A new body of power Zemsky Sobor arose in. Elected Rada
Zemsky Sobors- the highest estate-representative institutions with legislative functions, meetings of representatives of the city, regional, commercial and service class, which were at the call of the Moscow government to resolve the most important administrative and political affairs in the middle of the 16th-17th centuries. They included members of the Consecrated Cathedral (archbishops, bishops and others headed by the metropolitan, and from 1589 - with the patriarch, that is, the high-ranking clergy), the Boyar Duma and the duma clerks, the "sovereign's court", elected from the provincial nobility and the top citizens. During the 135 years of its existence (1549–1684), 57 councils were convened. Until 1598, all councils were deliberative; after the death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, electoral councils began to be convened. According to the method of convocation, zemstvo sobors were subdivided into those convened by the tsar; convened by the tsar on the initiative of the “people” (we could only talk about its top, since there were no representatives from the most numerous class - the peasants - at most cathedrals, except for 1613 and 1682); convened by the estates or at the initiative of the estates in the absence of the king; electoral for the kingdom.
The appearance of zemstvo sobors was the result of the unification of Russian lands into a single state in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the weakening of the influence of the princely-boyar aristocracy on the central government, and the growth of the political significance of the nobility and the upper tenants. The convening of the first Zemsky Sobor in 1549 coincides with the beginning of the reform period under the reign of Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible and with the sharp aggravation of the social confrontation between the "bottom" and "top" of society, especially in the capital, which accompanied it. Social conflicts forced the privileged elite of society to rally to pursue a policy that strengthens their economic and political position, state power. The Zemsky Sobor arose as a nationwide analogue of the city councils that existed in large county towns previously. The first meeting of the Zemsky Sobor lasted two days, there were three speeches of the tsar, speeches of the boyars, and finally, a meeting of the boyar duma took place, which decided on the lack of jurisdiction of the boyar children to the governors. The history of Zemsky Sobors began with this event. Starting from this first meeting, it was customary to hold discussions, as it were, in two “chambers”: the first was made up of boyars, rounders, butlers, treasurers, the second - governors, princes, boyar children, great nobles.
In the subsequent history of zemstvo sobors, six periods are distinguished: 1549–1584 (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible), 1584–1610 (the period of the so-called “interregnum”), 1610–1613 (the period of transformation of cathedrals into essential part the state-administrative system, since the convocation of the council of 1613, which elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne, was a logical consequence of the creation of the Council of All the Land in Yaroslavl during the years of the struggle against the Polish and Swedish interventionists; at the Zemstvo Sobor of 1613 there were even representatives from the black-haired peasantry), 1613-1622 (the period of the formation of cathedrals only as deliberative bodies). In 1622–1632, no councils met. The period 1632–1653 is marked by the rarity of references to councils, which were now convened only to resolve the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy: the adoption Cathedral Code in 1649, the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1653, etc. Last period 1653-1684 - the period of the decline in the significance of the convocation of zemstvo councils, the strengthening of the features of absolutism in the system of Russian autocratic government.
The convocation of the cathedral was carried out by a draft letter, which was heard from the king to famous people and localities. The letter contained the agenda items, the number of electives. If the number was not determined, it was decided by the population itself.
Elections of representatives to zemstvo sobors (the number of members was not determined and ranged from 200 to 500 people) were held in county towns and in lip camps in the form of meetings of certain ranks. Elected were convened by sending letters to the cities, which - with their counties - constituted electoral districts. Only those who paid taxes to the treasury, as well as people who served, could participate in the elections held by estates. At the end of the elections, a protocol of the meeting was drawn up, which was certified by all those participating in the elections. The protocol was sent to the Ambassadorial or Discharge Order.
The elected took with them the necessary supply of food or money, which the electors supplied them with. Salaries were not paid to elected officials, but there were petitions for payment of salaries. Meetings of councils could take years, so it was extremely important to stock up on elective everything you need. Only wealthy people could afford to be elected (a kind of obstacle for the poor).
Each Zemsky Sobor opened with a solemn service in the Kremlin's Assumption Cathedral, sometimes there were religious processions, after which there was a solemn meeting of the cathedral in in full force. The king made a speech. After that, deliberative meetings of the electives were held among themselves. Each class met separately. Voting on major issues took place in special "chambers" (rooms). Often, at the end of the Zemsky Assembly, a joint meeting of the entire council was held. Decisions were usually taken unanimously. At the closing of the cathedral, the king gave a solemn dinner for the elected.
