When did African sculptures first come to Europe. Tropical African Art
Until the first scientific data received convincing confirmation, scientists - supporters of the exodus from Africa hypothesis - believed that the most ancient exodus of modern people to northern Africa and further to the Levant formed a kind of biological core from which the peoples of Europe and Asia subsequently arose. However, such arguments suffer from a serious flaw. The fact is that the traces of modern humans in these places almost disappear about 90 thousand years ago. Thanks to climatological studies, we know that it was about 90,000 years ago that a brief but devastating period of sharp global cooling and drought began on Earth, as a result of which the entire Levant turned into a lifeless desert. After the retreat of the glaciers and the new warming, the Levant was quickly settled, but this time by representatives of a different species, our closest "cousin" on the family tree - Neanderthals, who, in all likelihood, were pushed south to the Mediterranean region as a result of the advance of glaciers advancing from the north. We have no material evidence of the presence of modern people in the Levant or in Europe over the next 45 thousand years, until about 45-50 thousand years ago the Cro-Magnons appeared on the arena of history (as evidenced by the appearance of the Augurian tool-making technique), who challenged the Neanderthals, pushing them north, to their ancient ancestral home.
Thus, most experts today believe that the first modern humans, natives of Africa, died out in the Levant as a result of a sharp cooling and the return of an arid climate, under the influence of which North Africa and the Levant quickly turned into barren deserts.
The corridor that ran through the Sahara slammed shut like a giant trap, and the migrants who found themselves in it could neither return back nor find suitable land. The yawning gap of 50,000 years between the disappearance of traces of the first settlers in the Levant and the subsequent invasion of a new wave of settlers from Europe, beyond any doubt, calls into question the validity of the widely held version that the first exodus from Africa to the north supposedly ended successfully and created a biological core of future Europeans. Let's think about why.
To understand why many European authorities in the field of archeology and anthropology insist that Europeans arose independently and independently of the first exodus from North Africa, it is necessary to remember that here we are dealing with one of the manifestations of cultural Eurocentrism, seeking to explain the consequences of the first exodus. The most important manifestation of this thinking is the unshakable conviction of European scientists of the 20th century. in the fact that it was the Cro-Magnons who migrated to Europe no later than 50 thousand years ago, and were the founders of the people of the "modern type" in the full sense of the word. This human epiphany, which brought an unprecedented flowering of all kinds of arts, crafts and technical capabilities and culture in general, is known among archaeologists under the dry name "European Upper Paleolithic". According to many scientists, it was something like a creative explosion that marked the beginning of the era of a thinking person on Earth. It is to this culture that the impressive cave paintings in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves, as well as the exquisite, finely crafted carvings of "Venus", which archaeologists find throughout Europe, date back.
At the same time, one can usually hear arguments like “if we really came out of Africa, and if that ancient cultural revolution, which speaks so eloquently about the gift of abstract thinking, came to Europe from the Levant, it could at best represent a brief halt on the way from Egypt.” Ergo, "we Westerners" (this "we" is explained by the fact that the supporters of this hypothesis are exclusively Europeans or have European roots), are just descendants of immigrants from North Africa. Thus, for many specialists, the northern route is a kind of conceptual starting point for migration, or, better, exodus from Africa. In the next chapter, we will consider why it is logically impossible to assume that the first "people of a completely modern type" were Europeans, and how it happened that the first modern people who could speak, sing, dance and draw were Africans, and this happened. long before the exodus of some of their groups from their native continent.
However, attempts to provide a convincing explanation of how exactly the ancestors of modern Europeans, who once lived in the vicinity of the Sahara, conceived and carried out the Exodus from Africa, are associated with a number of serious problems. To begin with, it should be noted that since the Sahara Desert has served as an insurmountable barrier to migrants over the past 100 thousand years, any later invasions of North Africans into Europe could begin with some kind of green refuge - an island of vegetation that still remained in North Africa, for example from the Nile Delta region, after the interglacial pause. The ancestors of Europeans could not 45-50 thousand years ago make an exodus from the Sahara region directly, except on rafts down the Nile, but genetic history strongly rejects such a possibility.
