is a complex “family” connection, which manifests itself, in particular, in the inheritance of techniques characteristic of romantic art and even individual themes and motives (the theme of lost illusions, the motive of disappointment, etc.).

In domestic historical and literary science, “the revolutionary events of 1848 and the important changes that followed them in the socio-political and cultural life of bourgeois society” are considered to be what divides “the realism of foreign countries of the 19th century into two stages - the realism of the first and second half of the 19th century "("History of foreign literature of the XIX century / Under the editorship of Elizarova M.E. - M., 1964). In 1848, popular uprisings turned into a series of revolutions that swept across Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Austria, etc.). These revolutions, as well as the unrest in Belgium and England, followed the "French model", as democratic protests against the class-privileged and not meeting the needs of the time of government, as well as under the slogans of social and democratic reforms. On the whole, 1848 marked one huge upheaval in Europe. True, as a result of it, moderate liberals or conservatives came to power everywhere, in some places even a more brutal authoritarian government was established.

This caused a general disappointment in the results of the revolutions, and, as a result, pessimistic moods. Many representatives of the intelligentsia became disillusioned with the mass movements, the active actions of the people on a class basis, and transferred their main efforts to the private world of the individual and personal relationships. Thus, the general interest was directed to an individual, important in itself, and only secondarily - to its relationship with other personalities and the surrounding world.

The second half of the 19th century is traditionally considered the "triumph of realism". By this time, realism loudly declares itself in the literature not only in France and England, but also in a number of other countries - Germany (the late Heine, Raabe, Storm, Fontane), Russia ("natural school", Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Tolstoy , Dostoevsky), etc.

At the same time, a new stage in the development of realism begins in the 50s, which involves a new approach to the image of both the hero and the society surrounding him. The social, political and moral atmosphere of the second half of the 19th century "turned" the writers towards the analysis of a man who can hardly be called a hero, but in whose fate and character the main signs of the era are refracted, expressed not in a major deed, significant deed or passion, compressed and intensely conveying global shifts of time, not in large-scale (both in social and psychological) confrontation and conflict, not in typicality brought to the limit, often bordering on exclusivity, but in everyday, everyday everyday life. The writers who began to work at this time, like those who entered literature earlier, but created during the indicated period, for example, Dickens or Thackeray, certainly focused on a different concept of personality. In Thackeray's novel Newcombs, the specificity of "human science" in the realism of this period is emphasized - the need for understanding and analytical reproduction of multidirectional subtle spiritual movements and indirect, not always manifested social ties: how often, when analyzing my motives, I took one for the other ... ". This phrase of Thackeray conveys, perhaps, the main feature of the realism of the era: everything focuses on the image of a person and character, and not circumstances. Although the latter, as they should in realistic literature, "do not disappear," their interaction with character acquires a different quality, connected with the fact that circumstances cease to be independent, they become more and more characterologised; their sociological function is now more implicit than it was with the same Balzac or Stendhal.

Due to the changed concept of personality and the “human-centrism” of the entire artistic system (and the “man-center” was by no means necessarily a positive hero who conquered social circumstances or perished - morally or physically - in the fight against them), one might get the impression that the writers of the second half centuries abandoned the basic principle of realistic literature: dialectical understanding and depiction of the relationship of character and circumstances and following the principle of socio-psychological determinism. Moreover, some of the brightest realists of that time - Flaubert, J. Eliot, Trollot - in the case when they talk about the world around the hero, the term "environment" appears, often perceived more statically than the concept of "circumstances".

An analysis of the works of Flaubert and J. Eliot convinces that artists need this "stakeout" of the environment, first of all, so that the description of the environment surrounding the hero is more plastic. The environment often narratively exists in the inner world of the hero and through him, acquiring a different character of generalization: not placard-sociologised, but psychologized. This creates an atmosphere of greater objectivity of the reproduced. In any case, from the point of view of the reader, who trusts such an objectified narrative about the era more, since he perceives the hero of the work as a close person, the same as himself.

The writers of this period do not in the least forget about another aesthetic setting of critical realism - the objectivity of what is reproduced. As you know, Balzac was so preoccupied with this objectivity that he was looking for ways to bring literary knowledge (understanding) and scientific closer together. This idea appealed to many realists of the second half of the century. For example, Eliot and Flaubert thought a lot about the use of scientific, and therefore, as it seemed to them, objective methods of analysis by literature. Flaubert thought about this especially a lot, who understood objectivity as a synonym for impartiality and impartiality. However, this was the trend of the entire realism of the era. Moreover, the work of the realists of the second half of the 19th century fell on a period of take-off in the development of the natural sciences and the flourishing of experimentation.

This was an important period in the history of science. Biology developed rapidly (Ch. Darwin's book "The Origin of Species" was published in 1859), physiology, psychology was developing as a science. O. Comte's philosophy of positivism, which later played an important role in the development of naturalistic aesthetics and artistic practice, became widespread. It was during these years that attempts were made to create a system of psychological understanding of man.