The competence of Zemsky Sobors was very extensive. They resolved the issues of electing a new tsar to the kingdom (in 1584, the Zemsky Sobor elected Fyodor Ioanovich, in 1682, at the last council, Peter I was elected). The role of zemstvo sobors in matters of codification of law is well known (Sudebnik 1550, Sobornoe Code 1649 were adopted by the Sobors). The councils were also in charge of issues of war and peace, internal and tax administration. "church dispensation" during the years of the schism. Sobors also had a formal right of legislative initiative. The variety of functions of zemstvo sobors gives grounds for modern researchers to see in them not so much representative institutions as bureaucratic ones (S.O. Schmidt).
Zemsky Sobors disappeared (ceased to be convened) as a result of the strengthening of autocracy and the strengthening of royal power during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
Natalya Pushkareva
On October 1 (11), 1653, the Zemsky Sobor met in the Moscow Kremlin, which decided to reunite Left-bank Ukraine with Russia.
Zemsky Sobors - the central class-representative institution of Russia in the middle of the XVI-XVII centuries. The Zemsky Sobor included the tsar, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral in full force, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (trading people, large merchants), i.e. candidates of the three estates. The regularity and duration of meetings of Zemsky Sobors were not regulated in advance and depended on the circumstances and the importance and content of the issues discussed.
The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 was assembled to decide on the inclusion of Ukraine into the Muscovite state.
In the 17th century most of Ukraine was part of the Commonwealth - the united Polish-Lithuanian state. The official language on the territory of Ukraine was Polish, the state religion was Catholicism. The increase in feudal duties, religious oppression of Orthodox Ukrainians caused dissatisfaction with Polish domination, which in the middle of the 17th century. turned into a liberation war of the Ukrainian people.
The beginning of the war was initiated by an uprising in the Zaporizhzhya Sich in January 1648. Bohdan Khmelnitsky was at the head of the uprising. Having won a number of victories over the Polish troops, the rebels took Kyiv. Having concluded a truce with Poland, Khmelnytsky in early 1649 sent his representative to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept Ukraine under Russian rule. Rejecting this request due to the difficult internal situation in the country and unpreparedness for a war with Poland, the government at the same time began to provide diplomatic assistance, allowed the import of food and weapons to Ukraine.
In the spring of 1649, Poland resumed hostilities against the rebels, which continued until 1653. In February 1651, the Russian government, in order to put pressure on Poland, for the first time announced at the Zemsky Sobor that it was ready to accept Ukraine into its citizenship.
After a long exchange of embassies and letters between the Russian government and Khmelnitsky, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in June 1653 announced his consent to the transfer of Ukraine to Russian citizenship. 1(11) October 1653 Zemsky Sobor decided to reunite Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.
On January 8 (18), 1654, in Pereyaslavl the Great, the Rada unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine joining Russia and entered the war with Poland for Ukraine. As a result of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. The Commonwealth recognized the reunification of Left-bank Ukraine with Russia(Andrusov truce) .
The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 was the last Zemsky Sobor assembled in its entirety.
Lit .: Zertsalov A.N. On the history of Zemsky Sobors. M., 1887; Cherepnin L.V. Zemsky Sobors of the Russian State. M., 1978; Schmidt S. O. Zemsky Sobors. M., 1972. T. 9 .
See also in the Presidential Library:
Avaliani S. L. Zemsky Sobors. Odessa, 1910
;Belyaev I. D. Zemsky Sobors in Rus'. M., 1867
;Vladimirsky-Budanov M.F. Zemsky Sobors in the Moscow State, V.I. Sergeevich. (Collection of state knowledge. Vol. II). Kyiv., 1875 ;
Dityatin I.I. The role of petitions and zemstvo councils in the administration of the Moscow state. Rostov n / a., 1905 ;
Knyazkov S.A. Paintings on Russian history, published under the general editorship [and explanatory text] S.A. Knyazkov. No. 14: S. IN. Ivanov. Zemsky Sobor (XVII century). 1908 ;
Latkin V. N. Zemsky Sobors of Ancient Rus', Their History and Organization in Comparison with Western European Representative Institutions. SPb., 1885 ;
Lipinsky M. A. Criticism and bibliography: V. N. Latkin. Zemsky Sobors of Ancient Rus'. SPb., 1885 ;
IN XVI century In Russia, a fundamentally new body of state administration arose - the Zemsky Sobor. Zemsky Sobor - the highest estate-representative institution of the Russian state, from the middle of the XVI to late XVII centuries. This is a gathering of representatives of all segments of the population (except for the serfs) at which economic, political and administrative issues were discussed.
