late classic. The Art of Ancient Greece of the Late Classic Period (from the end of the Peloponnesian Wars to the rise of the Macedonian Empire) This problem was first posed by O

The new time in the political history of Hellas was neither bright nor creative. If V c. BC e. was marked by the flourishing of the Greek policies, then in the IV century. their gradual decay took place along with the decline of the very idea of ​​\u200b\u200bGreek democratic statehood.

In 386, Persia, in the previous century utterly defeated by the Greeks under the leadership of Athens, took advantage of the internecine war, which weakened the Greek city-states, to impose peace on them, according to which all the cities of the Asia Minor coast came under the control of the Persian king. The Persian state became the main arbiter in the Greek world; it did not allow the national unification of the Greeks.

Internecine wars have shown that the Greek states are not able to unite on their own.

Meanwhile, unification was an economic necessity for the Greek people. To fulfill this historical task turned out to be within the power of the neighboring Balkan power - Macedonia, which had grown stronger by that time, whose king Philip II defeated the Greeks at Chaeronea in 338. This battle decided the fate of Hellas: it turned out to be united, but under foreign rule. And the son of Philip II - the great commander Alexander the Great led the Greeks on a victorious campaign against their primordial enemies - the Persians.

This was the last classical period of Greek culture. At the end of the IV century. the ancient world will enter an era that is no longer called the Hellenic, but the Hellenistic.

In the art of the late classics, we clearly recognize new trends. In an era of great prosperity, ideal human image was embodied in the valiant and fine citizen of the city-state. The collapse of the policy shook this idea. Proud confidence in the all-conquering power of man does not disappear completely, but sometimes it seems to be obscured. Reflections arise, giving rise to anxiety or a tendency to serene enjoyment of life. Interest in the individual world of man is growing; ultimately it marks a departure from the mighty generalization of earlier times.

The grandiosity of the worldview, embodied in the sculptures of the Acropolis, gradually becomes smaller, but the general perception of life and beauty is enriched. The calm and majestic nobility of the gods and heroes, as Phidias portrayed them, gives way to the identification in art of complex experiences, passions and impulses.

Greek 5th century he valued strength as the basis of a healthy, courageous beginning, strong will and vital energy - and therefore the statue of an athlete, a winner in competitions, personified for him the affirmation of human power and beauty. Artists of the 4th century attract for the first time the charm of childhood, the wisdom of old age, the eternal charm of femininity.

The great skill achieved by Greek art in the 5th century is still alive in the 4th, so that the most inspired artistic monuments of the late classics are marked by the same stamp of the highest perfection. As Hegel notes, even in its death, the spirit of Athens seems beautiful.

The three greatest Greek tragedians - Aeschylus (526-456), Sophocles (90s of the 5th century - 406) and Euripides (446 - c. 385) expressed the spiritual aspirations and main interests of their time.

The tragedies of Aeschylus glorify ideas: human achievement, patriotic duty. Sophocles glorifies man, and he himself says that he depicts people as they should be. Vvripid seeks to show them as they really are, with all their weaknesses and vices; his tragedies in many ways already reveal the content of the art of the 4th century.

In this century, the construction of theaters took on a special scope in Greece. They were designed for a huge number of spectators - fifteen to twenty thousand or more. In terms of architecture, theaters such as, for example, the marble theater of Dionysus in Athens, fully met the principle of functionality: the seats for spectators, located in a semicircle on the hills, framed the platform for the choir. Spectators, that is, the entire people of Hellas, received in the theater a lively idea of ​​​​the heroes of their history and mythology, and it, legalized by the theater, was introduced into art. The theater showed a detailed picture of the world surrounding a person - scenery in the form of portable wings created the illusion of reality due to the depiction of objects in perspective reduction. On the stage, the heroes of the tragedies of Euripides lived and died, rejoiced and suffered, showing in their passions and impulses a spiritual community with the audience themselves. The Greek theater was a truly mass art, which developed certain requirements for other arts as well.

Thus, in all the art of Hellas, the great Greek realism, constantly enriched, inspired by the idea of ​​beauty, was affirmed.

IV century reflects new trends in its construction. Late Classical Greek architecture is marked by a certain striving both for pomp, even grandiosity, and for lightness and decorative elegance. The purely Greek artistic tradition is intertwined with oriental influences coming from Asia Minor, where the Greek cities are subject to Persian rule. Along with the main architectural orders - Doric and Ionic, the third - Corinthian, which arose later, is increasingly being used.

The Corinthian column is the most magnificent and decorative. The realistic tendency overcomes in it the primordial abstract-geometric scheme of the capital, dressed in the Corinthian order in the flowering attire of nature - two rows of acanthus leaves.

The isolation of the policies was outdated. For the ancient world, an era of powerful, albeit fragile, slave-owning despotisms was coming. Architecture was assigned different tasks than in the age of Pericles.

One of the most grandiose monuments of Greek architecture of the late classics was the tomb in the city of Halicarnassus (in Asia Minor), the ruler of the Persian province of Carius Mausolus, which did not come down to us, from which the word "mausoleum" came from.

All three orders were combined in the Halicarnassus mausoleum. It consisted of two tiers. The first housed a mortuary chamber, the second - a mortuary temple. Above the tiers was a high pyramid crowned with a four-horse chariot (quadriga). The linear harmony of Greek architecture was found in this monument of enormous size (it apparently reached forty or fifty meters in height), with its solemnity reminiscent of the funeral structures of the ancient Eastern rulers. The mausoleum was built by the architects Satyr and Pythius, and its sculptural decoration was entrusted to several masters, including Skopas, who probably played a leading role among them.

Skopas, Praxiteles and Lysippus are the greatest Greek sculptors of the late classics. By the influence they had on all subsequent development ancient art, the work of these three geniuses can be compared with the sculptures of the Parthenon. Each of them expressed their bright individual worldview, their ideal of beauty, their understanding of perfection, which, through personal, only revealed by them, reach the eternal - universal, peaks. And again, in the work of each, this personal is consonant with the era, embodying those feelings, those desires of contemporaries that most corresponded to his own.

Passion and impulse, anxiety, struggle with some hostile forces, deep doubts and mournful experiences breathe in the art of Scopas. All this was obviously characteristic of his nature and at the same time vividly expressed certain moods of his time. By temperament, Scopas is close to Euripides, how close they are in their perception of the woeful fate of Hellas.

A native of the marble-rich island of Paros, Skopas (c. 420-c. 355 BC) worked in Attica, and in the cities of the Peloponnese, and in Asia Minor. His creativity, extremely extensive both in the number of works and in subject matter, perished almost without a trace.

