Herbert von Karajan best works. Biography
One of the prominent music critics. And this name is doubly true - so to speak, both in form and in content. Indeed: over the past decade and a half, Karajan has led most of the best European orchestras: he was the chief conductor of the London, Vienna and Berlin Philharmonic, the Vienna Opera and Milan's La Scala, music festivals in Bayreuth, Salzburg and Lucerne, the Society of Friends of Music in Vienna ... Karajan held many of these posts at the same time, barely managing to fly on his sports plane from one city to another to conduct a rehearsal, concert, performance, recording on records. But he managed to do all this and, in addition, still intensively toured around the world.
However, the definition of "Chief Conductor of Europe" has more deep meaning. For several years now, Karajan has left many of his posts, concentrating on directing the Berlin Philharmonic and the Salzburg Spring Festival, which he himself has organized since 1967 and where he has staged Wagner's operas and monumental classics. But even now there is no conductor on our continent, and probably throughout the world (with the possible exception of L. Bernstein), who could compete with him in popularity and authority (if we mean the conductors of his generation) .
Karajan is often compared with Toscanini, and there are many reasons for such parallels: the two conductors have in common the scale of their talent, the breadth of their musical outlook, and their gigantic popularity. But, perhaps, their main similarity can be considered an amazing, sometimes incomprehensible ability to completely capture the attention of musicians and the public, to transmit to them the invisible currents generated by music. (This is felt even in the recordings on records.)
For listeners, Karayan is a brilliant artist who gives them moments of high experiences. For them, Karayan is a conductor who controls all the multifaceted elements musical art- from the works of Mozart and Haydn to contemporary music Stravinsky and Shostakovich. For them, Karayan is an artist who performs with equal brilliance both on the concert stage and in the opera house, where Karayan as a conductor is often supplemented by Karayan as a stage director.
Karajan is extremely accurate in conveying the spirit and letter of any score. But any of his performances is marked by the deep seal of the artist's individuality, which is so strong that it leads not only the orchestra, but also the soloists. With laconic gestures, devoid of any affectation, often emphatically stingy, "hard", he subordinates each orchestra member to his indomitable will, captures the listener with his inner temperament, reveals to him philosophical depths monumental musical canvases. And at such moments, his small figure seems gigantic!
Dozens of operas were staged by Karajan in Vienna, Milan and other cities. To enumerate the conductor's repertoire would mean to recall all the best that exists in musical literature.
Much can be said about Karajan's interpretation of individual works. Dozens of symphonies symphonic poems and orchestral pieces by composers different eras and peoples sounded in his concerts, recorded by him on records. Let's name just a few names. Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner, Mozart, Wagner, Verdi, Bizet, R. Strauss, Puccini - these are the composers in the interpretation of whose music the artist's talent is revealed to the fullest. Let us recall, for example, Karajan's concerts in our country in the 60s or Verdi's Requiem, the performance of which by Karajan in Moscow with the artists of the Da Scala theater in Milan made an indelible impression on all who heard him.
We tried to draw the appearance of Karayan - the way he is known all over the world. Of course, this is just a sketch, a line sketch: the conductor's portrait fills with vivid colors when you listen to his concerts or recordings. It remains for us to recall the beginning creative way artist...
Karajan was born in Salzburg, the son of a doctor. His ability and love for music manifested itself so early that already at the age of five he publicly performed as a pianist. Then Karajan studied at the Salzburg Mozarteum, and the head of this music academy, B. Paumgartner, advised him to conduct. (To this day, Karajan remains an excellent pianist, occasionally performing piano and harpsichord pieces.) Since 1927, the young musician has been working as a conductor, first in the Austrian city of Ulm, then in Aachen, where he becomes one of the youngest principal conductors in Germany. At the end of the thirties, the artist moved to Berlin and soon took the post of chief conductor of the Berlin Opera.
