Events and images of the past in historical and cultural memory. historical memory
FOREWORD
The manual presents a picture of the evolution of historical knowledge, the formation of the latter as a scientific discipline. Readers can get acquainted with various forms of knowledge and perception of the past in their historical development, enter the course of modern controversy about the place of history in society, focus on an in-depth study of key problems in the history of historical thought, features of various forms of historical writing, the emergence, distribution and change of research settings , formation and development of history as an academic science.
Today, ideas about the subject of the history of historiography, the model of historical and historiographical analysis, and the very status of the discipline have changed significantly. The so-called problematic historiography recedes into the background, the emphasis is shifted to the study of the functioning and transformation of historical knowledge in the sociocultural context. The manual shows how the forms of knowledge of the past changed in the course of the development of society, being in relationship with the fundamental features of a particular type of cultural and social organization of society.
The manual consists of nine chapters, each of which is devoted to a separate period in the development of historical knowledge - from the origins in the culture of ancient civilizations to the present (the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries). Particular attention is paid to the relationship of history with other areas of knowledge, the most common conceptual models of historical development, the principles of analysis of historical sources, the social functions of history, and the specific features of historical knowledge.
INTRODUCTION
This manual is based on the study course "History of historical science", or - more precisely - "History of historical knowledge", the content of which is determined by the modern understanding of the nature and functions of historical knowledge.
The methodological foundations of the course are determined by a number of ideas put forward in the course of the controversy about the nature of humanitarian knowledge.
Firstly, it is a statement of the specifics of historical knowledge and the relativity of the criteria of truth and reliability in historical research. The relativity of historical knowledge is predetermined by a number of factors, primarily by the initial ambiguity of the three main components of historical research: historical fact, historical source, and method of historical research. Trying to find out the "objective truth" about the past, the researcher becomes a hostage of both his own subjectivity and the "subjectivity" of the evidence that he subjects to the rational analysis procedure. The limits and possibilities of historical knowledge are outlined both by the incompleteness of the surviving evidence, and the lack of guarantees that the reality reflected in these evidence is a reliable image of the era under study, and, finally, by the intellectual tools of the researcher. The historian always, voluntarily or involuntarily, turns out to be subjective in his interpretation of the past and its reconstruction: the researcher interprets it based on the conceptual and ideological constructions of his own era, guided by personal preferences and the subjective choice of certain intellectual models. Thus, historical knowledge and the image of the past it offers are always subjective, partial in their fullness, and relative in their truth. Recognition of one's own limitations, however, does not prevent historical scientific knowledge from being rational, having its own method, language and social significance 1 .
Secondly, the originality of the subject and methods of historical research, and hence of historical knowledge in general, is of fundamental importance. In the process of the formation of historical science, the understanding of the subject and tasks of research has undergone significant changes. Modern practice historical research recognizes not only the breadth of its field, but also the possibility of different approaches to the study of past phenomena and their interpretation. From empirical science, the main purpose of which was the study of events, primarily politically significant, fixing milestones in the development of state formations and causal relationships between individual facts, history has evolved into a discipline that studies society in its dynamics. In the historian's field of vision wide circle phenomena - from the economic and political life of the country to the problems of private existence, from climate change to the identification of people's ideas about the world. The subject of study is events, models of people's behavior, systems of their values and motivations. Modern history is the history of events, processes and structures, privacy person. Such a diversification of the research field is due to the fact that, regardless of the preferences of specific research areas, the object of historical knowledge is a person whose nature and behavior are diverse in themselves and can be considered from different perspectives and relationships. History turned out to be the most universal and capacious of all the humanitarian disciplines of the new time, its development was not only accompanied by the emergence of new areas of scientific knowledge - sociology, psychology, economics, etc., but was associated with borrowing and adapting their methods and problems to their own tasks. The breadth of historical knowledge justifiably raises doubts among researchers about the legitimacy of the existence of history as a self-sufficient scientific discipline. History, both in content and in form, was born in integral interaction with other areas of the study of reality (geography, description of peoples, etc.) and literary genres; having been constituted as a special discipline, it was again included in the system of interdisciplinary interaction.
Thirdly, historical knowledge is not now, and never was before, from the moment of its formation, a purely academic or intellectual phenomenon 1 . Its functions are distinguished by a wide social coverage, one way or another, they are reflected in the most important areas of social consciousness and social practices. Historical knowledge and interest in the past are always conditioned by problems relevant to society.
That is why the image of the past is not so much recreated as created by descendants, who, positively or negatively evaluating their predecessors, thus justify their own decisions and actions. One of the extreme forms of updating the past is the anachronistic transfer to previous eras of ideological constructions and schemes that dominate the political and social practice of the present. But not only the past becomes a victim of ideologies and anachronisms - the present is no less dependent on the image of its own history shown to it. The historical picture offered to society as its "genealogy" and significant experience is a powerful tool for influencing social consciousness. The attitude to one's own historical past, which is dominant in the society, determines its self-image and knowledge of tasks further development. Thus, history, or a picture of the past, is part of social consciousness, an element of political and ideological ideas, and the source material for determining the strategy of social development. Without history, in other words, it is impossible to form social identity and ideas about their prospects for either a separate community or for humanity as a whole.