From the sculptural decoration of the temple of Athena in Tegea created by him or under his direct supervision (Scopas, who became famous not only as a sculptor, but also as an architect, was also the builder of this temple), only a few fragments remained. But it is enough to look at least at the crippled head of a wounded warrior (Athens, National Museum) to feel great power his genius. For this head with arched eyebrows, eyes looking skyward and a parted mouth, a head in which everything - both suffering and grief - expresses, as it were, the tragedy not only of Greece in the 4th century, torn apart by contradictions and trampled on by foreign invaders, but also the primordial tragedy of the entire human race in his constant struggle, where victory is still followed by death. So, it seems to us, nothing remains of the bright joy of being, which once illuminated the consciousness of the Hellenic.

Fragments of the frieze of the tomb of Mausolus, depicting the battle of the Greeks with the Amazons (London, British Museum). This is undoubtedly the work of Scopas or his workshop. The genius of the great sculptor breathes in these ruins.

Compare them with the fragments of the Parthenon frieze. And here and there - emancipation of movements. But there, emancipation results in a majestic regularity, and here - in a real storm: the angles of the figures, the expressiveness of gestures, the widely fluttering clothes create a violent dynamism that has not yet been seen in ancient art. There, the composition is built on the gradual coherence of parts, here - on the sharpest contrasts. And yet the genius of Phidias and the genius of Scopas are related in something very significant, almost the main thing. The compositions of both friezes are equally slender, harmonious, and their images are equally concrete. After all, it was not for nothing that Heraclitus said that the most beautiful harmony is born from contrasts. Scopas creates a composition whose unity and clarity are as flawless as those of Phidias. Moreover, not a single figure dissolves in it, does not lose its independent plastic meaning.

That's all that remains of Scopas himself or his students. Other related to his work, these are later Roman copies. However, one of them gives us probably the most vivid idea of ​​his genius.

Parian stone - Bacchante. But the sculptor gave the stone a soul. And, as if intoxicated, she jumped up and rushed into the dance. Having created this maenad, in a frenzy, with a killed goat, With a deifying chisel, you did a miracle, Skopas.

So an unknown Greek poet praised the statue of the Maenad, or Bacchante, which we can only judge from a small copy (Dresden Museum).

First of all, we note a characteristic innovation, very important for the development of realistic art: unlike the sculptures of the 5th century, this statue is completely designed for viewing from all sides, and you need to go around it in order to perceive all aspects of the image created by the artist.

Throwing her head back and bending her whole body, the young woman rushes in a stormy, truly Bacchic dance - to the glory of the god of wine. And although the marble copy is also just a fragment, there is, perhaps, no other monument of art that conveys the selfless pathos of fury with such force. This is not a painful exaltation, but a pathetic and triumphant one, although the power over human passions is lost in it.

So in last century classics, the powerful Hellenic spirit was able to preserve, even in the fury generated by seething passions and painful dissatisfaction, all its primordial greatness.

Praxitel (a native Athenian, worked in 370-340 BC) expressed a completely different beginning in his work. We know a little more about this sculptor than about his brothers.

Like Scopas, Praxiteles neglected bronze, creating his greatest works in marble. We know that he was rich and enjoyed a resounding fame that at one time eclipsed even the glory of Phidias. We also know that he loved Phryne, the famous courtesan, accused of blasphemy and acquitted by the Athenian judges, who admired her beauty, recognized by them as worthy of popular worship. Phryne served as his model for the statues of the goddess of love Aphrodite (Venus). The Roman scholar Pliny writes about the creation of these statues and their cult, vividly recreating the atmosphere of the era of Praxiteles:

“... Above all the works not only of Praxiteles, but in general existing in the universe, is the Venus of his work. To see her, many sailed to Knidos. Praxitel simultaneously made and sold two statues of Venus, but one was covered with clothes - it was preferred by the inhabitants of Kos, who had the right to choose. Praxiteles charged the same price for both statues. But the inhabitants of Kos recognized this statue as serious and modest; which they rejected, the Cnidians bought. And her fame was immeasurably higher. Tsar Nicomedes later wanted to buy her from the Cnidians, promising to forgive the state of the Cnidians for all the huge debts they owed. But the Cnidians preferred to endure everything rather than part with the statue. And not in vain. After all, Praxiteles created the glory of Cnidus with this statue. The building where this statue is located is all open, so that it can be viewed from all sides. Moreover, they believe that the statue was built with the favorable participation of the goddess herself. And on either side, the delight it causes is no less ... "

Praxiteles - inspired singer female beauty, so revered by the Greeks of the IV century. In a warm play of light and shadow, as never before, the beauty of the female body shone under his chisel.

The time has long passed when a woman was not depicted naked, but this time Praxiteles exposed in marble not just a woman, but a goddess, and this at first caused a surprised reprimand.

The unusualness of such an image of Aphrodite shines through in the verses of an unknown poet:

Seeing Cyprida (Cyprida is the nickname of Aphrodite, whose cult was especially widespread on the island of Cyprus.) on Knida, Cyprida bashfully said:
Woe to me, where did Praxiteles see me naked?

“For a long time everyone has agreed,” wrote Belinsky, “that the naked statues of the ancients soothe and pacify the excitement of passion, and do not excite them, that the defiled one leaves them cleansed.”

Yes, sure. But the art of Praxiteles, apparently, is still some exception.

Marble who revived? Who has seen Cyprida with his own eyes?
Passion desire who put it in a cold stone?
Is the hands of Praxiteles a creation, or a goddess
She retired to Knidos herself, leaving Olympus orphaned?

These are also poems by an unknown Greek poet.

Passion desire! Everything that we know about the work of Praxiteles indicates that the great artist saw in love lust one of the driving forces of his art.

Cnidian Aphrodite is known to us only from copies and borrowings. In two Roman marble copies (in Rome and in the Munich Glyptothek), it has come down to us in its entirety, so that we know its general appearance. But these one-piece copies are not first-class. Some others, albeit in wreckage, give a more vivid picture of this great work: the head of Aphrodite in the Louvre in Paris, with such sweet and soulful features; her torsos, also in the Louvre and in the Neapolitan Museum, in which we guess the enchanting femininity of the original, and even a Roman copy, taken not from the original, but from the Hellenistic statue, inspired by the genius of Praxiteles, “Venus Khvoshchinsky” (named after the Russian who acquired it collector), in which, it seems to us, marble radiates the warmth of the beautiful body of the goddess (this fragment is the pride of the antique department of the Moscow Museum of Fine Arts).

What so delighted contemporaries in this image of the most captivating of the goddesses, who, throwing off her clothes, prepared to plunge into the water? What delights us even in broken copies that convey some features of the lost original?

With the finest modeling, in which he surpassed all his predecessors, enlivening marble with shimmering light reflections and giving a smooth stone a delicate velvety with virtuosity inherent only in him, Praxiteles captured in the smoothness of the contours and ideal proportions of the body of the goddess, in the touching naturalness of her posture, in her gaze, “Wet and shiny”, according to the ancients, those great principles that Aphrodite expressed in Greek mythology, began eternally in the consciousness and dreams of the human race:

Beauty and Love.

Beauty - affectionate, feminine, iridescent and joyful. Love is also affectionate, promising and giving happiness.