In 1938, the same year that Nazi Germany annexed Austria, the thirty-year-old conductor from Salzburg conducted Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde at the Berlin Opera. The production was impressive, and the Austrian conductor Herbert von Karajan was praised to the skies and called a miracle. Soon after, he signed a lucrative contract with recording studio"Deutsche Gramophone" (German) Deutsche Grammophon). During the years of the Third Reich, von Karajan - a member of the NSDAP - was on his way to becoming one of Germany's leading musicians. Like many other German musicians of non-Jewish origin, Herbert von Karajan suffered the Second world war virtually unscathed and became one of the most recorded musicians in the post-war music world. The conceit and ambition of the musician were no secret to anyone, but his Political Views were so uncertain that the post-war music world looked at them through his fingers.
Herbert von Karajan was born on April 5, 1908 in Salzburg. His father was a successful doctor. In his youth, von Karajan studied music and conducting in Salzburg. In 1929, he received the post of conductor of the Ulm orchestra, and already in 1934 he became the bandmaster of the orchestra in Aachen, in this position he remained until 1941. In 1933 (or 1935) von Karajan joined the NSDAP, and in 1938 the musician's long-awaited breakthrough took place and he became a favorite of the Nazi elite. In Berlin, he earned a reputation as a performer of politically correct contemporary music, especially the works of Carl Orff and Richard Strauss. In 1941, after the performance of the cantata "Carmina Burana" by Herbert von Karajan, the composer himself exclaimed in admiration that "the orchestra under the baton of Karajan sounded fantastic." Herbert von Karajan, who aspired to musical heights, was constantly threatened by the figure of Wilhelm Furtwängler, who, despite his ambiguous position in the Third Reich, was an undeniably pre-eminent German conductor. The competition between the young von Karajan and the experienced Furtwangler did not go unnoticed, and some considered the obvious defeat of von Karajan. The Russian émigré princess wrote that von Karajan was “very fashionable and some people think he is better than Furtwangler, but this is absolute nonsense. He is, of course, a genius and a fiery artist, but not without conceit.”
Herbert von Karajan never interfered openly in political affairs, but did not fail to take advantage of the Nazi musical reforms. Most famous case- this is the removal of Richard Strauss from the post of president of the Imperial Chamber of Music for his collaboration with the Jewish libretist Stefan Zweig. His place was taken by the German conductor and musicologist Peter Raabe, and Raabe's post at the Aachen Opera went, in turn, to von Karajan. In the end, the name of Herbert von Karajan was included in Goebbels' list of musicians "blessed by God." And yet, even this favorite of fortune was not immune from the disgrace of the Fuhrer, known for his inconstancy of affections. In 1939, von Karajan conducted a production of the Wagnerian opera Die Meistersinger, which failed with the audience. Die Meistersinger). Hitler took this failure as a personal insult and, apparently, never forgot about it. But in the biography of von Karajan there was a much more scandalous, from the point of view of the Nazis, detail - his marriage to the heiress of the textile empire Anita, whose grandfather was a Jew.
But what threatened his career as a conductor in the Third Reich saved him in post-war years. After the war, the Soviet military command imposed a ban on von Karajan's public appearances for his voluntary entry into the NSDAP. And yet, by 1947, all prohibitions were lifted and the conductor continued musical career. He managed to justify himself largely thanks to his half-Jewish wife, whose nationality von Karajan used as a fact of his "opposition" to Nazism. However, some historians are sure that he deliberately lied in order to justify himself at the denazification process. In any case, the conductor rose to the heights of success and wealth quickly and without problems. In 1955, von Karajan took over as musical director of the Berlin Philharmonic. He also went on to direct the Vienna Opera and the Salzburg Festival, worked intensively in London and toured all over the world. He remained life director of the Berlin Philharmonic until his resignation in 1989 due to ill health. Soon von Karajan died in Salzburg, being one of the richest and most famous conductors in the world.
Bibliography
Kater, M.H., 1997. The Twisted Muse: Musicians and their Music in the Third Reich, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meyer, M., 1993. The Politics of Music in the Third Reich, New York: Peter Lang.
Morwood, J., A Good Old Stick. Review essay of Herbert von Karajan: A Life in Music by Richard Osborne. The Musical Times, 140(1867), 71-73.
Encyclopedic YouTube
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Herbert von Karajan was born in Salzburg to a descendant of emigrants of presumably Aromunian origin from the Greek province of Macedonia, at birth he was named Heribert. Documentary surname Karayan in the form of "Karayan" was first mentioned in 1743 in the Greek city of Kozani. In 1792, his great-great-grandfather, Georgy Karajan, who was a major merchant in the Saxon city of Chemnitz, received a knighthood from Elector Frederick Augustus III - ritter, therefore full name von Karajan at birth - knight Heribert von Karajan (German: Heribert Ritter von Karajan).