A green haven in Egypt?
If such a green refuge really existed throughout the long dry period after the interglacial pause in North Africa, it could well serve as a temporary shelter and staging post for the ancestors of future Europeans about 45 thousand years ago. Yes, in ancient times, there were indeed several vast green oases in North Africa, in particular, the Nile Delta in Egypt and the Mediterranean coast of present-day Morocco. A recent find of a child's skeleton in a burial on the Taramsa hill in Egypt, dated approximately between 50 and 80 thousand years ago, indicates that relict population groups could have been preserved there. A number of leading proponents of the exodus from Africa hypothesis immediately drew attention to this find, since it offers a real and quite convincing explanation for the pause of 45-50 thousand years. The most famous among them is Chris Stringer, a staunch supporter of the hypothesis of the origin of modern people from Africa and one of the leaders of the Natural History Museum in London. Stringer argues that the Egyptian child from Taramsa belonged to a colony of inhabitants of the oases of North Africa, and that it was from such colonies that the migrants who left Africa about 50 thousand years ago and became the ancestors of the inhabitants of the Levant and Europe came from.
Yet archaeological evidence of the presence of Cro-Magnons in North Africa is extremely scarce and few. Even those stone tools of the Middle Paleolithic era, which were found in the burial of a child on Taramsa Hill, could well have been created by Neanderthals, and they cannot be considered evidence of the explosive growth of new technologies that penetrated Europe during that era.
Australia problem
But, perhaps, the most serious problem for the Eurocentric concept of cultural development, which is based on the hypothesis of the northern route of exodus from Africa, is the very fact of the existence of Australian aborigines who created their own culture of singing, dancing and painting long before the Europeans and, naturally, without any any help from them. But then what region of Africa did they come from? What route took them so far, to the ends of the world? Can they be considered a branch of the same exodus in which the ancestors of modern Europeans took part? And, finally, the most important thing: how and why did they get to Australia much earlier than the ancestors of Europeans - to Europe? This mystery has given rise to a number of attempts at explanation.
It is clear that to answer all these questions, proceeding from the hypothesis of a single northern exodus from Africa to Europe, which took place about 45 thousand years ago, followed by human settlement throughout the rest of the world, as the Chicago anthropologist Richard Klein argues in his classic work, The Development of Man, is simply impossible. The famous zoologist, African connoisseur, artist and writer Jonathan Kingdon goes even further, proving that the first, “unsuccessful” northern exodus of Africans to the Levant, which took place about 120 thousand years ago, led to the settlement of surviving migrants and the colonization of Southeast Asia, and then Australia about 90 thousand years ago. This version also allows only one exit from Africa, and, moreover, along the northern route. Chris Stringer took the easiest route, arguing that Australia was colonized independently of this outcome, and long before the colonization of Europe, as a result of a separate exodus of Africans around the Red Sea (see Figure 1.3).
Much in agreement with Chris Stringer, archaeologist Robert Foley and palaeontologist Martha Lahr of the University of Cambridge also argue that the chain of green oases in North Africa that stretched along the northern route through the Levant was of vital importance to the ancestors of Europeans and inhabitants of the Levant. These researchers have no problem with the number of exoduses from Africa, arguing that in ancient times there were many large and small migrations, the starting points for which were the oases scattered across Ethiopia and all of North Africa. This point of view takes into account the significant population growth in Africa itself during the interglacial pause, about 125 thousand years ago.