Praxiteles is sometimes recognized as the most striking exponent in ancient art of that philosophical direction, which saw in pleasure (whatever it consisted of) the highest good and the natural goal of all human aspirations, that is, hedonism. Yet his art already heralds the philosophy that flourished at the end of the fourth century. "in the groves of Epicurus," as Pushkin called that Athenian garden where Epicurus gathered his students...

As K. Marx notes, the ethics of this famous philosopher contains something higher than hedonism. The absence of suffering, a serene state of mind, the liberation of people from the fear of death and fear of the gods - these were, according to Epicurus, the main conditions for the true enjoyment of life.

Indeed, by its very serenity, the beauty of the images created by Praxiteles, the gentle humanity of the gods sculpted by him, affirmed the beneficialness of liberation from this fear in an era that was by no means serene and not merciful.

The image of an athlete, obviously, did not interest Praxiteles, just as he was not interested in civic motives. He strove to embody in marble the ideal of a physically beautiful young man, not as muscular as Polikleitos, very slender and graceful, joyfully, but slightly slyly smiling, not particularly afraid of anyone, but not threatening anyone, serenely happy and full of consciousness of the harmony of his whole being. .

Such an image, apparently, corresponded to his own worldview and therefore was especially dear to him. We find indirect confirmation of this in an amusing anecdote.

The love relationship between the famous artist and such an incomparable beauty as Phryne was very interesting to his contemporaries. The lively mind of the Athenians excelled in conjectures about them. It was reported, for example, that Phryne asked Praxiteles to give her her best sculpture. He agreed, but left the choice to her, slyly concealing which of his works he considers the most perfect. Then Phryne decided to outwit him. One day, a slave sent by her ran to Praxiteles with terrible news that the artist’s workshop had burned down ... “If the flame destroyed Eros and Satyr, then everything died!” Praxiteles exclaimed in grief. So Phryne found out the assessment of the author himself ...

We know from reproductions these sculptures, which enjoyed great fame in the ancient world. At least one hundred and fifty marble copies of The Resting Satyr have come down to us (five of them are in the Hermitage). Do not count also ancient statues, figurines made of marble, clay or bronze, tombstones and all kinds of products. applied arts, one way or another inspired by the genius of Praxiteles.

Two sons and a grandson continued the work of Praxiteles in sculpture, who himself was the son of a sculptor. But this blood continuity, of course, is negligible compared to the general artistic continuity that goes back to his work.

In this respect, the example of Praxiteles is particularly indicative, but far from exceptional.

Let the perfection of a truly great original be unique, but a work of art that shows a new “variation of the beautiful” is immortal even in the event of its death. We do not have an exact copy neither the statue of Zeus in Olympia, nor the Athena Parthenos, but the greatness of these images, which determined the spiritual content of almost all Greek art of the heyday, is clearly seen even in miniature jewelry and coins of that time. They would not have been in this style without Phidias. Just as there would be no statues of careless youths lazily leaning on a tree, or naked marble goddesses captivating with their lyrical beauty, in a great variety of decorating the villas and parks of the nobles in the Hellenistic and Roman times, just as there would be no Praxitelean style, Praxitelean sweet bliss, so long retained in ancient art - if not for the authentic "Resting Satyr" and the genuine "Aphrodite of Cnidus", now lost God knows where and how. Let's say it again: their loss is irreparable, but their spirit lives on even in the most ordinary works of imitators, it lives, therefore, for us. But if these works had not been preserved, this spirit would somehow flicker in human memory in order to shine again at the first opportunity.

in ancient art - do not be a genuine "Resting Satyr" and a genuine "Aphrodite of Cnidus", now lost God knows where and how. Let's say it again: their loss is irreparable, but their spirit lives on even in the most ordinary works of imitators, it lives, therefore, for us. But if these works had not been preserved, this spirit would somehow flicker in human memory in order to shine again at the first opportunity.

Perceiving beauty artwork, a person is enriched spiritually. The living connection of generations never breaks completely. The ancient ideal of beauty was resolutely rejected by medieval ideology, and the works that embodied it were ruthlessly destroyed. But the victorious revival of this ideal in the age of humanism testifies that it has never been completely destroyed.

The same can be said about the contribution to the art of every truly great artist. For a genius, embodying a new image of beauty born in his soul, enriches humanity forever. And so from ancient times, when for the first time those formidable and majestic animal images were created in a Paleolithic cave, from which all fine arts went and into which our distant ancestor he put his whole soul and all his dreams, illuminated by high creative inspiration.

Brilliant ups in art complement each other, introducing something new that no longer dies. This new sometimes leaves its mark on an entire era. So it was with Phidias, so it was with Praxiteles.

Has everything, however, perished from what Praxiteles himself created?

From the words of an ancient author, it was known that the statue of Praxiteles "Hermes with Dionysus" stood in the temple at Olympia. During excavations in 1877, a comparatively slightly damaged marble sculpture of these two gods was found there. At first, no one had any doubt that this was the original of Praxiteles, and even now its authorship is recognized by many experts. However, a careful study of the marble technique itself has convinced some scholars that the sculpture found at Olympia is an excellent Hellenistic copy, replacing the original, probably exported by the Romans.

This statue, which is mentioned by only one Greek author, apparently was not considered Praxiteles' masterpiece. Nevertheless, its merits are undeniable: amazingly fine modeling, softness of lines, a wonderful, purely Praxitelean play of light and shadow, a very clear, perfectly balanced composition and, most importantly, the charm of Hermes with his dreamy, slightly distracted look and the childish charm of the little Dionysus. And, however, in this charm there is a certain sweetness, and we feel that in the whole statue, even in the surprisingly slender figure of a very well curled god in its smooth curve, beauty and grace slightly cross the line beyond which beauty and grace begin. All the art of Praxiteles is very close to this line, but it does not violate it in its most spiritual creations.

Color, apparently, played a big role in the overall appearance of the statues of Praxiteles. We know that he painted some of them (by rubbing melted wax paints, softly enlivening the whiteness of marble) Nicias himself, a famous painter of that time. The sophisticated art of Praxiteles, thanks to color, acquired even greater expressiveness and emotionality. The harmonious combination of the two great arts was probably carried out in his creations.

We add, finally, that in our Northern Black Sea region near the mouths of the Dnieper and Bug (in Olbia) a pedestal of a statue was found with the signature of the great Praxiteles. Alas, the statue itself was not in the ground (At the end of last year, a sensational message went around the world press. Professor Iris Love (USA), known for her archaeological discoveries, claims that she discovered the head of Praxiteles' genuine Aphrodite! Not in the ground, but .. . in the storeroom of the British Museum in London, where, unidentified by anyone, this fragment lay for more than a hundred years.

The heavily damaged marble head is now included in the museum's exposition as a monument of Greek art of the 4th century BC. BC e. However, the arguments of the American archaeologist in favor of the authorship of Praxiteles are disputed by a number of English scientists.).

