Sculptures of Roman gods. Ancient Rome - the art of sculpture
Ruins of Ancient Rome.
In the first millennium BC. e. a state arose around the city of Rome, which began to expand its possessions at the expense of neighboring peoples. This world power lasted for about a thousand years and lived off the exploitation of slave labor and conquered countries. Rome owned all the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, both in Europe and in Asia and Africa. Therefore, art, especially architecture, was called upon to show the whole world the power of state power. Endless wars, the thirst for conquest, in which Rome matured and grew, demanded the exertion of all forces, therefore the basis of Roman society was firm discipline in the army, firm laws in the state and firm power in the family. Above all, the Romans put the ability to rule over the world. Virgil stated:
You rule the peoples powerfully, Roman, remember!
Behold, your arts will be: the conditions to impose the world,
Spare the downtrodden and overthrow the proud!
("Aeneid")
The Romans subjugated the entire Mediterranean, including Hellas, but Greece itself captivated Rome, because it had a strong influence on the entire culture of Rome - in religion and philosophy, in literature and art.
Etruscan she-wolf who, according to legend, brought up Romulus and Remus (Etruscan casting)
The legend says that the usurper Amulius seized the throne of his brother, the king of Alba Longa, Numitor, the grandfather of the twins Romulus and Remus, and ordered the babies to be thrown into the Tiber. The father of the twins, Mars, saved his sons, and they were fed by a she-wolf sent by God. The boys were then brought up by the shepherd Faustul and his wife, Akka Larentia. When the brothers grew up, they killed Amulius, returned power to their grandfather, and founded the city in the place where the she-wolf found them. During the construction of the walls of the new city, a quarrel broke out between the brothers, and Romulus killed Remus. The city was built and named after Romulus by Rome, and Romulus himself became its first king. Part of the culture was borrowed by the Romans from other peoples. Much - among the Etruscans, but most of all - among the Greeks. The Romans borrowed from the Etruscans gladiator fights, stage games, the nature of sacrifices, faith in good and evil demons. The Romans, like the Etruscans, preferred sculpture from the arts, and not sculpture, but modeling - from clay, wax, bronze.
Building decorated with semi-columns
However, the main predecessor of Roman art was still Greece. Even the Romans took many of their beliefs and myths from the Greeks. The Romans learned to build arches, simple vaults and domes from stone.
They learned to build more diverse structures, for example, the round Pantheon building - the temple of all the gods, it had a diameter of more than 40 meters. The Pantheon was covered with a giant dome. which has been a model for builders and architects for centuries.
From the Greeks, the Romans adopted the ability to build columns. In honor of the generals, the Romans built triumphal arches.
Buildings intended for the entertainment of the Roman nobility were distinguished by special magnificence. The largest Roman circus - Coliseum, accommodated 50,000 spectators. It was an amphitheater - in a similar way and now they build circuses and stadiums.
Roman baths, which were called baths, were also original places of recreation and entertainment. There were washrooms, changing rooms, swimming pools, exercise rooms, sports fields, and even libraries. The spacious halls were covered with vaults and domes, the walls were lined with marble.
On the edge of the squares, large judicial and commercial buildings were often built - b a z and l and k. In Rome, both the palaces of the rulers and multi-storey houses for the poor were created. Romans with average incomes lived in separate houses, which surrounded an open courtyard - and there was a pool for rainwater in the middle of the atrium. Behind the house was a courtyard with columns, a garden, a fountain.
Triumphal Arch of Emperor Titus
In 81, in honor of Emperor Titus and his victory over Judea, a single-span, 5.33 m wide, Triumphal Arch was erected on the sacred road leading to the Capitoline Hill. The marble arch was 20 meters high. An inscription dedicated to Titus was carved above the span, and the arch was also decorated with reliefs depicting the victorious procession of the Romans, made in complex turns and movements.
Pantheon - inside view
The Pantheon was erected under the emperor Hadrian (117-138). The temple is built of stone, brick and concrete. The round building has a height of 42.7 m and is covered by a dome 43.2 m in diameter. From the outside, the building is quite modest, it is decorated only with a portico with Corinthian columns made of red granite. But the interior was a model of technical excellence and luxury. The floor of the temple is paved with marble slabs. The wall is divided in height into two tiers. In the lower tier there were deep niches, in which there were statues of the gods. The upper part is dissected by pilasters (rectangular ledges) made of colored marble. The lighting of the temple is solved by a hole in the dome, a "window" with a diameter of 9 m, the so-called eye of the Pantheon. The floor under this "eye" has a barely visible slope for water to drain.
Pantheon outside
The name of the building speaks for itself - "pantheon", a temple to the pantheon of the ancient Roman gods. It should be noted that the building that still stands today is not the first temple on this site. Under Emperor Augustus, the first temple was built, but then it burned down in a fire in ancient Rome. In memory of the first builder, an associate of the Emperor Augustus, Mark Agrippa, the inscription “M. Agrippa l f cos tertium fecit.