Lahr and Foley believe that the return of the former cold and arid climate led to the fact that the African continent, as it were, was divided into separate inhabited areas-colonies, coinciding with the boundaries of green oases (see Fig. 1.6), whose inhabitants over the next 50 thousand years were separated by insurmountable deserts. According to Lar-Fowley's scheme, the ancestors of the East Asians and Australians could be from Ethiopia, who, having crossed the Red Sea, went on distant wanderings. They could choose the southern route and move along it completely independently of the ancestors of future Europeans. More recently, Foley and Lahr have received "reinforcement" when the American geneticist Peter Underhill, an expert in the study of the Y chromosome, joined the ranks of supporters of the northern and southern exoduses. He made a study in which he carried out the synthesis of genetic prehistoric factors. All three scholars postulated an ancient exodus to Australia along the southern route, recognizing that the main route of exodus from Africa was still the northern route, through Suez and the Levant, to Europe and the rest of Asia (Fig. 1.3) and that it took place between 30 and 45 thousand years ago.
Thus, the validity of the opinion expressed by many experts on Eurasia that the ancestors of Europeans were immigrants from North Africa depends on a number of factors. These include the presence of fairly extensive oases of refuge in North Africa and either numerous migrations from Africa at different times, or a very early protomigration from the Levant to the countries of the Far East.
There is also an ideological problem: this is an attempt to reserve the northern route of exodus only for the ancestors of future Europeans.
Speaking at first frankly and bluntly, Jonathan Kingdon argued that the early northern exodus from Africa occurred about 120,000 years ago, during the so-called Emian interglacial pause. Since many corridors in the deserts of Africa and Western Asia were lushly green at that time, prospective migrants to Australia could move further east from the Levant to India without hindrance. Of course, they could stop for a long halt in the green areas of South Asia before moving on to Southeast Asia, where they arrived about 90 thousand years ago. (By "South Asia" I mean those countries located between Aden (Yemen) and Bangladesh that border the Indian Ocean. These countries include Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, as well as the states located on the coast of the Persian Gulf: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Beirut, the United Arab Emirates and Iran.)
As proof of the presence of a reasonable man in the Levant in ancient times, Jonathan Kingdon refers to the numerous tools of the Middle Paleolithic era found in India. Some of them are 163 thousand years old. However, the most serious problem here is the complete absence of the skeletal remains of modern humans of such antiquity anywhere outside of Africa. Kingdon states that these tools may have been made by pre-modern or archaic people (or Mapa, as he calls them) who were living in East Asia at the same time.
It is clear that in order to get to Australia, the ancestors of the Australians had to cross all of Asia from west to east, but we do not have any material evidence that anatomical modern people migrated through all of Asia about 90 thousand years ago, let alone about an earlier era - 120-163 thousand years ago.
barriers in the east
There is another serious problem associated with the dating of the time frame for the colonization of Southeast Asia - 90-120 thousand years, proposed by Kingdon. If, according to his hypothesis, the first wave of migration to Southeast Asia left the lands of the Levant a little later than 115 thousand years ago, it, in all likelihood, disappeared without a trace in the vast expanses of Asia. An analysis of the mass migrations of humans and other mammals from Africa to Asia over the past 4 million years indicates that, with the exception of the first interglacial pause, migrants moving from the Levant to the interior of Asia were faced with many formidable obstacles. In eras when the world was not warmed by the fertile warmth of the interglacial pause, the settlers now and then encountered high mountains and deserts parched by the heat, which served as insurmountable obstacles on the way to the north, east and south of the Levant. To the north and east stretches the vast Zagros-Taurus mountain range, which, together with the Syrian and Arabian deserts, has isolated the Levant from Eastern Europe to the north and the Indian subcontinent to the south. Under normal climatic conditions of glaciation, these were impenetrable mountainous deserts. There was no convenient detour in the north, where the ridges of the Caucasus rose and the Caspian Sea roared.
In ancient times, as in the time of Marco Polo, the most convenient alternative route from the Eastern Mediterranean to Southeast Asia was to get to the Indian Ocean as soon as possible and then move along its coastline. However, the Syrian and Arabian deserts stretched south and east of the Levant, and the only possible route was from Turkey through the Tigris Valley and further south along the western slope of the Zagros mountain range, all the way to the coast of the Persian Gulf (see Figure 1.6). However, this route, which ran through the so-called Fertile Crescent, during periods of cooling and drought at the end of interglacial pauses, also lay through lifeless deserts and, naturally, was closed to ancient migrants.