Lysippus worked in the last third of the 4th century, already at the time of Alexander the Great. His work, as it were, completes the art of the late classics.

Bronze was the favorite material of this sculptor. We do not know his originals, so we can judge him only by the surviving marble copies, which far from reflect all of his work.

The number of monuments of art of ancient Hellas that have not come down to us is immeasurable. The fate of the huge artistic heritage of Lysippus - terrible to that proof.

Lysippus was considered one of the most prolific masters of his time. They say that he set aside from the reward for each completed order for a coin: after his death, there were as many as one and a half thousand. Meanwhile, among his works were sculptural groups, numbering up to twenty figures, and the height of some of his sculptures exceeded twenty meters. With all this, people, the elements and time dealt mercilessly. But no force could destroy the spirit of Lysippus' art, erase the trace he left.

According to Pliny, Lysippus said that, unlike his predecessors, who portrayed people as they are, he, Lysippus, sought to portray them as they seem. By this he affirmed the principle of realism, which had long since triumphed in Greek art, but which he wanted to bring to full completion in accordance with the aesthetic principles of his contemporary, the greatest philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle.

We already talked about this. Although transforming nature in beauty, realistic art reproduces it in visible reality. This means that nature is not as it is, but as it seems to our eyes, for example, in painting - with a change in the size of the depicted depending on the distance. However, the laws of perspective were not yet known to the then painters. Lysippus' innovation lay in the fact that he discovered in the art of sculpting huge realistic possibilities that had not yet been used before him. And in fact, his figures are not perceived by us as created “for show”, they do not pose for us, but exist on their own, as the artist’s eye caught them in all the complexity of the most diverse movements, reflecting one or another spiritual impulse. Naturally, bronze, which easily takes any shape during casting, was most suitable for solving such sculptural problems.

The pedestal does not isolate the figures of Lysippus from environment, they truly live in it, as if protruding from a certain spatial depth, in which their expressiveness manifests itself equally clearly, albeit in different ways, from any side. They are, therefore, completely three-dimensional, completely liberated. The human figure is built by Lysippus in a new way, not in its plastic synthesis, as in the sculptures of Myron or Polikleitos, but in a certain fleeting aspect, exactly as it presented itself (seemed) to the artist at a given moment and which it had not yet been in the previous and already will not be in the future.

Snapshot? Impressionism? These comparisons come to mind, but they, of course, are not applicable to the work of the last sculptor of the Greek classics, because, despite all its visual immediacy, it is deeply thought out, firmly substantiated, so that the instantaneous movements do not at all mean their randomness in Lysippus.

The amazing flexibility of the figures, the very complexity, sometimes the contrast of movements - all this is harmoniously ordered, and this master has nothing that even in the least would resemble the chaos of nature. Transmitting primarily a visual impression, he subordinates this impression to a certain order, once and for all established in accordance with the very spirit of his art. It is he, Lysippus, who destroys the old, Polycletic canon of the human figure in order to create his own, new, much lighter, more suitable for his dynamic art, which rejects any internal immobility, any heaviness. In this new canon, the head is no longer 1¦7, but only 1¦8 of the total height.

The marble repetitions of his works that have come down to us give in general clear picture realistic achievements of Lysippus.

The famous "Apoxiomen" (Rome, Vatican). This is a young athlete, but not at all the same as in the sculpture of the previous century, where his image radiated a proud consciousness of victory. Lysippus showed us the athlete after the competition, diligently cleaning the body of oil and dust with a metal scraper. Not at all a sharp and seemingly inexpressive movement of the hand is given in the whole figure, giving it exceptional vitality. He is outwardly calm, but we feel that he has experienced great excitement, and in his features one can see the weariness from extreme exertion. This image, as if snatched from the ever-changing reality, is deeply human, extremely noble in its complete ease.

"Hercules with a lion" (Leningrad, Hermitage). This is a passionate pathos of the struggle not for life, but for death, again, as if seen from the side by the artist. The whole sculpture seems to be charged with a stormy intense movement, irresistibly merging into one harmoniously beautiful whole the powerful figures of man and beast clinging to each other.

About what impression the sculptures of Lysippus made on contemporaries, we can judge from the following story. Alexander the Great was so fond of his figurine “Feasting Hercules” (one of its repetitions is also in the Hermitage) that he did not part with it on his campaigns, and when his last hour came, he ordered to put it in front of him.

Lysippus was the only sculptor whom the famous conqueror considered worthy to capture his features.

Full of courage, the look of Alexander and his whole appearance
Poured from copper by Lysippus. As if this copper lives.
It seems, looking at Zeus, the statue says to him:
"I take the earth for myself, you own Olympus."

This is how the Greek poet expressed his delight.

... "The statue of Apollo is the highest ideal of art among all the works that have survived to us from antiquity." This was written by Winckelmann.

Who was the author of the statue that so delighted the illustrious ancestor of several generations of “ancient” scientists? None of the sculptors whose art shines most brightly to this day. How is it and what is the misunderstanding here?

The Apollo of which Winckelmann speaks is the famous "Apollo Belvedere": a marble Roman copy with bronze original Leohara (the last third of the 4th century BC), so named after the gallery where it was exhibited for a long time (Rome, Vatican). This statue once caused a lot of enthusiasm.

Enormous are the merits of Winckelmann, who devoted his entire life to the study of antiquity. Although not immediately, these merits were recognized, and he took (in 1763) the post of chief superintendent of antiquities in Rome and the environs. But what could even the deepest and most subtle connoisseur know about greatest masterpieces Greek art? recognized, and he took (in 1763) the post of chief superintendent of antiquities in Rome and the surrounding area. But what could even the deepest and most subtle connoisseur know then about the greatest masterpieces of Greek art?

Winckelmann is well said in the well-known book of the Russian art historian present century P. P. Muratova “Images of Italy”: “The glory of classical statues, which developed in the days of Winckelmann and Goethe, was strengthened in literature ... Winckelmann’s whole life was a feat, and his attitude to ancient art was deeply sacrificial. There is an element of the miraculous in his fate - this fiery love for the antique, which so strangely seized the son of a shoemaker who grew up among the sands of Brandenburg, and led him through all the vicissitudes to Rome ... Neither Winckelmann nor Goethe were people of the 18th century. In one of them, the antique aroused the fiery enthusiasm of the discoverer of new worlds. For another, it was a living force that freed him own creativity. Their attitude to the antique repeats the spiritual turn that distinguished the people of the Renaissance, and their spiritual type retains many features of Petrarch and Michelangelo. The ability to revive, characteristic of the ancient world, was thus repeated in history. This serves as proof that it can exist for a long time and indefinitely. Revival is not an accidental content of one historical epoch; rather, it is one of the constant instincts of the spiritual life of mankind. But in the then Roman collections, “only art in the service of imperial Rome was represented - copies from famous Greek statues, the last shoots of Hellenistic art ... Winckelmann's insight was that he sometimes managed to guess Greece through it. But the knowledge of art history has gone far since the time of Winckelmann. We don't have to guess Greece anymore, we can see it in Athens, in Olympia, in the British Museum."