Colosseum outside
Under the emperors Vespasian and Titus, in 75-82. a huge amphitheater for gladiator fights was built - the Colosseum (from the Latin "colosseum" - colossal). In plan, it was an ellipse, 188 m long, 156 m wide, 50 m high. The wall is divided into three tiers. At the top they pulled an awning from rain and sun. Below were statues. The arena could accommodate up to 3,000 pairs of gladiators. The arena could be flooded with water and then naval battles were played out.
Colosseum inside
Aqueduct
The Roman Aqueduct is an aqueduct, but at the same time functional and elaborate, perfect art. Above there was a channel, separated by a cornice, below - arches, even lower - visually isolated from the arches of the support. Long, uninterrupted horizontal lines hid the height and emphasized the infinity of the aqueduct that stretched into the distance.
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome
Sculpture was first imported from Greece. Then they began to copy it from Greek. However, there was also an independent, Roman sculpture. These were sculptural portraits and relief images, monuments to emperors and generals.
Portrait of a Roman
Portrait of a young man
relief sculpture
Statue of Emperor Augustus from Prima Port.
The period of the reign of Octavian Augustus is called by ancient historians the "golden age" of the Roman state. The established "Roman world" stimulated a high rise in art and culture. The emperor is depicted in a calm, majestic pose, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; he seemed to appear in the garb of a general before his legions. Augustus is depicted bare-headed and bare-legged, a tradition in Greek art depicting gods and heroes naked or semi-naked. The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but is nonetheless somewhat idealized. The whole figure embodies the idea of greatness and power of the empire.
Trajan's Column in Rome
A column built by the architect Apollodorus in honor of Emperor Trajan has survived to this day. The height of the column is more than 30 meters, it is composed of 17 drums of Carrara marble. A spiral staircase runs inside the column. The column ended with a bronze figure of Trajan, which in the 16th century was replaced by a statue of the Apostle Peter. The column is lined with slabs of Parian marble, along which a bas-relief stretches in a spiral of 200 meters, depicting in historical sequence the main events of Trajan's campaign against the Dacians (101-107): the construction of a bridge across the Danube, the crossing, the battle with the Dacians, their camp, the siege fortresses, the suicide of the leader of the Dacians, the procession of prisoners, the triumphant return of Trajan to Rome.
Fragment of Trajan's Column
At the end of the 4th and in the 5th century, the "great migration of peoples" took place - a large tribe of Goths settled on the territory of the Roman Empire, they were ardently supported by the rebellious slaves and the peoples enslaved by Rome. Hordes of nomadic Huns sweep through the empire like a destructive whirlwind. The Visigoths, then the Vandals capture and sack Rome itself. The Roman Empire is falling apart. And in 476 the final blow was dealt to Rome and power passed to the barbarian squads. The Roman Empire fell, but its culture left an indelible mark on human history.
The greatest cultural and archaeological heritage of the Eternal City, woven from different historical eras, makes Rome unique. In the capital of Italy, an incredible amount of works of art has been collected - real masterpieces known throughout the world, behind which are the names of great talents. In this article we want to talk about the most famous sculptures in Rome, which are definitely worth seeing.
For many centuries, Rome has been the center of world art. Since ancient times, masterpieces of creations of human hands have been brought to the capital of the Empire. During the Renaissance, pontiffs, cardinals and representatives of the nobility built palaces and churches, decorating them with beautiful frescoes, paintings and sculptures. Many newly erected buildings of this period gave new life to the architectural and decorative elements of antiquity - ancient columns, capitals, marble friezes and sculptures were taken from the buildings of the times of the Empire, restored and installed in a new place. In addition, the Renaissance gave Rome an endless number of new brilliant creations, including the work of Michelangelo, Canova, Bernini and many other talented sculptors. You can read about the most outstanding works of art and their creators on the page
Sleeping hermaphrodite
Capitoline she-wolf
The most significant for the Romans is the "Capitoline she-wolf", stored today in the Capitoline Museums. According to the legend that tells about the founding of Rome, she was raised by a she-wolf at the Capitoline Hill.
Capitoline she-wolf
It is generally accepted that the bronze statue was made by the Etruscans in the 5th century BC. However, modern researchers are inclined to assume that the She-Wolf was made much later - during the Middle Ages, and the figures of the twins were added in the second half of the 15th century. Their authorship has not been established for certain. Most likely they were created by Antonio del Pollaiolo.
Laocoön and sons
The famous sculptural group depicting the scene of the struggle of Laocoön and his sons with snakes, supposedly adorned the private villa of Emperor Titus. Dated circa Ic. BC, it is a marble Roman copy made by unknown craftsmen from an ancient Greek bronze original, which, unfortunately, has not survived. One of the most famous sculptures in Rome is located in the Pio Clementine Museum, which is part of.