Fourth, historical knowledge is a functionally important element of social memory, which in turn is a complex multi-level and historically changeable phenomenon. In particular, in addition to the rational tradition of preserving knowledge about the past, there is a collective social memory, as well as family and individual memory, largely based on the subjective and emotional perception of the past. Despite the differences, all types of memory are closely related, their boundaries are conditional and permeable. Scientific knowledge influences the formation of collective ideas about the past and, in turn, is influenced by mass stereotypes. The historical experience of society was and in many respects remains the result of both a rational understanding of the past and its intuitive and emotional perception.
The didactic and pedagogical goals of the course are determined by a number of considerations.
Firstly, the need to introduce into the practice of specialized humanitarian education a course that updates the previously studied material. This actualization of the material not only emphasizes the most important information blocks, but also introduces its driving mechanism into the knowledge system - the method of studying the past. Acquaintance with the technique of historical knowledge provides a practical opportunity to understand and feel the most important immanent feature of historical knowledge - a paradoxical combination of objectivity and conventionality in it.
Secondly, this course, demonstrating the strength and weakness of historical knowledge, its multilevel nature and dependence on the cultural context, in fact, carries out desacralization " scientific picture historical past." It reflects the coordinates denoting the boundaries of historical research, its social functions and the possibility of influencing public consciousness. It can be said that the main pedagogical goal of this course is the awakening of healthy skepticism and a critical attitude towards many seemingly obvious assessments of the past and definitions of the patterns of social development.
The construction of the course follows the logic of the historical development of the object of study - historical knowledge - from archaic antiquity to the present day, in the context of society and culture. The course deals with the main forms and levels of historical knowledge: myth, mass perception of the past, rational knowledge (philosophy of history), academic historicism, historical sociology, cultural studies, latest destinations historical research. The objective of the course is to demonstrate the fact of the diversity and variability of the forms of cognition of the past in historical and civilizational perspectives. The perception and knowledge of the past, as well as the assessment of its significance for the present, were different for the people of ancient Rome, the inhabitants of medieval Europe and representatives of the industrial society. Historical consciousness differs no less significantly in the cultural traditions of European and Eastern civilizations. A significant part of the course is devoted to the analysis of the formation of national historical knowledge and, above all, to a comparison of the development paths and mechanisms of interaction between Russian and European traditions.
In addition to the historical, the course has a structural component, focuses on the main categories and concepts of historical knowledge, such concepts as "history", "historical time", "historical source", "historical truth" and "historical pattern". The course shows the complex structure of historical knowledge, in particular, the differentiation of the scientific rational tradition and the mass irrational perception of the past, as well as their interaction. One of the most significant is the theme of the formation of historical myths and prejudices, their rooting in the mass consciousness and influence on political ideology.
Chapter 1. WHAT IS HISTORY
The arguments that a person comes up with on his own usually convince him more than those that come to the mind of others.
Blaise Pascal
Terms and issues
The word "history" in most European languages has two main meanings: one of them refers to the past of mankind, the other - to the literary and narrative genre, a story, often fictional, about certain events. In the first sense, history means the past in the broadest sense - as a set of human deeds. In addition, the term "history" indicates knowledge about the past and denotes the totality of social ideas about the past. Synonyms of history in this case are the concepts of "historical memory", "historical consciousness", "historical knowledge" and "historical science".
The phenomena denoted by these concepts are interconnected, and it is often difficult, almost impossible, to draw a line between them. However, in general, the first two concepts are more indicative of a spontaneously formed image of the past, while the last two imply a predominantly purposeful and critical approach to its cognition and evaluation.
It is noteworthy that the term "history", which implies knowledge of the past, retains to a large extent its literary meaning. Knowledge of the past and the presentation of this knowledge in a coherent oral or written presentation always involves a story about certain events and phenomena, revealing their formation, development, internal drama and significance. History as a special form human knowledge formed within the framework literary creativity and keeps in touch with him to this day.
Historical sources are diverse in nature: these are written monuments, oral traditions, works of material and artistic culture. For some eras, this evidence is extremely scarce, for others it is abundant and heterogeneous. However, in any case, they do not recreate the past as such, and their information is not direct. For posterity, these are only fragments of a lost forever picture of the past. To recreate historical events, information about the past must be identified, deciphered, analyzed and interpreted. Cognition of the past is connected with the procedure of its reconstruction. A scientist, as well as any person interested in history, does not simply investigate some object, but, in essence, recreates it. This is the difference between the subject of historical knowledge and the subject of exact sciences, where any phenomenon is perceived as an unconditional reality, even if it has not been studied and explained.
Historical knowledge was formed in antiquity in the process of development of society and social consciousness. The interest of the community of people in their past has become one of the manifestations of the tendency towards self-knowledge and self-determination. It was based on two interrelated motives - the desire to preserve the memory of oneself for posterity and the desire to understand one's own present by referring to the experience of ancestors. Different eras and different civilizations throughout the history of mankind have shown interest in the past, not only in different forms, but also to different degrees. The general and fair judgment of modern science can be considered the assumption that only in European culture, which has its origins in Greco-Roman antiquity, did the knowledge of the past acquire exceptional social and political significance. All eras of the formation of the so-called Western civilization - antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times - are marked by the interest of society, its individual groups and individuals in the past. The ways of preserving the past, studying it and telling about it changed in the process community development, only the tradition remained unchanged to look in the past for answers to the pressing questions of the present. Historical knowledge was not just an element of European culture, but one of the most important sources of its formation. Ideology, value system, social behavior developed in accordance with the way contemporaries understood and explained their own past.