Knowledge of artistic history, and in particular the art of Hellas, has gone even further since these lines were written.

The vitality of the pure source of ancient civilization can now be especially beneficial.

We recognize in the Belvedere "Apollo" a reflection of the Greek classics. But it is only a reflection. We know the frieze of the Parthenon, which Winckelmann did not know, and therefore, with all the undoubted showiness, the statue of Leochar seems to us internally cold, somewhat theatrical. Although Leochar was a contemporary of Lysippus, his art, losing the true significance of the content, smacks of academicism, marks a decline in relation to the classics.

The glory of such statues sometimes gave rise to a misconception about all Hellenic art. This notion has not faded to this day. Some artists are inclined to reduce the significance of the artistic heritage of Hellas and turn in their aesthetic searches to completely different cultural worlds, in their opinion, more consonant with the worldview of our era. (Suffice it to say that such an authoritative exponent of the most modern Western aesthetic tastes as French writer and the art theorist Andre Malraux, placed in his work “Imaginary Museum of World Sculpture” half as many reproductions of the sculptural monuments of ancient Hellas as the so-called primitive civilizations of America, Africa and Oceania!) But I stubbornly want to believe that the majestic beauty of the Parthenon will again triumph in the minds of mankind affirming in it the eternal ideal of humanism.

Two centuries after Winckelmann, we know less about Greek painting than he knew about Greek sculpture. The reflection of this painting reaches us, a reflection, but not a radiance.

Very interesting is the painting of the Thracian burial crypt in Kazanlak (Bulgaria), discovered already in our time (in 1944) when digging a foundation pit for a bomb shelter, dating back to the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century. BC e.

The images of the deceased, his relatives, warriors, horses and chariots are harmoniously inscribed in the round dome. Slender, imposing, and sometimes very graceful figures. And yet, obviously, in spirit, it is provincial painting. The absence of a spatial environment and internal unity of the composition does not fit with the literary evidence of the remarkable achievements of the Greek masters of the 4th century: Apelles, whose art was revered as the pinnacle of painting, Nikia, Pausia, Euphranar, Protogenes, Philoxenus, Antiphilus.

For us, it's all just names...

Apelles was the favorite painter of Alexander the Great and, like Lysippus, worked at his court. Alexander himself spoke of his portrait of his work, that there are two Alexanders in it: the invincible son of Philip and the “inimitable” created by Apelles.

How to resurrect the dead work of Apelles, how can we enjoy it? Isn't the spirit of Apelles alive, apparently close to Praxitele's, in the verses of the Greek poet:

I saw Apelles Cyprida, born of the sea mother.
In the brilliance of her nakedness, she stood above the wave.
So in the picture she: with her curls, heavy from moisture,
She hurries to remove the sea foam with a gentle hand.

The goddess of love in all her captivating glory. How beautiful the movement of her hand must have been, skimming the foam from her "wet-heavy" curls!

The captivating expressiveness of Apelles' painting shines through in these verses.

Homeric expressiveness!

In Pliny we read about Apelles: “He also made Diana, surrounded by a choir of sacrificial virgins; and, seeing the picture, it seems as if one is reading the verses of Homer describing it.

Loss of Greek painting of the 4th c. BC e. all the more dramatic because, according to many testimonies, that was the century when painting reached new remarkable heights.

Let us once again regret the lost treasures. No matter how much we admire the fragments of Greek statues, our idea of ​​the great art of Hellas, in the bosom of which all European art arose, will be incomplete, just as obviously incomplete would be, for example, the idea of ​​our distant descendants about the development of arts in the recent 19th century, if there would be nothing left of his painting...

Everything suggests that the transfer of space and air was no longer an insoluble problem for Greek painting of the late classics. rudiments linear perspective were already there. According to literary sources, the color sounded full in it, and the artists learned to gradually enhance or soften the tones, so that the line separating the painted drawing from the real painting was apparently crossed.

There is such a term - "valere", denoting in painting shades of tone or gradation of light and shadow within the same color tone. This term is borrowed from French and in literally means value. Color value! Or - flower. The gift of creating such values ​​and their combination in the picture is the gift of a colorist. Although we have no direct evidence for this, it can be assumed that it was already partly owned by the largest Greek painters of the late classics, even if line and pure color (rather than tone) continued to play a major role in their compositions.

According to ancient authors, these painters were able to group figures in a single, harmoniously unifying composition, to convey spiritual impulses in gestures, sometimes sharp and stormy, sometimes soft and restrained, in glances - sparkling, furious, triumphant or languid, in a word, that they allowed all the tasks assigned to their art are often as brilliant as their contemporary sculptors.

We know, finally, that they succeeded in the most diverse genres, such as historical and battle painting, portraiture, landscape, and even dead nature.

In Pompeii, destroyed by a volcanic eruption, in addition to wall paintings, mosaics were discovered, and among them - one that is especially precious to us. This is a huge composition "Battle of Alexander with Darius at Issus" (Naples, National Museum), i.e. Alexander the Great with the Persian king Darius III, who suffered a severe defeat in this battle, which was soon followed by the collapse of the Achaemenid empire.

The mighty figure of Darius with his hand thrown forward, as if in a last attempt to stop the inevitable. There is fury and tragic tension in his eyes. We feel that like a black cloud he threatened to hang over the enemy with his entire army. But it happened differently.

Between him and Alexander is a wounded Persian warrior who fell down with his horse. This is the center of the composition. Nothing can stop Alexander, who, like a whirlwind, rushes to Darius.

Alexander is the exact opposite of the barbarian force personified by Darius. Alexander is a victory. Therefore, he is calm. Young, courageous features. Lips slightly mournfully parted a slight smile. He is merciless in his triumph.

The spears of the Persian warriors are still rising like a black palisade. But the outcome of the battle has already been decided. The sad skeleton of a broken tree, as it were, portends this outcome for Darius. The whip of the furious charioteer of the royal chariot whistles. Salvation is only in flight.

The whole composition breathes with the pathos of battle and the pathos of victory. Bold angles convey the volume of figures of warriors and torn yacons. Their stormy movements, contrasts of light highlights and shadows give rise to a sense of space in which a formidable ethical battle between the two worlds unfolds before us.

A battle scene of astonishing power.

Painting? But it's not real painting, but just a picturesque combination of colored stones.

However, the fact of the matter is that the famous mosaic (probably of Hellenistic work, brought from somewhere to Pompeii) reproduces a picture of the Greek painter Philoxenus, who lived at the end of the 4th century, i.e. already at the dawn of the Hellenistic era. At the same time, it reproduces quite conscientiously, since it somehow conveys to us the compositional power of the original.

Of course, and this is not the original, of course, and here is the distorting prism of another, albeit close to painting, art. But perhaps it is this mosaic, crippled by the Pompeian catastrophe, which merely adorned the floor of a rich house, somewhat opens the veil over the exciting secret of the pictorial revelations of the great artists of ancient Hellas.