Composition of the Zemsky Sobor
The Zemsky Sobor included: the tsar, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral in full force, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (merchant people, large merchants), and sometimes state peasants. Zemsky Sobor as a representative body was bicameral. In the upper house there was a tsar, the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral were included, which were not elected, but took part in it in accordance with their position.
Order of elections for the council
Members of the lower house were elected. The order of elections for the council was as follows. From the Discharge Order, the governors received an order on elections, which was read to the inhabitants of cities and peasants. After that, estate electoral lists were compiled, although the number of representatives was not recorded. Voters gave their elected mandates. But elections were not always held. There were cases when, during the urgent convocation of a council, representatives were invited by the king or local officials.
In the Zemsky Sobor, the nobles (the main service class, the basis of the army) and merchants played an important role, because the solution of monetary problems to provide funds for state needs, primarily defense and military, depended on their participation in this meeting.
As representatives of the population, not specially elected deputies were invited, but mainly officials who were at the head of local noble and township societies. When making any decision, the members of the council were obliged at the same time to be the executors of this decision. During early XVII century, the cathedral representation was only elective, and its permanent members were representatives of the service and townspeople. The free peasantry, forming common “all-district worlds” with the townspeople, was also represented at the councils, but the serfs did not take part in them.
"Tsar John IV opens the first Zemsky Sobor with his penitential speech"
Discussion questions. Duration
At the Zemsky Sobor, the discussion of issues took place in ranks and in groups. After discussing the issue, the elected people submitted their written opinions to the groups - the so-called "fairy tales".
The regularity and duration of the meetings of the councils were not regulated depending on the circumstances, the importance and content of the issues under discussion. There were cases when Zemsky Sobors functioned continuously. They resolved the main issues of foreign and domestic policy, legislation, finance, state building. Issues were discussed by estates (chambers), each estate submitted its written opinion, and then, as a result of their generalization, a sentence was drawn up, accepted by the entire composition of the cathedral.
Thus, the government had the opportunity to identify the opinions of individual classes and groups of the population. However, on the whole, the cathedral acted in close connection with the tsarist authorities and the Duma. Cathedrals were assembled on Red Square, in the Patriarch's Chambers or the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, and later - in the Golden Chamber or the Dining Hut.
In addition to the name "Zemsky Sobor", this representative institution had other names: "Council of All the Earth", "Cathedral", "General Council", "Great Zemstvo Duma".
First Zemsky Sobor
The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in Russia in 1549 and is known in history as the Cathedral of Reconciliation. The reason for its convocation was the uprising in 1547 in Moscow and the need to reconcile the contradictions between the boyars and the nobility.
Zemsky Sobor 1613: made the Romanovs a royal dynasty
Based on historical documents, they count in the XVI-XVII centuries. about 50 such cathedrals. All of them can be conditionally divided into 4 groups: those convened by the sovereign on his initiative; convened by the king at the request of the estates; convened by the estates on their initiative; councils where the king was elected.
The first group of cathedrals prevailed. The Council of 1549 belongs to the second group, because it was convened at the request of the estates. The Council of 1598 elected to the kingdom, 1613 -.
The most complex and representative structure in the 16th century was the Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 and the Cathedral of 1566.
1551 - on the initiative of the sovereign and the metropolitan, a church council was convened, which was called Stoglavy, since its decisions were formulated in 100 chapters. The council regulated church art, the rules for the life of the clergy, compiled and approved a list of all-Russian saints. Most controversial issue was the question of church land ownership. Ritual rituals were unified throughout the country. The council approved the adoption of the Code of Laws of 1550 and the reform.
The cathedral of 1566 was more representative from a social point of view. It formed 5 curia, uniting various segments of the population (clergy, boyars, clerks, nobility and merchants). At this council, the question of the war with Lithuania and Poland was decided.
Summing up the competence of Zemsky Sobors, we can state that they considered the following questions:
Elections to the kingdom;
War and Peace;
Adoption of new regulations;
Taxation.
National history. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. Encyclopedia. Volume 2. M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1996. S. 261 - 262.