From the 60s. 20th century historical science and historical knowledge as a whole are going through a turbulent period of breaking the traditions and stereotypes that were formed in the new European society during the 18th-19th centuries. Over the past decades, not only have new approaches to the study of history emerged, but the idea has also arisen that the past can be interpreted endlessly. The idea of the multi-layered past suggests that there is no single history, there are only many separate “stories”. A historical fact acquires reality only to the extent that it becomes part of human consciousness. The plurality of "stories" is generated not only by the complexity of the past, but also by the specifics of historical knowledge. The thesis that historical knowledge is unified and has a universal set of methods and tools for cognition was rejected by a significant part of the scientific community. The historian is recognized the right to personal choice, both the subject of research and intellectual tools.
Two questions are most essential to contemporary discussions about the meaning of history as a science. Is there a single past about which the historian must tell the truth, or does it break up into an infinite number of "stories" to be interpreted and studied? Does the researcher have the opportunity to comprehend the true meaning of the past and tell the truth about it? Both questions concern the cardinal problem of the social purpose of history and its "benefit" for society. Thinking about how historical research can be used by society in the modern, complex, changing world forces scientists to return again and again to the analysis of the mechanisms of historical consciousness, to seek an answer to the question: how and for what purpose did people of previous generations study the past. The subject of this course is history as a process of knowing the past.
Historical consciousness and historical memory
History as a process of knowing the past, including the selection and preservation of information about it, is one of the manifestations of social memory, the ability of people to store and comprehend their own experience and the experience of previous generations.
Memory is considered as one of the most important qualities of a person, which distinguishes him from animals; it is a meaningful attitude to one's own past, the most important source of personal self-awareness and self-determination. A person deprived of memory loses the opportunity to understand himself, to determine his place among other people. Memory accumulates a person's knowledge of the world, various situations in which he may find himself, his experiences and emotional reactions, information about proper behavior in everyday and emergency conditions. Memory differs from abstract knowledge: it is knowledge personally experienced and felt by a person, his life experience. Historical consciousness - the preservation and comprehension of the historical experience of society - is its collective memory.
Historical consciousness, or the collective memory of society, is heterogeneous, just like the individual memory of a person. Three circumstances are important for the formation of historical memory: oblivion of the past; different ways of interpreting the same facts and events; the discovery in the past of those phenomena, the interest in which is caused by the actual problems of current life.
places of memory
« HISTORICAL MEMORY»
In modern humanitarian knowledge, the concept of historical memory has become one of the most popular. It is addressed not only by historians, but also by sociologists, culturologists, writers and, of course, politicians.
There are many interpretations of the concept of "historical memory". Let us note the main definitions: a way of preserving and transmitting the past in an era of loss of tradition (hence the invention of traditions and the establishment of “places of memory” in modern society); individual memory of the past; part of the social stock of knowledge that already exists in primitive societies as a "collective memory" of the past, if we are talking about the group, and as "social memory" when it comes to society; ideologized history; a synonym for historical consciousness (the latter statements, according to authoritative researchers, are not entirely legitimate) 1 . "Historical memory" is also interpreted as a set of ideas about the social past that exist in society, both at the mass and at the individual level, including their cognitive, figurative and emotional aspects. In this case, mass knowledge about the past social reality is the content of "historical memory". Or "historical memory" is the strongholds of mass knowledge about the past, the minimum set key images events and personalities of the past in oral, visual or textual form that are present in active memory 2 .
Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences Zh.T. Toshchenko in his study notes that historical memory “is a certain way focused consciousness, which reflects the special significance and relevance of information about the past in close connection with the present and future. Historical memory is essentially an expression of the process of organizing, preserving and reproducing the past experience of a people, country, state for its possible use in people's activities or for the return of its influence to the sphere of public consciousness. Complete or partial oblivion of the historical experience, culture of one's country and one's people leads to amnesia, which calls into question the possibility of the existence of this people in history” 3 .
L.P. Repina recalls that, as a rule, the concept of "memory" is used in the sense of "common experience experienced by people together" (we can also talk about the memory of generations), and more broadly - as a historical experience deposited in the memory of the human community. Historical memory is understood in this case as collective memory (to the extent that it fits into the historical consciousness of the group) or as social memory (to the extent that it fits into the historical consciousness of society), or in general - as a set of pre-scientific, scientific, quasi-scientific and extra-scientific knowledge and mass representations of the society about the common past. Historical memory is one of the dimensions of individual and collective / social memory, it is the memory of the historical past, or rather, its symbolic representation. Historical memory is not only one of the main channels for the transfer of experience and information about the past, but also the most important component of the self-identification of an individual, a social group and society as a whole, because the revival of shared images of the historical past is a type of memory that is of particular importance for the constitution and integration of social groups in the present. The images of events fixed by collective memory in the form of various cultural stereotypes, symbols, myths act as interpretive models that allow an individual and a social group to navigate in the world and in specific situations 4 .
Historical memory is not only socially differentiated, it is subject to change. Changes in interest and perception in relation to the historical past of a particular community are associated with social phenomena. Interest in the past is part of the public consciousness, and major events and changes in social conditions, the accumulation and comprehension of new experience give rise to a change in this consciousness and a reassessment of the past. At the same time, the memorial cliches themselves, on which memory is based, do not change, but are replaced by other, equally stable stereotypes.