The spirit of their art was destined to be revived at the end of the Middle Ages of our era. The artists of the Renaissance did not see a single example of ancient painting, but they managed to create their own great painting (even more sophisticated, more fully aware of all its possibilities), which was the native daughter of the Greek. For, as has already been said, true revelation in art never disappears without a trace.

Concluding this brief review of Greek classical art, I would like to mention one more remarkable monument stored in our Hermitage. This is the world-famous Italian vase of the 4th century. BC e., found near the ancient city of Kuma (in Campania), named for the perfection of the composition and the richness of the decoration "Queen of Vases", and although, probably, not created in Greece itself, reflecting the highest achievements of Greek plastics. The main thing in the black-glazed vase from Qum is its truly impeccable proportions, slender outline, general harmony of forms and amazingly beautiful multi-figure reliefs (which retain traces of bright coloring) dedicated to the cult of the goddess of fertility Demeter, the famous Eleusinian mysteries, where the darkest scenes were replaced by iridescent visions, symbolizing death and life, the eternal decay and awakening of nature. These reliefs are echoes of the monumental sculpture of the greatest Greek masters of the 5th and 4th centuries. So, all the standing figures resemble the statues of the Praxiteles school, and the seated figures resemble those of the Phidias school.

Let us recall another famous Hermitage vase depicting the arrival of the first swallow.

There is still unexpired archaism, only a harbinger of the art of the classical era, a fragrant spring, marked by a still timid, ingenuous vision of the world. Here - finished, wise, already somewhat pretentious, but still ideally beautiful craftsmanship. The classics are running out, but the classic splendor has not yet degenerated into pomp. Both vases are equally beautiful, each in its own way.

The distance traveled is enormous, like the path of the sun from dawn to dusk. There was a morning hello, and here - an evening, farewell.

Introduction

2. Early classic

3. High classic

4. Late classic

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Ancient art is the name of ancient Greek and Roman art that originated in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula, on the islands of the Aegean archipelago and the western coast of Asia Minor and experienced its highest flowering in Ancient Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. In the Hellenistic era, its influence extended to the vast territories adjacent to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, as well as to the Near and Middle East(up to India), where local schools of Hellenistic art developed. The traditions of ancient Greek and Hellenistic art received a new development in the art of ancient Rome.

The best works of ancient art, which embodied high humanistic ideals in classically clear, sublime forms, are usually associated with ideas of artistic perfection and an unattainable artistic model.

The golden age, in the views of many ancient peoples, is the earliest time of human existence, when people remained forever young, did not know worries and sorrows, were like gods, but were subject to death, which came to them like a sweet dream (described in "Works and Days" Hesiod, Ovid's Metamorphoses, etc.). In a figurative sense - the heyday of art and science.

The art of Ancient Greece, which is the subject of this study, is one of the most significant phenomena of world artistic culture. The ancient Greek ruins buried in the Middle Ages were discovered by the masters of the Renaissance and gave the highest assessment to the works of classical antiquity. Antiquity was proclaimed unsurpassed and perfect. She inspired almost all the great artists - from Raphael and Michelangelo to Picasso.

1. Periodization of ancient art

In ancient Greece, art perfect in form was created. While the creations of Egypt, Sumer, China or Assyria more deeply expressed the mindset and ideals of only these specific countries and peoples, Hellas ( Ancient Greece) went far beyond national borders, creating an art that is understandable not only to some Hellenes, but also to all other peoples. How and why they managed to achieve this will forever remain a mystery. However, beauty and deep meaning Hellenic creations continue to captivate mankind for two millennia.

The art of ancient Greece did not appear from nowhere, it grew from the Crete-Mycenaean roots, creating on their basis a new artistic tradition. Cultural achievements of Greek cities in the II millennium BC. e. were rethought in the 1st millennium BC. e. After the so-called era of the "Dark Ages", which lasted from the decline of the Mycenaean world until the 8th century. BC e., began a rapid, powerful revival of culture. It was the time of the "Greek Renaissance", which created the ground for the further flourishing of art. On the way of its development, this art passed through several main phases (styles): geometry(IX-VIII centuries BC), archaic(VII-VI centuries BC), classics, which is divided into early(490-450 BC), high(450-400 BC) and late(400-323 BC). III-I centuries. BC e. busy era Hellenism- the time after the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), when, thanks to the conquests of the great commander, the motley and diverse world was first united - from Greece through Persia and Central Asia to India. Then the Hellenic style, taking on different forms in different places, spread over a vast area. In the II century. BC e. Greece fell under the rule of the Roman Republic and became a province called Achaia, but Hellenic art continued to exist on the soil of Rome, becoming the most brilliant component in the very complex and multinational art world of the empire.

2. Early classic

Period strict style, what is it called now early classics marked 490-450 BC. e.. This era, associated with the struggle of Greece against the mighty Persian state, was the period of the formation of democracy in the Greek city-states (polises). The era of the archaic, marked by the rule of tyrants, was fading into the past. An independent citizen, a person, entered the historical stage. The strict style is characterized by the dramatic intensity of the struggle: most of the topics are related to battles, intense dynamic actions, and the severity of the punishment imposed on enemies.

Among the masters of that time, Onesimus, Duris, the vase painter Cleophrades, the vase painter Brig and others were especially distinguished. One of them, the vase painter Cleophradus, owns the famous hydria(water vessel) from Nola with the scene "Death of Troy". The circular image in the upper part of the vessel is saturated with real tragedy: in the center is depicted the shrine of the Trojans - the sacred palladium (a wooden statue of Athena Pallas, guardian of the city of Troy), - to which the daughter of King Priam, the prophetess Cassandra, fell. The Greek leader Ajax, trampling on the body of the fallen enemy, forcefully tore off Cassandra, who was fleeing near him, from the palladium. This was hitherto unheard of sacrilege, for which a special punishment would be imposed on the people of Ajax for a whole thousand years. Death and violence are all around, and even the palm tree sadly bends its branches, and behind it, right on the altar, the elder Priam himself is killed, stained with the blood of his little grandson Astyanax.

The theme of the eradication of arbitrariness, uncontrollability and the reign of sanity runs through all the monuments of that era. In the 60s. 5th century BC e. The temple of Zeus at Olympia was rebuilt - the most important pan-Hellenic sanctuary, where the world-famous Olympic Games were held every four years. Both pediments in the temple, built by the architect Libon from limestone, had marble sculptural groups (now kept in the Olympia Museum). The composition on the western pediment of the building presented a passionate, pathetic scene: centaurs attacked women and boys during the wedding feast of King Pirithous. Dynamic and tense figures seem to merge into groups that gradually decrease towards the corners, and at the same time the action becomes more and more intense. The whole image turned out to be connected both in form and in plot. It is full of spiritual power: the god Apollo standing in the center raises his right hand, foreshadowing victory for people.