The practical impossibility for people of the modern type to get from the Levant to Egypt or Southeast Asia in the period from 55 to 90 thousand years ago means that the northern route of exodus from Africa at that time allowed only the ancestors of future Europeans and inhabitants of the Levant to leave the Black Continent, and not the forefathers of the inhabitants of Southeast Asia or Australia. Meanwhile, oddly enough, Europe and the Levant did not undergo any active colonization until about 45-50 thousand years ago, while Australia, which lay on the other side of the world, on the contrary, was intensively settled long before this milestone era. And this means that in order to “reserve” the northern route of exodus only for the ancestors of Europeans, Chris Stringer, Bob Foley and Martha Lahr had to accept the hypothesis that there were separate southern routes in antiquity, which were used by the ancestors of Australians and even Asians. Only the study of genetic history can solve this riddle.
I'm watching the 7th season of "Game of Thrones" now and reading the headline "What drove the Andals and the first people out of Africa?" At first I thought off topic. But let's get on topic.
According to the data available today, the first people appeared in Africa (previously it was thought that about 100 thousand years ago, but literally this year the border shifted by another 200 - 250 thousand years.), And then our ancestors 65 - 55 thousand lei ago they migrated from Africa to Europe, Asia Minor and the Arabian Peninsula, and from there they spread throughout the planet, reaching Australia and the Americas.
The climate is considered the reason that prompted the first people to leave Africa and look for a new home, but what kind of weather conditions pushed people on a great journey?
So far, this remains unknown - in part, because 60 thousand years ago our people did not keep records of the state of the climate. It is possible to judge what was happening then in Africa only by indirect signs - for example, by sediments at the bottom of the sea, as geologist Jessica Tierney did from the University of Arizona.
A team led by Tierney analyzed sedimentary rock layers in the Gulf of Aden and assessed the dynamics of their content of alkenones - organic compounds produced by algae. The composition and quantity of alkenones varies depending on the temperature of the water. Based on alkenones, scientists reconstructed the average water temperatures near the surface of the bay in 1,600-year increments over the past 200,000 years. And the analysis of the content of organic sediments - leaves blown into the ocean by the wind and settled on the bottom - made it possible to obtain data on the amount of precipitation.
By combining data on temperature and humidity, scientists have found that between 130 and 80 thousand years ago in Northeast Africa, the climate was humid and warm, and the Sahara, now desert, was covered with green forests. But in the period 75 - 55 thousand years ago, a prolonged drought and cooling set in; genetics testify that the beginning of migration to Europe from Africa falls at the same time. Perhaps it was desertification and cooling that prompted people to search for new territories, says Tierney.
Despite the relative accuracy of Tiersley's assessment of the state of the climate, her guesses about the reasons for the exit of mankind from Africa remain guesses, since the dating of this event itself is extremely approximate. Recent studies indicate the presence of Homo sapiens in Sumatra as early as 63 thousand years ago, and in Australia as early as 65 thousand years ago, which means that they should have left Africa earlier than is commonly believed, other studies suggest that there were several waves migrations, the first of which began to move from Africa already 130 thousand years ago.
The study is published in the journal Geology.
By the way, who is still interested in what kind of Andals are in the "Game of Thrones".
The Andal Invasion was an Andal migration from Essos to Westeros that began 6000 BC. and ended 2000 years later. The invasion took place in several stages and ended with the killing and conquest of all the first people south of the Isthmus. The first people ceased to be the dominant people on the continent, and since then people from Essos began to call Westeros the land of the Andals.