Zemsky cathedrals, cathedrals, councils, zemstvo councils, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions in the middle XVI – XVII centuries (in 1610 - 1613 the highest legislative and executive bodies). A variety of Zemsky Sobors were the so-called church-zemstvo, military and judicial councils. They arose at the final stage of the formation of the Russian centralized state in the form of a class-representative monarchy. By the middle of the XVI century. there were fundamental changes in the composition and structure of the Sovereign's court, local estate institutions, the importance of the Consecrated Cathedral increased.
The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549 in an atmosphere of significant social aggravation (Moscow uprising of 1547, speeches of service nobles and taxable strata of the city and countryside in the 1540s). Meetings of Zemsky Sobors were held in Moscow, Vladimir (1550), near Moscow (1610 – 1611), in Yaroslavl (1611 – 1612). They were convened by kings (very rarely at the initiative of the estates) and estates (during periods of interregnum).
At the Zemsky Sobors, the most important issues of Russia's domestic and foreign policy were discussed and resolved. Zemsky Sobors were convened during the coronation of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584), Alexei Mikhailovich (1645), when Sofya Alekseevna was appointed ruler (1682); at Zemsky Sobors, Boris Godunov (1598), Vasily Shuisky (1606), Mikhail Fedorovich (1613), Ivan V and Peter I (1682) were elected to the kingdom; confirmed the deposition of Tsar Vasily Shuisky and the transfer of supreme power to the "Seven Boyars" (1610); developed the conditions for the election of the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne (1610). The Zemsky Sobor of 1619 sanctioned the election of Patriarch Filaret at the Consecrated Council, thereby emphasizing his real status as co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Zemsky Sobors prepared a number of important reforms. The Zemsky Sobor of 1549 considered and approved the reform of local government and outlined other changes. On January 3, 1565, the Zemsky Sobor agreed to Tsar Ivan IV to introduce the oprichnina. In 1613 - 1622, the Zemsky Sobors were engaged in financial and tax policy (the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors on the collection of “fifteen”, “request”, “soshny” money and other fees and “reserves”), developed measures to eliminate the consequences of the intervention of the early XVII V. , regulated land relations, strengthened the foundations of feudal landownership (carrying out a new description and patrols in counties, detecting townspeople - pawnbrokers, etc.). In 1681 - 1682 Zemsky Sobors abolished localism and outlined military, financial, and government reforms. Secular and ecclesiastical codes were adopted at Zemsky Sobors [Sudebnik 1550, Stoglav (1551), Cathedral Code 1649]. At judicial Zemsky Sobors, A.F. Adashev and Sylvester , dethroned Metropolitan Philip (judicial-church Zemsky Sobors 1560, 1568), accused of conspiracy against False Dmitry I and convicted Prince Vasily Shuisky (judicial Zemsky Sobor 1605), sentenced to death (1607) Ileyka Muromets (“Tsarevich Peter”). The activities of some Zemsky Sobors are associated with the adoption of measures to suppress the Cossack-peasant uprising led by I.M. Zarutsky (1614), movements of the Cossacks in the Moscow and Pomeranian cities (1614), the Pskov uprising of 1650. In foreign policy, special attention was paid to Russian-Polish (1566, 1580, 1591, 1610, 1684) and Russian-Swedish (1616) relations, including violations of the Deulino Treaty of 1618 and the Polyanovsky Peace of 1634 by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1642, the Zemsky Sobor considered the issue of accepting Azov into the Russian state. , in 1653 he decided to declare war on the Commonwealth and to accept Ukraine into Russian citizenship (took place in 1654). The so-called military councils (“meetings”, “meetings”) and some Zemsky sobors were devoted to the organization of campaigns against Kazan (1550, 1552), the reform of the border service (1571), military operations against the troops Crimean Khanate(1598, 1604, 1637, etc.), the invasion of Prince Vladislav (1618), etc.