Membership in the NSDAP
In 1933, von Karajan joined the National Socialist Party; this happened on April 8, 1933 in Salzburg, two months after Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. As with the soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Karajan's membership in the Nazi Party between 1945 and 1945 gave him an unflattering reputation. Karajan's attempts to deny his party affiliation were documented. In the words of Norman Lebrecht, “Raised in Salzburg during and after the First World War, Karajan was desperate to make a career even before Hitler seized power in Germany. With the expulsion of Jewish and left-wing musicians, the twenty-seven-year-old Karajan became the music director in the Reich - "The Miracle Karajan," as Goebbels titled his article in 1938. Karajan fit extremely well into the context of the new Germany - blond, with sharp features and a piercing gaze, he served as an advertising face of Nazi culture[...] "A favorite of Goering and Goebbels, Karajan opened many of his performances with" Horst Wessel ". Musicians such as Isaac Stern and Itzhak Perlman refused to play in the same concerts with Karajan.
Creation
The American critic Harvey Zaks gives the following critique of his creative manner:
Karajan seems to have opted for a universal, highly refined, lacquered, carefully sensual sound that can be applied, with minor stylistic deviations that he considered necessary, to Bach and Puccini, Mozart and Mahler, Beethoven and Wagner, Schumann and Stravinsky... many of his performances were "programmed" and artificial, such as you never see in Toscanini, Furtwängler and other greats ... most of Karajan's recordings are exaggeratedly "polished", representing a kind of sound analogue of films and photographs of Leni Riefenshtal.
Karajan was criticized for the fact that of all the music of the 20th century, he performed and recorded, with rare exceptions, only those works that were written before 1945 (Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, Webern, Bartok, Jan Sibelius, Richard Strauss, Giacomo Puccini , Ildebrando Pizzetti, Arthur Honegger , Sergei Prokofiev , Claude Debussy , Paul Hindemith , Carl Nielsen and Igor Stravinsky), although he recorded Dmitri Shostakovich's Symphony No. Comoedia") by Carl Orff in .
According to a survey conducted in November 2010 by the British magazine about classical music BBC Music Magazine among a hundred conductors from different countries, among which such musicians as Colin Davis (Great Britain), Gustavo Dudamel (Venezuela), Maris Jansons (Russia), Herbert von Karajan took fourth place in the list of the twenty most outstanding conductors of all time. Inducted into the Gramophone Hall of Fame.
Remote Control Behavior
Some critics, notably the British critic Norman Lebrecht, accuse Karajan of starting a devastating inflationary spiral by demanding huge performance fees. During his tenure as director of performing organizations funded by public funds such as the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and the Salzburg Festival, he began paying sky-high fees to guest stars, as well as commenting on the size of his own remuneration.
From the time he got orchestras at his disposal, he made them record CDs, and until his death he also re-recorded his favorite works when new technologies (digital LPs, CDs, video tapes, laser discs) appeared. In addition to making it difficult for other conductors to record with his orchestras, Karajan also exorbitantly increased his own royalties.
What a great artist is capable of for the sake of his art! The outgoing century, especially in our country, gives many examples of this. Everyday betrayal of ourselves - in order to be able to write, play the piano, conduct...
And yet, there is a nuance here: after all, writing is by no means the same as publishing regularly; and playing the piano is not at all the same as touring around the world. Art can also be done in silence, like Bach; and such art does not require deals with conscience.
Deal
Herbert von Karajan - perhaps the most famous conductor XX century - made a pact with the devil in 1935, joining the Nazi party. At that time, he headed the opera house in Aachen: at 27, he was the youngest bandmaster in Germany. And yet, he could not help but understand what party he was joining. Behind was 1934: the mass expulsion of racially and ideologically alien musicians, the destruction of books, notes, sound recordings; the fight against "formalism" and "cacophony" in music (something painfully familiar!); and, finally, the Nazi pogrom at the Berlin Opera, the reason for which was the forthcoming production of P. Hindemith's opera The Painter Mathis.