However, even at this stage in the development of literature, the character of the hero is not conceived by the writer outside of social analysis, although the latter acquires a slightly different aesthetic essence, different from that which was characteristic of Balzac and Stendhal. Of course, that in the novels of Flaubert. Eliot, Fontana and some others are striking "a new level of depiction of the inner world of a person, a qualitatively new mastery of psychological analysis, which consists in the deepest disclosure of the complexity and unforeseenness of human reactions to reality, the motives and causes of human activity" (History of world literature. V.7. - M., 1990).

It is obvious that the writers of this era dramatically changed the direction of creativity and led literature (and the novel in particular) towards in-depth psychologism, and in the formula “social-psychological determinism”, the social and psychological, as it were, changed places. It is in this direction that the main achievements of literature are concentrated: writers began not only to draw the complex inner world of a literary hero, but to reproduce a well-functioning, well-thought-out psychological “character model”, in it and in its functioning artistically combining the psychological-analytical and socio-analytical. The writers updated and revived the principle of psychological detail, introduced a dialogue with deep psychological overtones, found narrative techniques for conveying "transitional", contradictory spiritual movements that were previously inaccessible to literature.

This does not mean at all that realistic literature abandoned social analysis: the social basis of reproducible reality and reconstructed character did not disappear, although it did not dominate character and circumstances. It was thanks to the writers of the second half of the 19th century that literature began to find indirect ways of social analysis, in this sense continuing the series of discoveries made by writers of previous periods.

Flaubert, Eliot, the Goncourt brothers, and others "taught" literature to go to the social and what is characteristic of the era, characterizes its social, political, historical and moral principles, through the ordinary and everyday existence of an ordinary person. Social typification among writers of the second half of the century - typification of "mass character, repetition" (History of World Literature. V.7. - M., 1990). It is not as bright and obvious as that of the representatives of the classical critical realism of the 1830s-1840s and most often manifests itself through the “parabola of psychologism”, when immersion in the inner world of the character allows you to ultimately immerse yourself in the era, in historical time, as he sees it. writer. Emotions, feelings, moods are not of an overtime, but of a concrete historical nature, although it is primarily ordinary everyday existence that is subjected to analytical reproduction, and not the world of titanic passions. At the same time, writers often even absolutized the dullness and wretchedness of life, the triviality of the material, the unheroism of time and character. That is why, on the one hand, it was an anti-romantic period, on the other, a period of craving for the romantic. Such a paradox, for example, is characteristic of Flaubert, the Goncourts, and Baudelaire.

There is another important point related to the absolutization of the imperfection of human nature and slavish subordination to circumstances: often writers perceived the negative phenomena of the era as a given, as something irresistible, and even tragically fatal. Therefore, in the work of realists of the second half of the 19th century, a positive beginning is so difficult to express: they are of little interest in the problem of the future, they are “here and now”, in their own time, comprehending it with the utmost impartiality, as an era, if worthy of analysis, then critical.

As noted earlier, critical realism is a worldwide literary trend. A notable feature of realism is also the fact that it has a long history. At the end of the 19th and in the 20th centuries, the works of such writers as R. Rollan, D. Golussource, B. Shaw, E. M. Remarque, T. Dreiser and others gained worldwide fame. Realism continues to exist up to the present time, remaining the most important form of world democratic culture.

direction

Realism - (from late Latin reālis "real") - a direction in art that aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features.

Realism in a narrow sense is understood as positivism as a trend in the fine arts of the 2nd half of the 19th century. The term "realism" was first used by the French literary critic J. Chanfleury in the 50s of the 19th century to refer to art that opposes romanticism and academism. The reign of realism followed the era of Romanticism and preceded Symbolism.

The appearance of realism in painting is usually associated with the work of the French artist Gustave Courbet (1819-1877), who opened his personal exhibition “Pavilion of Realism” in 1855 in Paris, although even before him artists of the Barbizon school worked in a realistic manner (Theodore Rousseau, Jean-Francois Millais, Jules Breton). In the 1870s, realism split into two main streams, Naturalism and Impressionism.

In any literary work, two main elements are distinguished: objective - the reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist, and subjective - something invested in the work by the artist on his own. From this, two literary trends arise. This is realism, which sets the task of the most objective reproduction of reality, and idealism, which sees the purpose in supplementing reality and creating new forms. In Russian journalism and literary criticism, this meaning of the term "realism" was first defined by Dmitry Pisarev. Up to this point, the term "realism" was used by Herzen only in a philosophical sense, as a synonym for the concept of "materialism" (1846).

Realism in the theatre, like realistic drama, is an intermediate genre bordering on both tragedy and comedy, in which the conflict is usually not brought to a tragic end. Its essential feature is acute relevance, interest in modernity and topicality. The striving for the accuracy of the image is so defining for realists that even when referring to the past, they remain as scrupulous about the facts as they are when depicting the types and events of contemporary life.

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