Historical memory is mobilized and updated during difficult periods in the life of a society or any social group, when they face new difficult tasks or a real threat to their very existence is created. Such situations have repeatedly arisen in the history of each country, ethnic or social group. Major social shifts, political upheavals give a powerful impetus to changes in the perception of images and assessment of the significance of historical figures and historical events(including purposeful intellectual activity): there is a process of transformation of collective memory, which captures not only the “living” social memory, the memory of the experiences of contemporaries and participants in events, but also the deep layers of the cultural memory of society, preserved by tradition and turned to the distant past 5 .
Bibliography
1 The study of history aims to reflect the past as accurately as possible, often on the basis of theories and approaches borrowed from other scientific disciplines (for example, sociology). On the contrary, the oral tradition of transmitting information about the past is mythological. It is characterized by the fact that memory stores and "reproduces" information about the past based on the imagination generated by the feelings and sensations caused by the present. Memories of past events, as psychologists have long established, are reproduced through the prism of the present. The difference between history and historical memory also lies in how the possibilities of knowing the time that is moving away from us are interpreted. Although a historian who studies ancient epochs is sometimes faced with a lack of sources, in general the idea dominates: over the years, as past events lose their immediate relevance, it becomes possible to give them a more objective description, including a statement of causes, patterns and results, to what the science of history seeks. On the contrary, with the natural departure of people - contemporaries of historical events, historical memory changes, acquires new shades, becomes less reliable and more "saturated" with the realities of today. That is, unlike scientific knowledge about the past, historical memory, as it were, becomes even more politically and ideologically actualized over time. In relation to the concept of "historical consciousness", which is close to "historical memory". Let's use the definition given at the time by the well-known sociologist Y. Levada. This concept covers the whole variety of spontaneously formed or science-created forms in which society realizes (perceives and evaluates) its past—more precisely, in which society reproduces its movement in time. Consequently, historical consciousness can be used as a synonym for historical memory, however, in general, this is a broader concept, since it includes memory as a “spontaneous” phenomenon and, at the same time, scientific and historiographic ideas about the past. Historical consciousness presupposes the presence of at least elements of reflection on own ideas about the past.
2 Savelyeva I. M., Poletaev A. V. Ordinary ideas about the past: theoretical approaches // Dialogues with time: memory of the past in the context of history / Edited by L. P. Repina. - M.: Krug, 2008. - S. 61.
3 Toshchenko Zh.T. paradoxical person. - 2nd ed. - M., 2008. - S. 296-297.
4 Repina L.P. Memory and historical writing // History and memory: historical culture Europe before the beginning of modern times / Edited by L.P. Repina. - M.: Krug, 2006. - S. 24.
5 Repina L.P. Memory and historical writing // History and memory: the historical culture of Europe before the beginning of modern times…. - S. 24, 38.
HISTORICAL MEMORY OF THE PEOPLE
Solomatina Victoria Vitalievna
4th year student, Department of Russian History, NEFU M.K. Ammosov,
Yakutsk
Argunov Valery Georgievich
scientific supervisor, Ph.D. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor, NEFU named after. M.K. Ammosova, Yakutsk
The memory of history is a kind of pantheon of national identity. It contains knowledge about historical battles, fateful events, life and creative activity. eminent figures politics and science, technology and art. Historical memory reproduces the continuity and continuity of social life. The whole history of mankind is a bank of memory. History acts as a mediator in the change of generations. The knowledge acquired by it in the past becomes a necessary element in the future, they are necessary in a spiritual culture, in which there is always a historical basis. Therefore, history is included in the curriculum of school education, since each novice generation needs knowledge of the history of their country.
D.S. Likhachev argued that - “Memory resists the destructive power of time. Memory - overcoming time, overcoming space. Memory is the basis of conscience and morality, memory is the basis of culture. Keeping the memory and protecting the memory is our moral duty to ourselves and to our descendants. Memory is our wealth. Memory as an "incorporeal spiritual substance" becomes a distinct force, especially during the ultimate trials that fall to the lot of people. A person needs to feel himself in history, to understand his significance in modern life leave a good memory of yourself.
The process of historical memory does not mean a mechanical repetition and reproduction of the past, it reflects the complexity, ambiguity of human relations, changes in spiritual values and personal positions, the influence of subjective opinions. Evidence of this is the "blank spots" and "black holes" in world and national history.
Historical memory is selective, since each historical epoch has its own criteria for values, hence its own principles for selecting values. In this regard, the function of social memory tends to change its content. Representatives of Russian historiography of the 17th - early 20th centuries. revered some priorities, Soviet historical science - others. Estimates of historical events also corresponded to the spirit and morality of the era and society. Judgments about the past are changeable, for example, attitudes and assessments of individual historical characters and events change. It is not the past itself that dictates the attitude to the past, but modern environment. The past in itself cannot oblige anyone to this or that variant of attitude towards itself, therefore, it cannot interfere with the worst of them, which grossly distorts the real image of the past in favor of the present. Scientific arguments cannot prevent this, therefore, the area for resolving this issue is not historical science, but society. Historical knowledge is able to offer a more or less adequate image of the past, but whether it becomes an element of historical consciousness or not depends on society, the state and alignment of social forces in it, the position of power and the state.
The function of historical memory imposes on historical science concern for the protection of historical monuments. No wonder there are concepts of "historical lack of culture" and "ecology of culture". Historical science provides for a special branch - the protection of cultural and historical heritage. Everyone knows that cultural and historical values are a national treasure. The importance of preserving historical monuments was recognized by society quite early. In 457, the Roman emperor Majorian issued an edict on the protection of architectural monuments from hunters for well-hewn stones. In Russia, Peter I, by his decrees of 1718 and 1721, outlined a special program for the protection of Russian antiquities. He also initiated the buying up of works of art, including antique statues abroad. In the future, state decrees on the preservation of historical monuments continued to be issued. In 1966, the All-Russian Society for the Protection of Historical and Cultural Monuments was formed. Many historians actively collaborated in it.