The statue was discovered at the beginning of the 16th century in the territory of the vineyards located on the hill of Oppio, which belonged to a certain Felice de Fredis. In the Basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, on the tombstone of Felice, you can see an inscription telling about this fact. Michelangelo Buonarroti and Giuliano da Sangallo were invited to the excavations, who were to evaluate the find.
Accidentally found sculpture produced a strong resonance at that time, influencing the development of art throughout Italy during the Renaissance. The incredible dynamism and plasticity of the forms of the antique work inspired many masters of that time, such as Michelangelo, Titian, El Greco, Andrea del Sarto, and others.
Sculptures by Michelangelo
The famous sculptor, architect, artist and poet was recognized as the greatest master during his lifetime. Only a few sculptures by Michelangelo Buonarroti can be seen in Rome, as most of his works are in Florence and Bologna. In the Vatican, in, it is stored. Michelangelo sculpted a masterpiece when he was only 24 years old. In addition, Pieta is the only hand-signed work of the master.
Another famous work by Michelangelo Buonarroti can be admired in the Cathedral of San Pietro in Vincoli. There is a monumental tombstone of Pope Julius II, the creation of which stretched over four decades. Despite the fact that the original project of the funeral monument was never fully implemented, its main figure, the one decorating the monument, makes a strong impression and looks so realistic that it fully conveys the character and mood of the biblical character.
Sculptures by Lorenzo Bernini
Bernini. Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Navona. Fragment
Sensual marble figures with graceful soft forms and special sophistication amaze with their virtuoso performance: the cold stone looks warm and soft, and the characters of the sculptural compositions are alive.
Among the most famous works of Bernini, which are definitely worth seeing with your own eyes, the first place on our list is occupied by the “Abduction of Proserpina” and “Apollo and Daphne”, which make up the collection of the Borghese Gallery. .
Apollo and Daphne
Another masterpiece by Bernini, The Ecstasy of Blessed Ludovica Albertoni, deserves special attention. The famous sculpture, created as a funeral monument at the request of Cardinal Paluzzi, depicts the scene of religious ecstasy by Ludovica Albertoni, who lived at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. The sculptural group adorns the Altieri Chapel, located in the Basilica of San Francesco a Ripa in the Trastevere area.
were created in such impressive numbers that the legend is relished, as if earlier the number of statues exceeded the number of inhabitants. It is interesting to understand how close these conversations are to reality. Since ancient times, the talents of the masters of Rome in the field of architecture and engineering have been known. To this day, evidence of the genius of the creators has been preserved in the form of monumental structures, stunning villas, domuses and other buildings. However, ancient Rome remained in a much smaller size than everyone who is not indifferent to art would like.
Unfortunately, a large part of the bronze and marble sculptures at the dawn of our era was destroyed due to the disagreement of Christian preachers with the works of the masters. In battles with barbarian tribes, the inhabitants of Rome did not shy away from dropping sculptures from a great height in order to cool the attacking impulse of the invaders. After destruction, marble products were used in a different way: with the help of annealing in Rome, fragments of once stunning sculptures were turned into limestone, which was used in construction.
Due to the bloody events at the junction of civilizations, the sculptures of Ancient Rome, which constitute an important part of the cultural heritage, have been preserved in a fairly small amount. Now you can get acquainted with the best examples when visiting the Vatican and Capitol Museums, the Baths of Diocletian, the Palazzo and Villa Giulia. The collection of sculptures has been assembled thanks to the efforts of the cardinals, aristocrats of Rome and the first persons of the clergy. It was not easy to get the best jobs, which were passed down from older family members to younger ones. The sculptures of Ancient Rome are kept in museums that deserve a separate discussion.
How it all started
Creating sculptures of Ancient Rome, the masters took many decisions from the classical Greek school. Since the distance from the Eternal City to some areas of Greece was not so great, the Romans regularly brought home Hellenistic statues of great cultural value. After a detailed analysis of the technology used and the characteristic features of the creations, in Rome they began to create copies.
The great popularity of Hellenistic art and sculptures from a neighboring state is primarily due to the advance towards Greek lands with aggressive goals. Experienced craftsmen often came to Rome to decorate the private estates of the nobility with new works. The gradual cultural unification, which was manifested not only in copying the technique of creating sculptures, had a huge impact on the development of art in Rome.
The sculptures of Ancient Rome were also used for political purposes, acting as one of the tools for planting the ideas and principles of the state system on the people. The high status of the fine arts was used by the first persons of the state in order to bring the "curse of memory" to life. In Rome, it was previously considered the norm to destroy references in documents, sculptures and wall inscriptions that were dedicated to tyrants or politicians objectionable to the vast majority. One of the most striking examples of the "curse of memory" in Rome can be called actions related to attempts to erase the emperor from history.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome: what to look for in the Vatican Museums
The Vatican Museums are a treasure trove of sculptures that were created in ancient Rome and have successfully survived to this day. The museum complex was founded by Pope Julius II at the very beginning of the 16th century. More than two centuries later, everyone got the right to freely walk around the sights, looking at sculptures and other works created in Rome.