The composition of Zemsky Sobors was formed by representation from estate groups, socio-political and state institutions. Representation was due to the status of the person, determined by choice or, possibly, by appointment (invitation). The core of the Zemsky Sobor and its permanent parts (curia) were: consecrated cathedral, headed by the Moscow metropolitan (from 1589 - patriarch) and included archbishops, bishops, archimandrites, abbots of influential monasteries; Boyar Duma(including duma nobles and duma clerks), as well as (before the beginning of the XVII c.) persons who, by virtue of their position, had the right of a boyar court (butlers, treasurers, printers, etc.). The bulk of the secular feudal lords of the XVI century. represented various groups of the sovereign's court(stewards, solicitors, Moscow and elected nobles, clerks, etc.). From the trade and craft population, privileged groups of merchants were represented at the Zemsky Sobor ( guests, members of the Living Room and Cloth Hundreds). At the Zemsky Sobor of 1584 for the first time were present "elected" from the county nobility, at the Zemsky Sobor in 1598 their representation increased; For the first time, Sotsky Moscow Black Hundreds and Half Hundreds participated in the meetings of the cathedral. From the beginning of the 17th century the principle of real election was developed (elected from county corporations of the nobility, from the white urban clergy, a number of class groups of service people "according to the instrument", taxable citizens, etc.). A special role in the history of the Zemsky Sobors (“Councils of the Whole Earth”, 1611-1613) was played in 1604-1605 by city councils - all-estate local bodies that arose in many territories of Russia. Having started the national liberation movement against the interventionists, they actively contributed to the formation of the First Militia of 1611, the People's Militia of 1611 - 1612 and struggle for state and national revival. At the Zemsky Sobor of 1612 - 1613 for the first time were present elected from the black-haired and palace peasants. The electoral council of 1613 was the most numerous (over 800 people from no less than 58 cities) and representative in composition in comparison with the previous Zemsky Sobor. In 1613 - 1622 Zemsky Sobors acted almost continuously, while one composition of the Zemsky Sobor held several "sessions". In 1632 - 1653 Zemsky Sobors were convened relatively rarely - on the most significant issues of domestic and foreign policy. During this period, the activity of the class groups of the city became more active and the state significance of class meetings increased, representatives from foreigners appeared in the Russian service (1648). The last Zemsky Sobors (1682, 1683 - 1684) were held after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in the conditions of a political crisis and the struggle for power of palace groups. In the context of the evolution of the state-political system of Russia to absolutism Zemsky Sobors lost their significance by the end of the 17th century. Researchers count about 60 Zemsky Sobors of the middle of the 16th - 17th centuries. (V.D. Nazarov)
A meeting of representatives of the entire population (except serfs) of the 16th and 17th centuries on the political, administrative and economic formation of the state is called a Zemsky Sobor. Zemsky Sobors are the development of the state apparatus, new relations in society, the emergence of various estates.
For the first time, a council for reconciliation between the tsar and various estates convened in 1549, and for two days the reforms of the Chosen Rada and the tsar's Sudebnik were discussed. Both the tsar and representatives of the boyars spoke, all the tsar's proposals for the election of elders, court, sotsky, were considered by the inhabitants of cities and volosts themselves. And also in the process of discussion, it was decided to write statutory letters for each of the regions of Rus', according to which management could be carried out without the intervention of sovereign governors.
In 1566, a council was held on whether to continue or stop. The verdict from this cathedral contains signatures and a list of participants. Zemsky Sobors were dedicated to the political structure of Rus' in 1565, after the departure of Ivan the Terrible to Aleksandrov Sloboda. The procedure for forming the composition of the participants in the Zemsky Sobor has already become more perfect, a clear structure and regulations for the conduct have appeared.
During the reign of Mikhail Romanov, most of the zemstvo cathedrals were occupied by representatives of the clergy, and they were engaged only in confirming the proposals made by the tsar. Also, until 1610, Zemsky Sobors were mainly aimed at discussing actions against foreign interventionists, and serious prerequisites began in Rus' for civil war. Zemsky Sobors decided to nominate the next ruler to the throne, which sometimes turned out to be an enemy of Rus'.
During the formation of militia armies against foreign invaders, the Zemsky Sobor becomes the supreme body, and plays a crucial role in the external and domestic politics Russia. Later, Zemsky Sobors functioned as an advisory body under the tsar. Most questions related to funding royal power discusses with the cathedral. After 1622 vigorous activity Zemsky Sobors was stopped for ten whole years.
The renewal of zemstvo fees began in 1632, but the tsarist government turned to their help very rarely. The problems of joining Ukraine, Russian-Crimean and Russian-Polish relations were discussed. During this period, demands for autocracy from large influential estates through petitions are more manifest.
And the last full-fledged Zemsky Sobor in the history of Russia met in 1653, when the most important issue of peace with the Commonwealth was being resolved. And after this event, cathedrals ceased to exist due to global changes in state structure who introduced into Russian public life