Forms of historical memory of the people:
1. Library. D.S. Likhachev considered libraries “the most important thing in the culture of any country”, since it is in the library funds that the historical memory of the people is concentrated. The book is originally a public thing, designed for mass production, distribution and use. This is its outstanding role in the transmission and preservation of historical memory.
2. The museum, like the library, is designed to broadcast historical memory. A museum object - whether it be a work of art or everyday life - can be typical or unique, unrepeatable. A significant part of the museum items also has the property of relics in their origin or belonging. Museum object has the ability of cognitive, visual and figurative, emotional impact on a person.
3. Archive. A document differs from a book and a museum object by its authenticity in reflecting historical memory. The document has the property of legal evidence of the fact, events, phenomenon, process recorded in it, and for this reason is subject to mandatory storage - eternal or for a certain period of time.
Libraries, museums and archives are the main keepers of historical memory, but there are also other forms of preserving historical memory - 1) historical songs (songs of glory, songs of lamentation, songs of chronicles, etc.) that have a specific historicism . First, a historical event is created, then a genre and a legend are born, then a song form; 2) historical legends; 3) epics; 4) myths; 5) ballads, etc.
Monuments as texts of history are an information and spiritual resource of civilization, a silent witness to changes and conflicting opinions.
Social memory is formed in the minds of the people historically in the form of historical traditions, customs, legends, historical songs. Most often, they reflect the people's assessment of historical events, phenomena, personalities. Attempts to artificially create new traditions and customs usually fail.
Historical memory is a way of self-knowledge of society. It informs the society of the necessary sustainable knowledge. For example - if they want to emphasize the greatness of the people, then they say that its history goes back centuries.
Historical memory often becomes an arena for ideological conflicts, spiritual dramas and tragedies. The rewriting of history, the reassessment of the past, the overthrow of idols, irony and mockery break the fragile thread of historical memory and change the energy potential of culture. Great "fathers" become forgotten "grandfathers", new monuments contradict the old value orientations, memorials become ownerless, books turn out to be unnecessary. There are many examples of this. Expositions in museums are changing, names erased by censorship in paintings and photographs are being restored, old monuments are being revived.
The memory of history is necessary for every civilization. The loss of historical memory for the people is tantamount to the loss of memory for a person. A person who loses his memory ceases to be a person.
History is the collective memory of the people. The loss of historical memory destroys public consciousness, makes life meaningless, barbaric. Such are the demons of F.M. Dostoevsky with their clear program: "It is necessary that a people like ours should not have a history, but what they had under the guise of history should be forgotten with disgust." In this case, we are talking about the collective memory of the people, mass historical sclerosis. Forgetfulness makes it impossible to properly navigate the present and the ability to understand what needs to be done in the future.
In the chain of times "past-present-future" the first link is the most significant and the most vulnerable. The destruction of the connection of times, that is, historical memory or consciousness, begins with the past. What does it mean to destroy historical memory? This means, first of all, to break the connection of times. You can rely on history only if it is connected by a chain of times. In order to destroy historical memory, it is necessary to scatter history, turn it into incoherent episodes, that is, arrange chaos in consciousness, make it fragmentary. In this case, it will not be possible to form a complete picture of development from individual pieces. This means a break in the dialogue between generations, which leads to the tragedy of oblivion.
To destroy historical memory means to withdraw, to confiscate some part of the past, to make it as if non-existent, to declare it a mistake, a delusion.
It should be noted that the ecology of history and culture is very easy to disturb. different ways: revolutionary upheavals, plowing of land, treasure hunting, technical miscalculations, negligence and indifference. For example, the names of Peter Beketov, the founder of five Siberian cities, including Yakutsk, are forgotten; Kurbat Ivanov, the discoverer of Lake Baikal, abandoned the village on the Chusovaya River, from where Yermak began his journey.
Most people today know and remember the events of the Great Patriotic War, since strong traditions of honoring all veterans and fallen participants in the war have been preserved, and we know many of its events well from books and films. The situation is worse with earlier historical events, the eyewitnesses of which have long since passed away. Take, for example, some of the events of the First World War or the Crimean War - many compatriots know little about them. The memory of many scientists and public figures of the past who glorified the country is also being erased.
It must be remembered that our land is able to give birth to the most worthy and talented people. Unfortunately, we forget about many of them. These people included the governor of the Yakutsk region, Ivan Ivanovich Kraft, whose name until recently was known only in narrow circles, despite the fact that he did a lot for the development Agriculture, animal husbandry, veterinary business, fur trade in Yakutia. He developed trade, contributed to the statistical and geographical survey of the region, under his leadership shelters for the blind, deaf, insane were opened, hospitals and paramedical stations were built, and he was also engaged in urban improvement, etc.
The connection of times breaks during periods of acute social crises, social upheavals, upheavals, revolutions. Revolutionary upheavals, bringing with them changes in the social system, gave rise to the deepest crises of historical consciousness. However, historical experience shows that the connection of times was eventually restored. Society, at all times, feels the need to restore ties with the past, with its roots: any era is generated by the previous stage of historical development and it is impossible to overcome this connection, that is, it is not possible to start development from scratch.