The Andals landed in the region of the Finger Peninsulas, which would later become known as the Vale of Arryn. According to legend, Artis Arryn, also known as the Winged Knight, flew on a giant falcon and landed on top of the Valley's highest mountain, the Giant's Spear, where he defeated the Griffin King, the last king of the First Men.
After this, there were several more waves of invasion, over the course of several centuries, the Andals gradually occupied Westeros. At this time, the continent consisted of a great many small kingdoms. Thus, there was no single force that could effectively defend itself against the intruders.
The first humans were armed with weapons made of bronze, while the weapons of the Andals were made of iron and steel. Andal tactics were focused on the concept of chivalry. They had elite warriors called knights. Their code of honor was closely tied to their belief in the Seven. The first people were shocked when they met heavily armed mounted warriors in battle. Also during the invasion, the Andals forced the conquered first people to abandon their belief in the Old Gods and accept the belief in the Seven.
So, the Andals captured all of Westeros, except for the lands north of the Isthmus, where the king from the Stark dynasty managed to resist them. Anyone who tried to invade the North had to cross a narrow section of the continent called the Isthmus. The road passed through the site next to the ancient fortress Moat Keilin. For centuries, the Andals could not conquer this fortress, and the North remained independent of them.
The Andals were disgusted with the magic used by the children of the forest, so they killed them all. Also, the Andals burned all weirwood south of the Isthmus. The children of the forest have always been few in number, and during the war with the white walkers they suffered huge losses. The Andals destroyed the remaining representatives of this race, and after six thousand years, many people began to think that the children of the forest had never existed. Other legends say that the surviving children of the forest went far north, to the lands beyond the Wall.
The Night's Watch has never been involved in conflict with the Andals. On the one hand, the Andals did not get that far north, on the other hand, the Night's Watch did not send their people to help the first people in the war. The Andals understood the importance of the Night Watch, who protected the continent from invasions from the far north, and they also had where to send their younger sons, criminals, captives. The brothers of the Night's Watch swore an oath not to interfere in the internal affairs of the kingdoms, and were glad to have people from the Andals who were ready to join them.
The Andals gradually conquered the continent, the last to conquer the Iron Islands. The Andals have become the dominant people on the continent, religions, faith in the Old Gods and faith in the Seven, now have to coexist side by side.
In different regions, the number of surviving first people remained different. In the Vale of Arryn, they were almost completely exterminated. In most regions, the Andals preferred to conquer the first people, but not to exterminate them completely. In the North, the first people remained the predominant people. In the future, in all regions, marriages were concluded between the first people and the Andals, and they mixed.
As for the Iron Islands, the Andals did not establish their own rules there, but adopted the customs and traditions of the ironborn. The Andals who settled there renounced their belief in the Seven and embraced the belief in the Drowned God.
In addition to faith, the Andals brought their own language to the continent, which later became known as the common language. Even the inhabitants of the North eventually abandoned their old language in favor of him.
But I didn’t understand, are the modern inhabitants of the Seven Kingdoms still the ancestors of the Andals, or were they later also expelled somewhere or killed?
sources
from an exhibition in Pushkin Museum im. A.S. Pushkin
text and photo: Vladimir Chernomashentsev
“Art of Tropical Africa from the collection of M.L. and L.M. Zvyagins"
Exhibition at the Pushkin Museum im. A.S. Pushkin, Museum of personal collections
The exhibition is open April 29 - August 28, 2011
ATTENTION! The exhibition has been extended until August 28, 2011.
Irina Antonova, the director of the Pushkin Museum, was the first to act as the owner of the museum. Her speech destroyed the notion that Pushkin Museum for the first time it hosts art from the Black Continent within its walls. A new direction for the museum of fine arts turned out to be not so new at all. The first African sculpture first appeared in Russia in the collection of the Moscow collector Sergei Ivanovich Shchukin. He acquired it in the 1910s in Paris on the advice of the artist Pablo Picasso. After the revolution, several African exhibits from the Shchukin collection migrated to the collection Pushkin Museum. Without a full-fledged section of ethnic art, the museum could not exhibit piece sculptures. One can guess that the current exhibition is the most serious display of the very first African exhibits from the museum's collection:
Wooden carvings date from the second half of the 19th century.