Be sure to purchase your museum tickets in advance and avoid waiting in lines. It can be done link on the official site.
At the moment, there are sculpture museums here, allowing you to find out in detail how art developed in the Eternal City:
- Pio Cristiano keeps within its walls the sculptures of Ancient Rome, created during the period of early Christianity.
- The Gregorian Museum houses sculptures preserved in Rome from the time of the ancient Etruscan civilization.
- The Profano Museum will acquaint guests with the classical works of masters from Ancient Greece.
- Chiaramonti includes a number of galleries representing approximately 1,000 sculptures and everything related to this type of art: busts of the great people of Rome, friezes and funerary sarcophagi.
- The Pio-Clementino Museum will appeal to those wishing to find out what the classical sculptures of Ancient Rome looked like.
- The museum dedicated to Egyptian culture is a huge repository of sculptures, ornaments and architectural elements brought to Rome from Egypt.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome on display at the National Museum of the city
When visiting, one can notice impressive collections of works directly related to the development of cultural currents in the Eternal City. In 1889, an archaeological museum appeared on the map of Rome, but in the early 90s of the last century, it was decided to reorganize and place several exhibition sites with ancient sculptures within the museum.
Palazzo Massimo
Stunning sculptures of Ancient Rome are kept on the 1st floor of Palazzo Massimo. Here you can trace the development of art from the time of the reign of the Flavians to the decline of ancient culture. In fact, all available works are copies of Greek sculptures, embodied in marble.
The pride of Palazzo Massimo are bronze sculptures discovered in Rome at the end of the 19th century, which were created by masters from Greece.
Palatine Antiquarium
The museum, founded in the 19th century, is located on the central hill of Rome. The purpose of the creation was to place the found sculptures by archaeologists who worked during the time of Napoleon III near the Palatine. A fairly modest-looking two-story building contains materials that can trace the history of the hill. Of greatest interest are sculptures relating to the period of republicanism, as well as the reigns of Augustus and Julius Claudius.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome: Palazzo Altemps
The palace, built on a special order for the Riario family, will also be of interest to all those who study the sculptures of Ancient Rome. More specifically, you need to pay attention to one of the halls with a section called "History of Collecting". Here are sculptures from the Boncompagni-Ludovisi collections. The Palazzo Altemps houses the Suicide of Galata.
It is a marble sculpture, the appearance of which was copied in Rome from the creation of Greek bronze masters.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome at the Musei Capitolini
The first ever museum in Rome was founded by the pontiff at the end of 1471. The general public gained the right to evaluate the assembled collection in the 18th century. Thus, the Musei Capitolini can be considered the first public museum in the world, the owners of which decided to admit everyone to samples of art. The attraction, which stores the sculptures of Ancient Rome, has acquired many works over the years of its existence.
Sculpture of Hercules Capitolinus
A bronze sculpture created in ancient Rome, which was found during excavations at the Bull Forum. Historians believe that the work appeared in its final form 2 centuries before the beginning of our era. Sculpture was of great importance to the pagans of that time.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome: Capitoline Brutus (Bruto Capitolino)
Bronze creation. According to the historians of Rome, it is one of the oldest in the Eternal City. The fact is that the sculpture was created about three centuries before the beginning of our era. The bust is credited with the status of a masterpiece of ancient Rome. Capitoline Brutus - the image of the founder of the republic and one of the consuls.
Similar features were found when comparing the bust with coins created half a century before our era, when power in Rome belonged to Brutus (the one who killed Julius Caesar). During the excavations, only the head was found, the condition of which was assessed as good, despite centuries of oblivion. To decorate eyeballs, craftsmen from Rome used ivory. It is believed that the sculpture was originally created, but other parts are irretrievably lost.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome: Boy Retrieving a Splinter (Spinario)
An example of the art of antiquity, which the craftsmen of the Renaissance tried to copy repeatedly. At the moment, many major museums in the world have their own version of the same bronze sculpture. The original is still in Rome. The basis for the creation was the legend of a shepherd who fled to Rome from Vitorchiano in order to announce an early attack by the Etruscans. The boy heroically endured the pain caused by a splinter in his leg.
This sculpture was created within the III-I centuries BC from bronze. She is one of the first examples given to Rome by Sixtus IV.
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The marble sculpture, which is now kept in the Musei Capitolini, is another copy of an example of Hellenistic art. The work was found quite by accident on the Aventine Hill back in the 18th century, after which it was immediately sent to one of the most famous museums in Rome.
Sculptures of Ancient Rome can be seen not only when visiting museums: everyone interested in the subject is advised to go to Villa Giulia, where samples related to the Etruscan civilization have been preserved. Noteworthy sculptures of Ancient Rome are presented in the Borghese Gallery and other cultural sites of the capital of Italy.