"Pure-blooded Aryans" (for the Jews were a priori forced to leave the country) at that time acted differently. Some, like Hindemith, loudly declared their hatred of the regime and moved to live in Switzerland. Others - and among them the famous conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler - considered it a sacred duty in a time of trials to remain with their people. But at the same time - even if seduced by Hitler's casuistry - the intelligent and meek patriarch of music did not allow himself to be drawn into the ranks of the Nazi gang. And he never again crossed the threshold of the desecrated Berlin Opera, with which 15 years of his previous life were closely connected. Defiant of Goebbels' ban, he included the works of Mendelssohn and Hindemith in his programs; and what? The authorities did not dare to contradict him. However, later he had to abandon all posts, reduce the number of speeches to a minimum ...
excuses
We already partly know about what Karayan did... He tried to justify himself - he was told: “You must do this if you intend to music director Aachen Theatre. And this justification is clearly defined market price souls when selling it to the devil: the post of Kapellmeister in the provincial Aachen.
Or maybe it was about something more? Conductors left the country in droves, vacancies were vacated... Already in 1937, under the patronage of certain influential people, Karajan made his debut at the Vienna Opera, which had previously been inaccessible to him. It was a decisive victory over past failures. After all, he was born in Austria, higher education received in Vienna - both at the university and at the Academy of Music, after which he hoped to take some decent conductor's position.
Already in his student days, he worked out the strategy and tactics of careerist unscrupulousness: he entered the class of Alexander Wunderer, since he held several responsible positions at once in the then musical Vienna. But as a teacher, he did not like Wunderer at all; and subsequently, at every opportunity, Karajan invariably complained about how little he received from his ardently loving teacher.
Perhaps these complaints were in step with the student's reverence; and just for this reason - despite the participation of Karajan in the concert organized by Wunderer Academic Orchestra, "bride" ended in complete failure: no invitations followed. And Karajan himself with difficulty found a place for himself in Ulm - a small South German town, where he had at his disposal theater stage the size of a room and an opera orchestra of 26 people. There he spent the first 6 years of his creative life; then there was Aachen, and here Karajan began to act with all determination.
And now in Vienna he is conducting perhaps the most beautiful creation of the Wagnerian genius - "Tristan and Isolde" ... For the time being, as a guest, as a guest performer, doomed to endure the conditions imposed on him ... But Karajan already foresees what will happen here someday owner.
In the same year he was invited to conduct the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra; the best, according to many, orchestra in Europe. Over the course of its 55-year history, only three artistic directors have changed in it: Hans von Bülow, Arthur Nikisch - and, finally, since 1922 - Wilhelm Furtwängler, who at that time stood on a par with his titanic predecessors. Could Karayan be directly equal to such an opponent?
And he comes up with a brilliant move. Of those that Maria Callas also used so skillfully. He pretends that he is not satisfied with the proposed conditions - especially in the part that concerns rehearsals. And, evading direct confrontation with Furtwängler, he gained a reputation as a man of principle - when the interests of art require it.
This reputation he subsequently partly justified. It took him 10 years to analyze the score of "The Rite of Spring" - before he decided to conduct this work on the concert stage. He pondered over Shostakovich's Tenth Symphony for a year and a half... And yet, without hesitation, Karajan destroyed the carefully prepared opera performance in order to "drown out" some recalcitrant tenor.
And in the Berlin Philharmonic, he made his debut a year later. And at the same time he was offered to conduct several performances at the Berlin Opera. Of course, he presented his conditions, especially in regard to the repertoire. He yearned for the highest creations of the German spirit: Mozart, Beethoven, Wagner... The reinforced concrete directorate, appointed directly from Goebbels's office, soon surrendered to the mercy of the winner.
And finally, his first, long-awaited triumph! "Tristan and Isolde". And a review in the newspaper, under the heading: "The Magician Karajan", in all likelihood, inspired by the Nazi authorities. With its edge, it was directed not so much in favor of Karajan, but to the detriment of Furtwängler, whom the regime at that time already openly hated. And a year later, Karajan solemnly assumes the position of chief conductor of the Berlin Opera. Just in those very days, the Nazi defeat of Poland was completed ...