On the other, eastern, pediment, a static composition is presented, on which Enomai and Pelops are preparing for the competition. The myth of the first chariot race was the basis Olympic Games. Pelops once arrived from Asia Minor to ask for his wife Hippodamia, the daughter of Enomai. He, foreseeing death at the hands of the groom, nevertheless called him, like the previous applicants, to the competition. Pelops killed the old king by cunning, inciting the charioteer to betray.

The calmness of the heroes is illusory, they are all tense in anticipation of the outcome. Oenomaus akimbo, Pelops, as a winner, is dressed in a golden shell. Women stand next to them, and then - the mysterious statues of priests, boys and reclining male figures, symbolizing the rivers Alpheus and Kladei, in the valley of which competitions were held.

The images of a strict style are really strict. The statue of the charioteer from Delphi deeply reflects the ideals of the era. It was dedicated to Apollo by one of the rulers of Southern Italy. The figure is half-covered by the chariot, but all the visible details are worked out with the greatest care: the toes, the swollen veins, and the flutes - vertical grooves covering the robes. One researcher aptly said that the figures of the strict style stand like the pipes of an organ. Their expression is just as stern. Attracts attention new type faces with a smooth, low hairstyle covering the forehead, regular features and a strong, heavy chin. At that time, one of the greatest sculptors of the 5th century was working. BC e. Miron. He created the famous statue of the discus thrower - "Discobolus", which has not survived to this day, but was reconstructed thanks to Roman copies. It was bronze, like most other statues of a strict style, which was quite in line with the spirit of the time.

"Disco Thrower" is remarkable for its witty design: it is both rapidly moving and at the same time motionless. Miron generally liked to portray a person in extreme situations and even made a statue of the runner Lad, sung in verse, who died at the finish line. A distinctive feature of this statue is not the harmony of a complex figure, but the disproportions specially introduced into it, taking into account optical corrections: the young man’s face, when viewed from the front (front), is asymmetrical, but the head is located in a strong inclination, and as a result of all these optical effects, the viewer creates a surprisingly integral perception of the face. The same unusual design marked his bronze sculptural group "Athena and Marsyas", which stood on the Athenian Acropolis. She was also in the spirit of the times: the goddess punished the forest god Marsyas, who dared, violating the ban, to find and pick up her reed flute. This instrument was invented by Athena herself, but noticing that playing it distorts the beautiful features of her face, she threw away the flute, cursing her and forbidding her to touch.

3. High classic

By the middle of the 5th c. BC e. the sharpness of the early classical style gradually outlived itself. The art of Greece entered a period of prosperity. Everywhere after the Persian destruction, cities were rebuilt, temples, public buildings and sanctuaries were erected. In Athens from 449 BC. e. Pericles ruled, a highly educated man who united all the best minds Hellas: his friends were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the painter Polykleitos and the sculptor Phidias. It fell to Phidias to rebuild the Athenian Acropolis, the ensemble of which is now considered the most beautiful.

The Athenian Acropolis stood on a high sheer cliff rising above the city. The Acropolis was the center of all the highest shrines of the Athenians. Under Pericles, it was re-realized as a unique architectural complex. According to the plan of the architect Mnesicles, a magnificent entrance portico was erected to the sanctuary, decorating it with Ionic columns. To the left of the Propylaea (front gate) was the building of the Pinakothek - an art gallery, in which there were images of the main heroes of Attica, and at the entrance there were statues of the guardian gods: Hermes and Hecate.

Thematic abstract on the topic “Late Classics of Ancient Greece,

4th century BC

The private customer becomes stronger than the public one. The masters are dominated by an interest in human, rather than divine images. They are more attracted to the ideas of sensuality than rationalism. Architecture and sculpture continue to play a large role while vase painting is losing its former importance.

Architecture. In the 4th century BC. extremes become more noticeable: hugeTemple of Artemis of Ephesus, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus(mid 4th century BC) and small buildings with a decorative solution of forms such asmonument of Lysicrates. The number of secular buildings is growing. The architects' enthusiasm for various plans is noticeable: square, round, rectangular. More common is a combination of different orders.Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidauruswhere there is a lot of construction going on. Asclepius was especially revered in the 4th century BC. An important place of the "hospital" was a portico 70 meters long, where those who wished to be healed slept and near which there was a source for ablution. In Epidaurus, propylaea, temples to Asclepius and Artemis were built, where, after recovery, images of sick parts of the body made of plaster were brought, as well as fimela - a round room, obviously for concerts, a huge theater and many beautiful porticoes. It had a square gymnasium, with a playground for games and training, classes for literature and music classes, and a stadium. Tholos (fimela) , concert hall - was built by a prominent architect of that timePolykleitos the Younger. The building, round in plan, made of Pentelli and Parian marble, was decorated with 20 Doric columns on the outside and 14 Corinthian ones on the inside. The theater in Epidaurus built by Polykleitos the Younger is one of the best in Greece, amazing with acoustics.

Construction in Asia Minor.In the 4th century, rapid construction was going on in the cities of Asia Minor, which preferred buildings of the Ionic order. At this time, they createThe lion's tomb in Knida, the temple of Artemis of Ephesus, the temple of Artemis in Sardis, the temple of Athena in Priene, Apollo in Didyma.

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.The tomb began to be built Pytheas and Satyr during the life of the king, but ended after his death. Sculptural decorations were performedScopas, Briaxides, Timothy and Leohar. In the 15th century, this miracle of ancient architecture was destroyed by the Knights of St. John. Greek forms were combined here in the colonnade and orders, and oriental forms in the use of the pyramid.

In the 4th century BC. also created many sarcophagi, strict in architectural forms, often painted with paint.

Sculpture. The development of 4th century sculpture is defined by namesScopas, Praxiteles, Lysippus; along with them, such outstanding masters asLeohar, Timothy, Briaxides, Euphranor, Silanion and others.

Scopas created his own style. Paphos, emotional excitement are typical for his monuments. Born on the island of Paros, he worked between 370 and 330 BC. in various areas: Attica, Boeotia, Arcadia, Asia Minor. A versatile master, he is also known as an architectTemple of Athena Alei in Tegea(not saved). Artworks Scopas testify to a keen interest in emotionality, in the disclosure of human feelings in a monument of art. In sculpture, this appears in the complication of the composition, the increase in dynamism and impetuousness, in the contrast of chiaroscuro. In passionate images Scopas new relations of the Greeks to the world sounded, the loss of clarity and peace found a plastic expression. Scopas liked to turn to expressive subjects ( Maenad ). In the reliefs that adorned the frieze of the Halicarnassus Mausoleum, the sculptor expressed the growth of emotional expressiveness, compared with the works of the 5th century BC. this power of expressiveness has increased manifold. The discovery of new means of artistic expression (dramatism, passion) led to the loss of the monumental clarity of high classics, in whose works human mind won in a collision with the elements as the highest principle.