Without the foundations laid by Greece and Rome, there would be no modern Europe. Both the Greeks and the Romans had their own historical vocation - they complemented each other, and the foundation of modern Europe is their common cause.
The artistic heritage of Rome meant a lot in the cultural foundation of Europe. Moreover, this legacy was almost decisive for European art.
In conquered Greece, the Romans behaved at first like barbarians. In one of his satires, Juvenal shows us a rude Roman warrior of those times, "who did not know how to appreciate the art of the Greeks," who "as usual" broke "cups made by glorious artists" into small pieces to decorate his shield or shell with them.
And when the Romans heard about the value of works of art, the destruction was replaced by robbery - wholesale, apparently, without any selection. From Epirus in Greece, the Romans removed five hundred statues, and having broken the Etruscans before that, two thousand from Vei. It is unlikely that all these were one masterpieces.
It is generally accepted that the fall of Corinth in 146 BC. the Greek period of ancient history ends. This flourishing city on the shores of the Ionian Sea, one of the main centers of Greek culture, was razed to the ground by the soldiers of the Roman consul Mummius. From the burned palaces and temples, consular ships took out countless artistic treasures, so that, as Pliny writes, literally the whole of Rome was filled with statues.
The Romans not only brought in a great number of Greek statues (in addition, they also brought Egyptian obelisks), but copied Greek originals on the largest scale. And for that alone, we should be grateful to them. What, however, was the actual Roman contribution to the art of sculpture? Around the trunk of Trajan's column, erected at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. BC e. on the forum of Trajan, over the very grave of this emperor, a relief winds like a wide ribbon, glorifying his victories over the Dacians, whose kingdom (present-day Romania) was finally conquered by the Romans. The artists who made this relief were undoubtedly not only talented, but also well acquainted with the techniques of the Hellenistic masters. And yet it is a typical Roman work.
Before us is the most detailed and conscientious narration. It is a narrative, not a generalized image. In Greek relief, the story of real events was presented allegorically, usually intertwined with mythology. In the Roman relief, from the time of the republic, one can clearly see the desire to be as precise as possible, more specifically convey the course of events in its logical sequence, along with the characteristic features of the persons involved. In the relief of Trajan's column, we see Roman and barbarian camps, preparations for a campaign, assaults on fortresses, crossings, merciless battles. Everything seems to be really very accurate: the types of Roman soldiers and Dacians, their weapons and clothes, the type of fortifications - so that this relief can serve as a kind of sculptural encyclopedia of the then military life. By its general idea, the whole composition, rather, resembles the already known relief narratives of the abusive exploits of the Assyrian kings, however, with less pictorial power, although with a better knowledge of anatomy and from the Greeks, the ability to place figures more freely in space. The low relief, without plastic identification of the figures, may have been inspired by the paintings that have not survived. The images of Trajan himself are repeated at least ninety times, the faces of the soldiers are extremely expressive.
It is these same concreteness and expressiveness that make up the hallmark of all Roman portrait sculpture, in which, perhaps, the originality of the Roman artistic genius was most evident.
The purely Roman share, included in the treasury of world culture, is perfectly defined (just in connection with the Roman portrait) by the greatest connoisseur of ancient art O.F. Waldhauer: “... Rome exists as an individual; Rome is in those strict forms in which ancient images were revived under her dominion; Rome is in that great organism that spread the seeds of ancient culture, giving them the opportunity to fertilize new, still barbarian peoples, and, finally, Rome is in creating a civilized world on the basis of Hellenic cultural elements and, modifying them, in accordance with new tasks, only Rome and could create ... a great era of portrait sculpture ... ".
The Roman portrait has a complex background. Its connection with the Etruscan portrait is obvious, as well as with the Hellenistic one. The Roman root is also quite clear: the first Roman portraits in marble or bronze were just an exact reproduction of a wax mask taken from the face of the deceased. It is not yet art in the usual sense.
In subsequent times, accuracy was preserved at the heart of the Roman artistic portrait. Precision inspired by creative inspiration and remarkable craftsmanship. The heritage of Greek art here, of course, played a role. But it can be said without exaggeration: the art of a brightly individualized portrait, brought to perfection, completely exposing the inner world of a given person, is, in essence, a Roman achievement. In any case, in terms of the scope of creativity, in terms of the strength and depth of psychological penetration.
In a Roman portrait, the spirit of ancient Rome is revealed to us in all its aspects and contradictions. A Roman portrait is, as it were, the very history of Rome, told in faces, the history of its unprecedented rise and tragic death: “The whole history of the Roman fall is expressed here by eyebrows, foreheads, lips” (Herzen).
Among the Roman emperors there were noble personalities, the largest statesmen, there were also greedy ambitious people, there were monsters, despots,
maddened by unlimited power, and in the consciousness that everything is permitted to them, shedding a sea of blood, were gloomy tyrants who, by the murder of their predecessor, reached the highest rank and therefore destroyed everyone who inspired them with the slightest suspicion. As we have seen, the morals born of the deified autocracy sometimes pushed even the most enlightened to the most cruel deeds.