IN last days War, anticipating the inevitable retribution, Karajan emigrates to Italy. With the beginning of the denazification process, hard times come for him: a virtual ban on the profession.
Salvation and collapse
He was saved by Walter Legge - a very influential person in the music business. His empire spanned two of the world's largest recording studios, His Master Voice and Columbia, as well as whole line orchestras and musical societies. Legge built a dizzying international career for his wife, the singer Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, despite the modest qualities of her small and, in my opinion, rather banal voice. And in 1946, he also obtained permission for Karajan to cooperate with the recording company EMI, a subsidiary of Columbia. What was it? The charity of a true cosmopolitan - not alien, however, to the Nazi ideology? Or the professional flair of a brilliant impresario, who assumed in the young Karajan future star first magnitude?
And then favorable changes for Karajan arrived in Milan's La Scala. The sacred elder, the famous conductor Arturo Toscanini, who before the war headed this main theater Italy, was returned with honors from voluntary exile (he was an unconditional and implacable opponent of fascism) - but immediately lost outright in an undercover fight to the talented, but not so noble Victor de Sabata, whose art Hitler admired.
Since 1949, De Sabata has constantly invited Karajan to La Scala to stage German operas. Mrs. Schwarzkopf, the wife of Mr. Legge, certainly participates in his performances ...
And then life takes a new sharp turn. In the same 1949, the Vienna Society of Friends of Music offered Karajan the position of director and chief conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra for life. This has never happened before in the century and a half history of this very respectable musical institution!
Meanwhile, Furtwängler, much less guilty (if this case you can talk about wine) is universally ostracized; while Karajan only adds fuel to the fire. He willingly told the whole story that allegedly in 1944, outraged by Furtwängler's collaborationism, he bought out part of the tickets to his concert - so that a swastika of empty seats formed in the center of the crowded hall. In the end, probably, Karayan himself believed in this legend.
He had an exceptional capacity for myth-making. Once, in order to revive the atmosphere of sensation around him, he launched a newspaper “duck” with the following content: “A thief made his way into the villa of the von Karajan family on the Mediterranean coast at night. Mr. Herbert, saving his frightened wife, personally attacked the intruder. During the struggle, window glass was broken, and a fragment got stuck in the eye of the great conductor. Meanwhile, the thief retreated, and the valiant von Karajan was forced to immediately go to the clinic, where the fragment was safely removed ... ”One can imagine how this story affected hysterical fans!
Further more. 1954 La Scala: Karajan staged Lucia de Lammermoor. IN leading role Maria Callas: The most powerful, famous and scandalous prima donna of her generation. A resounding triumph. In October 1955, "Lucia" in in full force goes to the festival in West Berlin. And then, in June 1956, the tour of "La Scala" in Vienna. And again Lucia. At the end of the performance, the "divine" Kallas kisses his hand! And almost the next day (formally - a few months later) he was appointed to the post of artistic director of the Vienna Opera, with unlimited rights and powers.
And now, Karajan in the role of an opera dictator. Ministers and deputies wait hours for an audience under the door of his waiting room. He is the only one among the citizens of Austria! - by a special verdict, it is allowed to use the aristocratic prefix "fon", abolished back in 1919, in one's surname. Moreover, by nationality he is a purebred Greek and real name his Karayanis. The family, 4 generations before the birth of the future conductor, emigrated to Germany, acquired the notorious prefix as a result of two-time production in the nobility: first, the Hohenzollerns honored the Karayans for success in the textile industry, and then, already in Austria, the Habsburgs noted their contribution to health care.
In addition to honors, Karajan was given the largest fee in the history of the Opera: 15,000 shillings (i.e. 600 dollars) per evening. Plus an impressive salary and allowances for directing. And complete freedom in the implementation of your concept opera house: he could invite any soloists - and even a prompter from Milan, with a salary 15 times higher than that of a "regular" ballet soloist! And he was capricious, conflicted with trade unions, presented ultimatums; resigned and returned again - until, finally, he left the Vienna Opera forever. He achieved his goal by terrorizing the audience with outbursts of anger - despite the fact that he was invariably smooth and gentle with the orchestra members. No wonder he was called "Maria Callas in conducting"!