Conquerors have always desecrated and destroyed historical monuments, since to kill the memory of the people means to kill the people themselves. An example of this is the destruction of the Nazis during the Great Patriotic War. A. Hitler argued that “it would be wiser to install a loudspeaker in every village in order to inform people about the news in this way and give them food for conversation. This is better than allowing them to independently study political, scientific, historical, and the like, information. And let it never occur to anyone to transmit to the conquered peoples by radio information about their former history.
Historical memory, by its very nature, does not have such obvious evidence of its practical application in the life of society. This fact is one of the causes of prejudices that question or completely reject the social significance of historical knowledge in people's lives. For example, Hegel said - "Peoples and governments do not learn anything - each time is too individual", Nietzsche - "Historical memory threatens to die from" flooding "by someone else's past - history. It follows that the study of the past teaches nothing or even harms. The question arises: “Why has not a single generation of people been unconscious so far, but in one form or another retained the memory of their past?” First of all, professional historians help to preserve historical memory. Historians and writers contribute to the return of historical memory to a fuller extent.
In our time, literary works (biographical books, memoirs, historical almanacs dedicated to certain eras), films convey ideas about the tragic pages Russian history, can revive public interest in history, stimulate after watching the film, read books on the history of that era or biographies of their heroes. Of considerable importance is oral history, enshrined in the memoirs of the participants in the events. Their authenticity creates a special emotional channel of belonging to the past. Without understanding the past, it is difficult to understand the present and build the future. Therefore, it is important to preserve the historical memory, to know the events of the past, the life and deeds of the great people of our people.
Bibliography:
- Smolensky N.I. Theory and methodology of history. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 272 p.
Bulletin of Chelyabinsk state university. 2015. No. 6 (361). Story. Issue. 63. S. 132-137.
O. O. Dmitrieva
HISTORICAL MEMORY AND MECHANISMS OF ITS FORMATION: ANALYSIS OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS IN RUSSIAN SCIENCE
On the basis of studying the studies of domestic scientists, the concept of "historical memory" is analyzed, its forms and classification are distinguished. Such concepts as "historical consciousness", "commemoration", "recommemoration", "image of the past", "places of memory" are considered as mechanisms for the formation of historical memory. At the same time, "recommemoration" is analyzed as a purposeful process of forgetting certain historical facts. Compared various interpretations the role of historical memory in the process of constructing national identity. The article discusses the scientific views of foreign researchers of memorial subjects (M. Halbvaks, P. Nora, A. Megill), as well as the influence of their concepts on the views of domestic scientists (G. M. Ageeva, V. N. Badmaev, M. A Barg, T. A. Bulygina, T. N. Kozhemyako, N. V. Grishina, I. N. Gorin, V. V. Menshikov, Yu. A. Levada, O. B. Leontieva, V. I. Mazhovnikov , O. V. Morozov, M. V. Sokolova, L. P. Repina).
Key words: historical memory; historical consciousness; image of the past; commemoration.
At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. in historical science, much attention is paid to memorial issues, where the focus of research is not on an event and date, but on the formation of historical memory about this event and date. “The interest of domestic historians in the problem of historical memory is explained by the current agenda for modern Russia,” notes O. V. Morozov, “the appeal to historical memory is due to the fact that for more than twenty years Russian society it was not possible to determine moral guidelines, identity, as well as approaches to assessing the national past”1.
Despite the active interest of researchers, the conceptual apparatus of this problem is debatable, there are different interpretations of the term "historical memory", different approaches to its study. In this regard, a historiographic analysis of this problem is necessary, which is the purpose of the article. Its tasks include characterization of the main views of the founders of memorial historiography and their reflection in the works of Russian researchers. Historiographical constants in my analysis are historical memory, its structure, formation mechanisms and its relationship with historical knowledge.
For a correct assessment of the work of domestic researchers, it is necessary first of all to
1 Morozov O. V. Rev. on the book: Leontyeva O. B. Historical memory and images of the past in Russian culture 19th - early 20th centuries. S. 374.
turn to the works of one of the founders of memorial problems M. Halbvaks. He was the first to propose the interpretation of memory as a socially conditioned element of social consciousness and collective identity. The French scientist believed that memory cannot be considered as something inherent only in “a purely individual body or consciousness”, that there is a completely unique phenomenon of the formation of group consciousness, the study of which requires an interdisciplinary approach. Highlighting interconnected individual memory based on personal experience, and collective memory2. Thus, in his works, for the first time, he drew attention to the study of memory within the framework of a collective (social) dimension, and not just individual autobiographical experience.
Modern domestic scientists conduct research on this problem in an interdisciplinary field. An important issue is the correlation of historical knowledge, historical memory and historical consciousness. M. A. Barg was one of the first to raise this problem, believing that it is a mistake to identify historical consciousness and historical memory, because this means identifying it only with the experience of the past, depriving measurements of the present and future. He pointed out: “Public consciousness is historical not only because its content has been
2 Halbvaks M. Collective and historical memory. S. 8.
time develops and changes, but also because by its certain side it is "turned" into the past, "immersed" in history. On this occasion, L.P. Repina writes: “The basis of any historical writing is, first of all, historical consciousness, uniting the past with the present, projected into the future”2. The Russian sociologist Yu. A. Levada gives the following definition of historical consciousness: “This concept embraces the whole variety of spontaneously formed or science-created forms in which society is aware of its past”3.