During the period of the greatest power of the empire, a tightly organized slave-owning system, in which the life of a slave was put in nothing and he was treated like working cattle, left its mark on the morality and life of not only emperors and nobles, but also ordinary citizens. And at the same time, encouraged by the pathos of statehood, the desire to streamline social life in the entire empire in the Roman way increased, with full confidence that there could be no more stable and beneficial system. But this confidence turned out to be untenable.
Continuous wars, internecine strife, provincial uprisings, the flight of slaves, the consciousness of lack of rights with each century more and more undermined the foundation of the "Roman world". The conquered provinces showed their will more and more decisively. And in the end they undermined the unifying power of Rome. The provinces destroyed Rome; Rome itself turned into a provincial city, similar to others, privileged, but no longer dominant, ceasing to be the center of a world empire ... The Roman state turned into a gigantic complex machine exclusively for sucking the juices out of its subjects.
New trends coming from the East, new ideals, the search for a new truth gave birth to new beliefs. The decline of Rome was coming, the decline of the ancient world with its ideology and social structure.
All this is reflected in Roman portrait sculpture.
In the days of the republic, when mores were more severe and simpler, the documentary accuracy of the image, the so-called "verism" (from the word verus - true), was not yet balanced by the Greek ennobling influence. This influence manifested itself in the Augustan age, sometimes even to the detriment of veracity.
The famous full-length statue of Augustus, where he is shown in all the splendor of imperial power and military glory (a statue from Prima Port, Rome, the Vatican), as well as his image in the form of Jupiter himself (the Hermitage), of course, idealized ceremonial portraits equating earthly lord to the celestials. And yet they show the individual features of Augustus, the relative poise and the undoubted significance of his personality.
Numerous portraits of his successor, Tiberius, are also idealized.
Let's look at the sculptural portrait of Tiberius in his younger years (Copenhagen, Glyptothek). Ennobled image. And at the same time, of course, individual. Something unsympathetic, obnoxiously closed peeps through his features. Perhaps, placed in other conditions, this person outwardly would have lived his life quite decently. But eternal fear and unlimited power. And it seems to us that the artist captured in the image of him something that even the insightful Augustus did not recognize, appointing Tiberius as his successor.
But for all its noble restraint, the portrait of Tiberius' successor, Caligula (Copenhagen, Glyptothek), a murderer and torturer, who was eventually stabbed to death by his close associates, is already completely revealing. His gaze is eerie, and you feel that there can be no mercy from this very young ruler (he ended his terrible life at the age of twenty-nine) with tightly compressed lips, who loved to remind that he can do anything: and with anyone. We believe, looking at the portrait of Caligula, all the stories about his countless atrocities. “He forced fathers to be present at the execution of their sons,” writes Suetonius, “he sent a stretcher for one of them when he tried to evade due to ill health; immediately after the spectacle of the execution, he invited another to the table and forced all sorts of courtesies to joke and have fun. And another Roman historian, Dion, adds that when the father of one of the executed "asked if he could at least close his eyes, he ordered the father to be killed." And also from Suetonius: “When the price of cattle, which were fattened by wild animals for spectacles, rose, he ordered them to be thrown to the mercy of criminals; and, going around the prison for this, he did not look who was to blame for what, but directly ordered, standing at the door, to take everyone away ... ". Sinister in its cruelty is the low-browed face of Nero, the most famous of the crowned monsters of Ancient Rome (marble, Rome, National Museum).
The style of the Roman sculptural portrait changed along with the general attitude of the era. Documentary truthfulness, splendor, reaching deification, the sharpest realism, the depth of psychological penetration alternately prevailed in him, and even complemented each other. But while the Roman idea was alive, the pictorial power did not dry out in him.
Emperor Hadrian deserved the glory of a wise ruler; it is known that he was an enlightened connoisseur of art, an ardent admirer of the classical heritage of Hellas. His features carved in marble, his thoughtful gaze, together with a slight touch of sadness, complete our idea of him, just as his portraits complete our idea of Caracalla, truly capturing the quintessence of bestial cruelty, the most unbridled, violent power. But the true “philosopher on the throne”, a thinker full of spiritual nobility, is Marcus Aurelius, who preached stoicism in his writings, renunciation of earthly goods.
Truly unforgettable in their expressiveness images!
But the Roman portrait resurrects before us not only the images of emperors.
Let us stop in the Hermitage in front of a portrait of an unknown Roman, executed probably at the very end of the 1st century. This is an undoubted masterpiece, in which the Roman accuracy of the image is combined with traditional Hellenic craftsmanship, the documentary image - with inner spirituality. We do not know who the author of the portrait is - a Greek who gave his talent to Rome with its worldview and tastes, a Roman or another artist, an imperial subject inspired by Greek models, but firmly rooted in Roman soil - as the authors are unknown (for the most part, probably slaves) and other wonderful sculptures created in the Roman era.