And finally, he found a sovereign musical kingdom in his native Salzburg, organizing - along with the traditional Mozart - his own super-snobbish (so-called "Easter") opera festival. Here he got the opportunity to fulfill himself in directing, for which, according to one witty critic, "he felt the same craving as Einstein for the violin - but, unlike Einstein, without realizing his dilettantism." He devoted most of his time to staging lighting effects, which usually required dozens of rehearsals.
However, from a musical point of view, his performances were no less impeccable than his evening suit: a black tuxedo with obliquely cut floors (the so-called “swallow”), closely fitting his exquisitely thin figure, was complemented by striped trousers and varnished “boats” with silver studs. In this impeccability, there was almost invariably some kind of cold demonism, appropriate in its own way in Beethoven's music and absolutely contraindicated to the spiritual warmth of Verdi's melodies.
The ruler of a huge musical empire, covering almost half of Europe: Milan, Paris, Berlin, London, Edinburgh, Lucerne... Karajan traveled through his possessions on a personal plane, which he himself flew - for at any cost he tried to keep up with the century. Worn on the roads in a racing car; was fond of skiing and sailing; married a third marriage to a French fashion model; doing yoga for 2 hours a day...
Meanwhile, his empire crumbled. But he did not worry, as long as his main acquisition was the Berlin philharmonic orchestra- stayed with him. Furtwängler's orchestra, as if rightfully inherited after his death. Is it right? The true heir was another conductor: Sergiu Celibidache, who, in my opinion, was no less talented than Karajan. But then, in 1954, Karajan managed to take advantage of the situation. Furtwängler's sudden death jeopardized the orchestra's long-awaited US tour. And then he managed to convince the management that he alone was able to carry out this tour; and even then he set the only condition for the immediate appointment to the post of chief conductor ...
After 20 years, this stronghold collapsed. For, possessing the demonic power of attraction, he pushed people away from him much more powerfully and inevitably ... Perhaps this is the retribution for the union with the devil?
About the dead - either good or nothing. But nothing - the essence of oblivion and infamy, which the genius of Karayan clearly does not deserve. Let's ask for forgiveness. And we will believe that Karayan was also forgiven, which he last years asked so hard. Julia Andreeva
(1908-04-05 )Biography
Childhood and youth
Herbert von Karajan was born in Salzburg to a descendant of immigrants from the Greek province of Macedonia, at birth he was named Heribert. Documentary surname Karayan in the form of "Karayan" was first mentioned in 1743 in the Greek city of Kozani. In 1792, his great-great-grandfather, George Karajan, who was a major merchant in the Saxon city of Chemnitz, received a knighthood from Elector Frederick Augustus III - ritter, so von Karajan's full name at birth is Heribert Ritter von Karajan (German: Heribert Ritter von Karajan).
Membership in the NSDAP
In 1933 von Karajan joined the National Socialist Party; it happened on April 8, 1933 in Salzburg, two months after Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. As with soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Karajan's membership in the Nazi Party between 1945 and 1945 gave him an unflattering reputation. Karajan's attempts to deny his party affiliation were documented. In the words of Norman Lebrecht, “Raised in Salzburg during and after the First World War, Karajan was desperate to make a career even before Hitler seized power in Germany. With the expulsion of Jewish and left-wing musicians, the twenty-seven-year-old Karajan became the music director in the Reich - "The Miracle Karajan," as Goebbels titled his article in 1938. Karajan fit extremely well into the context of the new Germany - blond, with sharp features and a piercing gaze, he served as an advertising face of Nazi culture[...] "A favorite of Goering and Goebbels, Karajan opened many of his performances with" Horst Wessel ". Musicians such as Isaac Stern and Itzhak Perlman have refused to play in the same concerts as Karajan.
Creation
Karajan was criticized for the fact that of all the music of the 20th century, he performed and recorded, with rare exceptions, only those works that were written before 1945 (Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, Webern, Bartok, Jan Sibelius, Richard Strauss, Giacomo Puccini , Ildebrando Pizzetti, Arthur Honegger, Sergei Prokofiev, Claude Debussy, Paul Hindemith, Carl Nielsen and Igor Stravinsky), although he recorded Dmitri Shostakovich's Symphony No. Comedia")