The very concept of historical consciousness, according to scientists, is broader than the concept of historical memory. If memory is basically turned to the experience of the past, the experience of history, then historical and social consciousness is, as it were, the embodiment of the experience of the past, projected in the present and oriented towards the future, as if a product formed in the process of society's awareness of itself, its relationship to history in present tense.
Often history and historical memory are perceived as synonyms, but this is not so. According to M. V. Sokolova, “the study of history is aimed at a more objective and accurate reflection of the past. The oral tradition of transmitting information about the past, on the contrary, is mythological, characterized by the fact that memory retains and “reproduces” information about the past on the basis of imagination generated by feelings and sensations”4. V. N. Badmaev, drawing attention to the question of the relationship between history and memory, writes: “... Historical memory is characterized as a stable system of ideas about the past that exist in the public mind. It is characterized not so much by a rational as by an emotional assessment of the past. In this he sees the fundamental difference between historical science and historical memory. According to Badmaev, historical memory is selective, highlighting some facts, it consigns others to oblivion.
L.P. Repina in her writings emphasizes that it is impossible to draw a clear line between historical knowledge and historical memory, since there is no significant gap between them. “... The most important difference between history and memory is that the historian can discover what is not in memory, what concerned "immemorial
1 Barg M.A. Epochs and ideas: the formation of historicism. pp. 5-6.
2 Repina L.P. historical science. S. 479.
3 Levada Yu. A. Historical consciousness and scientific method. S. 191.
4 Sokolova M. V. What is historical memory. S. 37.
5 Badmaev VN Mentality and historical memory. S. 79.
times", or simply forgotten. This is one of the main functions of historical research "6. An important subject of research by Russian scientists is the structure of historical memory, its forms and classification. L.P. Repina points out: "Historical memory finds its expression in various forms. There are two models for representing the historical past: this is the epic (the original sound way of transmitting historical memory) and the chronicle (originally the written way of fixing it)”7.
I. N. Gorin and V. V. Menshchikov give their classification of the forms of historical memory: firstly, this is “the memory of generations, transmitted and stored in the form of an oral history of the community, which tends to transform events, forget “little things” or supplement them with new ones. elements. In this process, the sacralization of events takes place, during which the next form appears - myths. Researchers note the peculiarity of the myth as "a special form of historical memory, freeing it from archetypes, we can reproduce the historical background""8.
The next form of historical memory is scientific. Following her, I.N. Gorin and
V. V. Menshchikov also single out such a form as cultural and historical symbols, believing that this is “a form of historical memory based on the refraction of historical events through the system of values and ethical and cultural norms dominant in society.” These are events, phenomena, facts and heroes of the past, which received a certain significance and value content in the “historical memory of a particular community”9. Scientists believe that this concept also corresponds to the concept of "image of the past", actively used in modern research. We can agree that the image of an event, first of all, embodies a symbol that glorifies certain characters and an event. The symbol becomes a kind of schematized idea.
O. B. Leontieva pays great attention to the problem of forming historical images of the past as a “method of studying historical memory”. In her opinion, “it is the images of events and characters of the past, created in the works of artistic culture, that are the basis of everyday ideas about the past”10.
6 Repina L.P. Historical science. S. 435.
7 Ibid. S. 419.
8 Gorin I. N., Menshchikov V. V. Cultural and historical symbols and historical memory. S. 74.
9 Ibid. S. 76.
10 Leontyeva O. B. Historical memory and images of the past.
The researcher notes that the study of images of the past allows us to trace the visual process of turning the facts of reality into facts of historical memory.
Undoubtedly, the image of the past is the fundamental basis of historical memory. It is with the help of a complex of fragmentary memories, everyday ideas about history that we have the opportunity to observe and study the phenomenon of historical memory. Images of the past exist in various forms. These can be images of specific historical events, individual historical figures, social groups or collective types. The image of an event or a historical person, as a rule, is based on a complex of unsystematic memories. Over time, when the events experienced turn into history, when there are fewer and fewer contemporaries left, the image is more and more transformed and modified, more and more moving away from historical reality. So the complex of images of the past forms historical memory.
Researchers pay special attention to the mechanisms of formation of historical memory. On the basis of what are some facts forgotten and others updated? After all, memory is not formed chaotically, it is based on a complex of certain components. The formation of images of the past can be considered the basic mechanism for the formation of historical memory.
The process of selecting the historical past, actualization or conscious oblivion of certain facts are associated with such concepts as commemoration and recommemoration. They can be considered as varieties of mechanisms for the formation of historical memory. One of the founders of these concepts, A. Megill, defines commemoration as a process when "recorded memories of past events can turn into something akin to objects of religious veneration." He believes that when worship arises, “memory becomes something else: memory becomes commemoration”1. His views influenced domestic scientists. G. M. Ageeva defines commemoration as “perpetuating the memory of events: the construction of monuments, the organization of museums, the identification of significant dates, holidays, public events and much more"2.
Thus, commemoration is seen as a purposeful actualization of the historical
1 Megill A. Historical epistemology. S. 110.
2 Ageeva G. M. Practices of virtual commemoration in the library and information sphere. S. 156.
cal memory. Badmaev notes that “historical memory reacts in a particularly peculiar way to the tragic and dramatic events of history: wars, revolutions, repressions. Such periods are characterized by the destabilization of social structures, the growth of contradictions and conflicts”3. In the context of such a destabilization of society, commemorative practices play a rather important role. N. V. Grishina, analyzing the concept of A. Megill, believes that commemoration is “a kind of way of holding the community together, purposeful recollection”4. The researcher also agrees with A. Megill that “commemoration arises in the present from the desire of the community that exists at the moment to confirm the feeling of its unity and community, strengthening ties within the community through the attitude shared by its members<...>to the representation of past events.