This image depicts an already elderly man who has seen a lot in his lifetime and experienced a lot, in whom you guess some kind of aching suffering, perhaps from deep thoughts. The image is so real, truthful, snatched so tenaciously from the thick of the human and so skillfully revealed in its essence that it seems to us that we met this Roman, are familiar with him, that's almost exactly like this - even if our comparison is unexpected - as we know , for example, the heroes of Tolstoy's novels.
And the same persuasiveness in another well-known masterpiece from the Hermitage, a marble portrait of a young woman, conventionally called the "Syrian" by the type of her face.
This is already the second half of the 2nd century: the depicted woman is a contemporary of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
We know that it was an era of reassessment of values, increased Eastern influences, new romantic moods, ripening mysticism, which foreshadowed the crisis of Roman great-power pride. “The time of human life is a moment,” wrote Marcus Aurelius, “its essence is an eternal flow; feeling vague; the structure of the whole body is perishable; the soul is unstable; fate is mysterious; fame is unreliable.
Melancholy contemplation, characteristic of many portraits of this time, breathes the image of the "Syrian Woman". But her thoughtful daydreaming - we feel it - is deeply individual, and again she herself seems familiar to us for a long time, almost even dear, so the sculptor's vital chisel with sophisticated work extracted from white marble with a gentle bluish tint her charming and spiritualized features .
And here is the emperor again, but a special emperor: Philip the Arab, who came to the fore in the midst of the crisis of the 3rd century. - bloody "imperial leapfrog" - from the ranks of the provincial legion. This is his official portrait. The soldier's severity of the image is all the more significant: that was the time when, in the general unrest, the army became a stronghold of imperial power.
Furrowed brows. A menacing, wary look. Heavy, fleshy nose. Deep wrinkles of the cheeks, forming, as it were, a triangle with a sharp horizontal line of thick lips. A powerful neck, and on the chest - a wide transverse fold of a toga, finally giving the entire marble bust a truly granite massiveness, laconic strength and integrity.
Here is what Waldhauer writes about this wonderful portrait, also kept in our Hermitage: “The technique is simplified to the extreme ... The facial features are worked out by deep, almost rough lines with a complete rejection of detailed surface modeling. Personality, as such, is characterized mercilessly with the highlighting of the most important features.
A new style, monumental expressiveness achieved in a new way. Is it not the influence of the so-called barbarian periphery of the empire, increasingly penetrating through the provinces that have become rivals of Rome?
In the general style of the bust of Philip the Arab, Waldhauer recognizes features that will be fully developed in medieval sculptural portraits of French and German cathedrals.
Ancient Rome became famous for high-profile deeds, accomplishments that surprised the world, but its decline was gloomy and painful.
An entire historical era has come to an end. The obsolete system had to give way to a new, more advanced one; slave-owning society - to be reborn into a feudal society.
In 313, the long-persecuted Christianity was recognized in the Roman Empire as the state religion, which at the end of the 4th century. became dominant throughout the Roman Empire.
Christianity, with its preaching of humility, asceticism, with its dream of heaven not on earth, but in heaven, created a new mythology, the heroes of which, the ascetics of the new faith, who accepted a martyr's crown for it, took the place that once belonged to the gods and goddesses, personifying the life-affirming principle earthly love and earthly joy. It spread gradually, and therefore, even before its legalized triumph, the Christian doctrine and the public sentiments that prepared it radically undermined the ideal of beauty that once shone with full light on the Athenian Acropolis and which was accepted and approved by Rome throughout the world subject to it.
The Christian Church tried to clothe in a concrete form of unshakable religious beliefs a new worldview, in which the East, with its fears of the unsolved forces of nature, the eternal struggle with the Beast, resonated with the destitute of the entire ancient world. And although the ruling elite of this world hoped to solder the decrepit Roman power with a new universal religion, the worldview, born of the need for social transformation, shook the unity of the empire along with that ancient culture from which the Roman statehood arose.
The twilight of the ancient world, the twilight of the great ancient art. Majestic palaces, forums, baths and triumphal arches are still being built throughout the empire, according to the old canons, but these are only repetitions of what was achieved in previous centuries.
The colossal head - about one and a half meters - is from the statue of Emperor Constantine, who transferred the capital of the empire to Byzantium in 330, which became Constantinople - the "Second Rome" (Rome, Palazzo Conservatives). The face is built correctly, harmoniously, according to Greek patterns. But the main thing in this face is the eyes: it seems that if you close them, there would be no face itself ... That which in the Fayum portraits or the Pompeian portrait of a young woman gave the image an inspired expression, is here taken to an extreme, exhausted the whole image. The ancient balance between the spirit and the body is clearly violated in favor of the first. Not a living human face, but a symbol. A symbol of power, imprinted in the look, power that subjugates everything earthly, impassive, adamant and inaccessibly high. No, even if portrait features are preserved in the image of the emperor, this is no longer a portrait sculpture.