Irina Antonova said that museums of African art - specifically art, not ethnography - are a fairly common phenomenon in the artistic life of Europe and the United States. While in the Russian museum space, Africa is a kind of huge "blank spot", so to speak, in relation to the Black Continent. Collection of M.L. and L.M. Zvyaginykh violates such a sad tradition. The highest artistic level of the Zvyagin collection, partially transferred to the Pushkin Museum, begins a demonstration of art that is new for the Russian audience. So far, within the framework of the Museum of Private Collections, but as the museum area expands, it is possible to create a permanent exhibition.
Speech by the Director of the Pushkin Museum Irina Antonova and Leonid Mikhailovich Zvyagin.
As usual, the guest, the founder of the meeting, delivered a reply Leonid Mikhailovich Zvyagin. He discovered the secret of how he managed to make such a strong collection of art far from Russia in a few decades. An extremely interesting point emerged: European purchases of African art began. In the late 80s, L.M. Zvyagin bought his first exhibits in Germany with the proceeds from the sale of his own paintings. The main backbone of the collection was formed not in Africa, as I thought at first, but in a country even more distant from Russia, but from Africa itself - the USA.
Zvyagin lived for several years in the United States, where he found the richest market for African art. The best samples were exported from the Black Continent, legally and not quite legally - there's nothing to be done, even art attracts dollars. At the opening day, a diplomat representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry spoke with surprise - he had not seen in Africa such powerful works of art that Leonid Mikhailovich Zvyagin could select in American antique shops and stores. Surprisingly, in the modern world it is possible to create an excellent collection of African art without wasting time and effort on trips to a distant exotic destination.
Ruler (both) in military attire. Benin, Nigeria. Bronze. Fragment
A musician playing the horn. Benin, Nigeria. Bronze. Fragment
The usual museum interior, which was once the courtyard exterior of a Moscow estate, does not harmonize with African idols and fantastic ritual characters. And only in neutrally designed museum halls do visual contradictions disappear, and then the attention of the audience is focused on the main subject - the Zvyagin collection.
Seated woman with a vessel. Culture of Djenne, Mali. Terracotta.
Mask in the form of a female torso. Yoruba, Nigeria. Tree
mmvo mask. Igbo, Nigeria. Tree. Fragment
Black slaves, accustomed to hot climates, were mainly used to work on cotton and sugar plantations in North and South America. But there were also African slaves in Europe, where they were used as "exotic" domestic servants. The exact date when the first black slaves came to Europe is still unknown. From the writings of some ancient Greek historians, philosophers and writers that have come down to our time, we can conclude that some (very small) number of African slaves were in Athens and some other city-states of Hellas.
Most likely, ancient Greek travelers bought black Nubian slaves in Egypt and brought them to their homeland. And after Rome defeated Carthage in the 2nd Punic War (218 - 201 BC), and especially after the capture and destruction of Carthage by the Romans (146 BC), the number of African slaves in Europe has increased dramatically. Black slaves appeared in many houses and villas of wealthy Romans. They, like their white counterparts in misfortune, had no rights, completely dependent on the humanity and whim of the owners. It is no coincidence that the Roman scholar Mark Terentius Varro pointed out that a slave is just a talking tool.
When did African slaves appear in medieval Europe?
After the fall of the Roman Empire, black slaves were forgotten in Europe for many centuries. However, in the first half of the 15th century, with the beginning of the Age of Discovery, the Portuguese, looking for a sea route to India to establish uninterrupted supplies of spices and other exotic goods, began to regularly explore the western coast of Africa. They moved further and further every year, mapping the previously unknown coast on the map, often landed, came into contact with the leaders of local tribes. And in 1444, Captain Nuny Trishtan, who reached the mouth of the Senegal River, captured ten blacks there, who he brought to Lisbon and sold at a high price. So the first black slaves ended up in medieval Europe.