The opposite of commemoration is the process of recommemoration as a purposeful and conscious process of forgetting certain tragic, painful pages of history for society, keeping silent about the crimes committed by one or another community in the past. The process of "forgetting", in our opinion, should also be interpreted as one of the mechanisms for the formation of historical memory. How is the process of selecting historical facts that have become the foundation for the formation of historical memory going? V. N. Badmaev notes that the causes of oblivion may be different, due to feelings of guilt or “cliotraumatic-ness”. L.P. Repina believes that “the conscious manipulation of public consciousness can be one of the reasons for the process of oblivion”6. O. B. Leontieva emphasizes “the selective and creative nature of historical memory, while oblivion is its integral element, with the help of which a holistic picture of the past with internal logic is built”7. Thus, the study of the selectivity of historical memory is one of the debatable problems. The process of oblivion can be quite purposeful, when the unpleasant facts of history are deliberately erased from the memory of society and updated
3 Badmaev VN Mentality and historical memory. S. 80.
4 Grishina N. V. V. O. Klyuchevsky's school of historical science and Russian culture. S. 24.
5 Megill A. Historical epistemology. S. 116.
6 Repina L.P., Zvereva V.V., Paramonova M.Yu. History of historical knowledge. pp. 11-12.
7 Leontyeva OB Historical memory and images of the past. S. 13.
heroic milestones of the country's past.
When studying historical memory, it is necessary to analyze another conceptual, indisputably important, mechanism for its formation - the creation of "places of memory". Domestic researchers were influenced by the concept of P. Nora, who wrote: “Places of memory are the remains. The extreme form in which commemorative consciousness exists in history<...>Museums, archives, cemeteries, collections, holidays, anniversaries, treatises, protocols, monuments, temples, associations - all these values in themselves are witnesses of another era, illusions of eternity. There is a close connection between commemorative practices and places of memory. In addition, memorial historiography has developed the idea that images of the past cannot exist without places of memory, since they need a specific form of fixation on the basis of which they can be formed. In this regard, places of memory are one of the basic elements for constructing and visualizing images of the past.
When analyzing the features of historical memory, it comes to the fore political motive its construction. The authorities purposefully use the mechanisms of forming historical memory in order to consolidate society, form a common understanding of the commonality of their past, their national heritage and national identity. At the same time, the process of forming historical memory goes in parallel with the formation of a general attitude towards power in general. T. A. Bulygina and T. N. Kozhemyako note that “the historical memory of society is modeled according to various patterns developed by the authorities and the opposition over many decades of national history”2.
The connection between historical memory and political structures is noted by V. I. Mazhnikov, who believes that the actualization of the study of historical memory “is mainly determined by the need of the state, the ruling political elite to intensify the impact on the mass public consciousness”3.
“Political manipulation of historical memory is a powerful means of controlling the consciousness of a person and society,” notes L.P. Repina, “not only official authorities, but also opposition ones are busy constructing acceptable versions of historical memory.
1 Nora P. France - memory. S. 26.
2 Bulygina T. A. Historical memory and anniversaries in Russia in the XX-XXI centuries. S. 63.
3 Mazhnikov V. I. Historical memory of the Stalingrad
battle. S. 8.
forces and various social movements. We can agree that the struggle for political leadership often manifests itself as a rivalry between different versions of historical memory and different symbols of its greatness.
Thus, the problem of historical memory is relevant and, at the same time, debatable in modern historical science. The actualization of this problem is quite understandable, because in modern society, in the context of globalization, rethinking of human history, information war and political instability, a common heritage, a common historical memory become basic and key element formation of national identity and national unity. This social significance should also correspond to the development, if not of unified points of view on this problem, then of a unified conceptual apparatus. This should move scholarly discussions away from the scholastic dispute over definitions towards a more meaningful study of both historical memory and the mechanisms of its formation.
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Dmitrieva Olga Olegovna - post-graduate student of the Department of History and Culture foreign countries Chuvash State University named after I. N. Ulyanov. [email protected]
Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State University. 2015. No. 6 (361). history. Issue 63. P. 132-137.
HISTORICAL MEMORY AND MECHANISMS OF ITS FORMATION: ANALYSIS OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL CONCEPTS IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE
A post-graduate student of the Department of History and Culture of Foreign Countries, Chuvash State University.
Studies by Russian scientists lay the foundation of this work to analyze the concept of""historical memory" and to reveal its shape and classification. Such concepts as "historical consciousness", "commemoration", "recommemoration", "image of the past", "memory location" are seen as mechanisms of the formation of historical memory. The "recommemoration" is analyzed as a purposeful process of oblivion of certain historical facts. Different interpretations of the role of memory in the process of constructing a national identity are The article describes scientific views of foreign scholars researching memorial subjects (M. Halbwachs, P. Nora, A. Megill), as well as the impact of their views on the concepts of national scholars (G. M. Ageeva, V. N. Badmaev, M. A. Barg , T. A. Bulygina, T. N. Kozhemyako, N. V. Grishina, I. N. Gorin, V. V. Menshikov, Y. A. Levada, O. B. Leontieva, V. I. Mazhovnikov, O. V. Morozov, M. V. Sokolova, L. P. Repina).
Keywords: historical memory; historical consciousness; the image of the past; commemoration.
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