The triumphal arch of Emperor Constantine in Rome is impressive. Its architectural composition is strictly sustained in the classical Roman style. But in the relief narrative glorifying the emperor, this style disappears almost without a trace. The relief is so low that the small figures seem flat, not sculpted, but scratched. They line up monotonously, clinging to each other. We look at them with amazement: this is a world completely different from the world of Hellas and Rome. No revival - and the seemingly forever overcome frontality is resurrected!
A porphyry statue of the imperial co-rulers - the tetrarchs, who at that time ruled over separate parts of the empire. This sculptural group marks both the end and the beginning.
The end - because it is decisively done away with the Hellenic ideal of beauty, smooth roundness of forms, harmony of the human figure, elegance of composition, softness of modeling. The rudeness and simplification that gave special expressiveness to the Hermitage portrait of Philip the Arab became here, as it were, an end in itself. Almost cubic, clumsily carved heads. There is not even a hint of portraiture, as if human individuality is already unworthy of the image.
In 395, the Roman Empire broke up into the Western - Latin and Eastern - Greek. In 476, the Western Roman Empire fell under the blows of the Germans. A new historical era has begun, called the Middle Ages.
A new page has opened in the history of art.
One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there has been no people who inhabited this power, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the lifestyle of the pagan Romans. On April 21, on the day of the founding of the city on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.
Roman forum
The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, the Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the 8th century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and the settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of Tsar Tarquikios the Ancient, who turned it into the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were held.
From west to east, the sacred road of the empire, Via Appia, or the Appian Way, runs through the entire Roman Forum, along which there are many monuments of both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.
The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings from the Tarquinian family. Several times he died during fires, but was reborn. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome restored what was destroyed by fire." It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerary, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.
The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to the Flavius: Vespasian and his son Titus. It was 33 meters long and 22 meters wide. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.
The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times connected with the House of Vestals. The sacred fire was constantly maintained in the inner room. Initially, it was guarded by the daughters of the king, then they were replaced by Vestal priestesses, who also held worship in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that there was an outlet for smoke in the roof, fires often broke out in the temple. It was saved several times, reconstructed, but in 394 Emperor Theodosius ordered it to be closed. Gradually, the building dilapidated and fell into disrepair.
Trajan's Column
A monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the “body” of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to the observation platform on the capital.
The trunk of the column spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned by an eagle, later by a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells of two wars between Trajan and the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105-106 by the figure of winged Victoria, writing on a shield surrounded by trophies, the name of the winner. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, the details of weapons and armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. In total, there are about 2,500 human figures on a 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube in the form of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with a veiled face, etc.
Pantheon
The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under the emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries before by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: "M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT" - "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this." Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is notable for the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the majesty of the artistic image. Deprived of external decorations, the cylindrical building is crowned with a dome covered with inconspicuous carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault corresponds exactly to the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportionality to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections, forming a monolithic wall, between which are niches, giving the massive building a sense of airiness. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. A round hole in the vault of the temple lets in light, illuminating the rich decoration of the interior space. Everything has come down to our days almost unchanged.
Coliseum
One of the most significant buildings of ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater was built over eight years. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, with smaller arches on them. The arena is surrounded by a wall of 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen were installed on the first two tiers.
The building of the amphitheater included galleries intended for the relaxation of spectators, where noisy merchants sold various goods. Outside, the Colosseum was finished with marble, beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led to the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.
Below were privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiator fights took place, but also real sea battles, was wooden.
Today, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic building, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: "While the Colosseum stands, Rome will stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome will disappear and the whole world with it."
Triumphal Arch of Titus
The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra road, was built after the death of Emperor Titus in honor of the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.
Baths of Caracalla
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitations, etc. Among the many all kinds of rooms, located on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only lined the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and put up magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, the statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.
The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, after washing up, sat down to chat with friends, went to look at wrestling and gymnastic exercises, could stretch themselves; others wandered around the park, admired the statues, sat in the library. People left with a reserve of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.
Temples of Portun and Hercules
These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber in another ancient forum of the city - Bull. In early Republican times, ships moored here and there was a brisk trade in livestock, hence the name.
Temple Portun built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with Ionic columns. The temple is well preserved, since around 872 AD. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegiziana.
The Temple of Hercules has a monoptera design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m, decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 AD The temple became a place of Christian worship. The original name of the church was Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.
Field of Mars
"Field of Mars" - this was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained and subsequently free, while the remaining parts were built up.
Mausoleum of Hadrian
The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, crowned with an artificial hill, the top of which was decorated with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god controlling the quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. The centuries have changed its original appearance. The construction acquired the Angel's Courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartments, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and a Secret Archive. From the terrace of the castle, above which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens up.
Catacombs
The catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient buildings used as burial places, for the most part during the period of early Christianity. In total, there are more than 60 different catacombs in Rome (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. Labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to another, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.