Encouraged by the example of Trishtan, some Portuguese captains took up this shameful trade, which brings a good income (it should be noted that the trade of a slave trader in those days was not only considered shameful, but even reprehensible). The example of the Portuguese was followed a little later by the Spaniards, the French, and the British. Entire fleets of ships were annually sent to Africa for slaves. And this went on for several centuries, until the slave trade was outlawed.
The history of the "African Abroad" is calculated in centuries. Africans appeared in Europe with the troops of the Holy Roman Empire in 1210, in America in 1619. The main source of the formation of the African diaspora was slavery. It was from among the slaves that the first European-educated intellectuals emerged. Joao Latino (1516-1594), polymath, scientist, musician, was brought to Spain at the age of twelve with his mother. At the university in Grenada, he studied music, poetry and medicine. J. Latino was the first African to be awarded the degree of bachelor (1546) and the title of professor (1577).
In London in the 18th century, the first of the well-known historical and philosophical treatises written by Africans were published: "Thoughts and Experiences on the Atrocities and Devilish Loads of Slaves and the Trade in Human Species" by Ottoba Cuguano (1787) and "An Entertaining Narrative of the Life of Olauda Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, an African" (1789). Their authors were kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1735 at the age of 10-12, and only after its abolition in Great Britain (1772) did they gain their long-awaited freedom. Both played the role of forerunners in relation to Negritude, Pan-Africanism and Afrocentrism. African philosophers, historians, literary critics, educators, sociologists considered them to be the founders of African science.
The history of the literature of the "African Abroad" is associated with the names of Ignatius Sancho (1729 - 1780) and Phyllis Wheatley (1753 - 1784), a poetess who gained fame in London. I. Sancho's "Letters" (1782), published two years after his death, were regarded as evidence of the author's great literary talent. F. Whitley was born in Senegal, in 1761 she came to Boston as a slave. She wrote odes in the neoclassical style. In 1773 her writings were first published in London. One of the admirers of her talent was General D. Washington, the future US President. She dedicated the following lines to him:
"In the end, you will gain greatness
And you will find the patronage of the goddesses in everything,
Ruler's crown and throne
Yours will be, Washington."
In France, in the 18th century, great-grandfather A.S. Pushkin - Abram Petrovich Hannibal. He came to Paris in 1717, was in poverty. To pay for studies, an apartment, food, funds were required, and Abram joined the ranks of the French army. He served in the engineering units, participated in the capture of Spanish fortresses, was wounded and awarded the rank of lieutenant engineer for his distinctions. His military merit, heroism and rank were taken into account, so that he was accepted as a student and then became a graduate of the higher military engineering school, where foreigners were previously denied access.
In Germany in the 18th century, a native of the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana), poet, philosopher, jurist Anthony Wilhelm Amo gained fame. He studied philosophy and jurisprudence at the University of Halle (1727-1734), received a professorship, held the position of state councilor in Berlin, but returned to his homeland in 1740. A. V. Amo wrote two dissertations: "The rights of Africans in Europe" (1729) and "On the impartiality of human consciousness" (1735) - and a treatise "On the art of philosophizing soberly and competently" (1738). And
In the 19th century, the number of Africans outside of Africa continued to grow. At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, Samuel Taylor (1875 - 1912), a musician and composer living in Great Britain, gained world fame. He worked with the best orchestras and choirs, toured a lot, and his trip to the USA caused a real triumph. His contribution to the development of concert music is comparable to the activities of J. Brahms and E. Grieg. Like them, Taylor integrated African folk motifs into classical concert music.
African scientists, poets, musicians were brought up in Europe and America, but still Africa lived in their memories. African culture was for them an abstraction or soil for the rehabilitation of blackness. Meanwhile, it was they who laid the foundation for the development of the culture of the "African abroad" in the second half of the 20th century.