Praxiteles , born around 390 BC, expressed other moods in his works. Early work"Satyr pouring wine"was so glorified that it has come down to us in many Roman replicas. The ability to create smooth, flowing contours of statues is one of the most remarkable abilities Praxiteles. If the genius of Scopas personifies impulsiveness, pathos, then Praxiteles - a master of harmony, relaxation, relaxation after a riot of anxious feelings. Scopas - an exponent of the Dionysian principle, Praxiteles - Apollonian. Praxiteles became famous for the statue of Aphrodite, performing for the inhabitants of Kos two statues of the goddess, dressed and naked. The customers were embarrassed by the boldness of the sculptor, and they did not take the nude. It was purchased by the inhabitants of Knidos (Aphrodite of Knidos), and she brought fame to their city (pilgrimage). The sculptor showed the beautiful nakedness of a harmoniously built woman, he managed to stop at the borders of sensuality, which begins to emerge in Aphrodites of the Hellenistic era. Statue of Hermes carrying little Dionysus to be brought up by nymphs, found in the temple of Hera at Olympia, is closestatue of Eirene with Plutos. As in other images Praxiteles , the ideal human beauty is glorified here. God is shown as an ideal person, and a person, when he is developed harmoniously, is perceived as a beautiful deity. The coloring was poorly preserved: the hair, face and, of course, the pupils were painted. Marble was tinted with tinted wax, which impregnated its surface under the action of heat. It turned out colored marble, without a layer of paint that lay on the stone in the archaic era. In works Praxiteles there is a strong attraction to reality.

IN statue of a satyr resting, from which especially many replicas have been preserved, the theme of relaxation sounds even more clearly. In the laterstatue "Apollo the Lizard Killer"the god of light is represented by a thin boy. The sculpture captures with its beauty, but at the same time there is some mannerism.

The sons of Praxiteles - Timarchus and Kephistodot the Younger, who worked at the end of the 4th century - the beginning of the 3rd century BC, were already artists of the Hellenistic era.

Lysippus , a sculptor of restrained and strong temperament, the court master of Alexander the Great, opened the way for a new, neoclassical type of art, not connected with the civic ideas of the city-polis. Depicts the heroic characters of mythology, or athletes. His statue is especially expressive. Apoxyomene. Lysippos succeeded in plastically completely conveying the excitement of the young man, who had not yet cooled down after the struggle. In the statue of Apoxyomenes there is not a single calm part of the body (the quivering nervousness of excitement, which the Roman copyist in the marble face of Apoxyomenes could not convey, was preservedbronze statue of Ephebe from Antifikera). Lysippus preferred to work in bronze, and in the original statue of Apoxyomenes there were no props, which, having arisen in a Roman marble copy, spoil the appearance of the statue and reduce the lightness and mobility of the figure. Lysippus continues the process of conquest of space by the statue, begun Scopas . The sculptor is already much more fully using the opportunity to show different states of a person from different points of view (different impressions are formed from different angles).

The school of Lysippus is attributed resting statue of Hermes, more reminiscent of the figure of an athlete-runner. Lysippus several sculptures were created on the theme of the exploits of Hercules. A Roman copy has been preserved depicting Hercules fighting a lion. The pyramidal formation of the group gives stability to the composition of the fight. The melancholy notes that sounded latently in the images of Aoxiomen, Agia and Hermes, were continued inresting statue of Hercules. A peculiar combination of the appearance of hypertrophied muscles with the expression of deep fatigue is a tribute to the times. The loss of classical harmony is particularly evident here. In the classics, it was not necessary to show Hercules as super-powerful: his strength was manifested in confidence, in the clear composition of the work.

Departure from typification, the desire for a sharp character in the image led to interestSilanion, Lysistratus and Lysippus to the portrait. Alexander the Great posed for Lysippus . In the later copies of the commander's portrait that have come down, the master showed a strong man, whose consciousness was stirred up by inner turmoil and anxiety. It is no coincidence that the appeal Lysippus and the portrait of Socrates , whose tragic fate, one must think, worried him. Already in the distorted features of Alexander one can feel the first disturbing glimpses of the coming trials of the ancient world.

Leohar. In the work of an older contemporary of Lysippus, a sculptor Leohara found expression of other moods. Leohar , acutely feeling longing for the harmonious images of the classics, he was looking for beauty in the forms of the past. These searches gave rise already within the 4th century BC. classicism, which also manifested itself in subsequent centuries. In his best statue -Apollo Belvedere(about 330 - 320 BC) - captivates the perfection of the image and the skill of execution, but this beauty is of a different plan than in the sculptures of Phidias and Lysippus. Theatricality and posture replaced the natural ease of the images of the 5th century and the vitality of the characters of Lysippus pulsating with energy. Close to Apollo Belvedere in the nature of the image and the plastic solution attributed toLeocharu statue of Artemis of Versailles with doe(about 325 BC). The image of rapid movement, a beautiful turn of the figure is typical for a skilled sculptor. The fusion of theatrical pathos with genre acting in the sculptural group Leohara who represented the abduction by the eagle Ganymede . From this work is not far from the genre sculptures of Hellenism.

Painting. vase painting. Artist of the late 5th century BC Apollodorus, who created easel works in tempera, introduced chiaroscuro modeling into images and therefore can rightly be called one of the first painters. Artists of that time were more often attracted by plots of a mythological nature. Timanf conveys the intensity of dramatic feelings with the strength inherent in his composition"The Sacrifice of Iphigenia". Love of painters of the 4th century BC the multi-figure battle scenes are confirmed by a mosaic Pompeian copy from a painting by an artist of the 4th century Philoxena , which depicts the battle of Darius with Alexander the Great at Issus.

Vase painters of the 4th century BC relief decorations were increasingly used, in which gilding was widely used. On the shoulders of the hydria from Qom ("queen vase" ) the artist depicted the gods associated with the cult of the Eleusinian mysteries.

heyday monumental paintingin the 4th century, he contributed to the widespread dissemination of colorful multi-figured mosaics in numerous cities of the Hellenistic monarchies. The compositions that adorned the palace of the Macedonian king Archelaus amaze those who captured and mosaicists with the expressiveness of the depiction of the human figure, the expressiveness of the contour line.Mosaic "Lion Hunt", colorful composition"Dionysus on a Panther", laid out of multi-colored river pebbles, make it possible to realize the size of the success of monumental painting.

Last quarter of the 4th century BC and then the succeeding centuries of Hellenism may be called the heyday of Greek terracotta. During these years, the best elegiac images of Tanagra were created, many grotesque figures appear at the hands of experienced coroplasts.

LECTURE STRUCTURE:

I. Art of the high classic period.

II. Art of the late classic period.

III. Hellenistic art.

3.1. Alexandrian school.

3.2. Pergamon school.

3.3. Rhodes school.

IV. Bibliography.

V. List of major artifacts.

Art of the high classic period (second half of the 5th century BC).

As in other areas of life, in the culture of the 5th century. BC. there is a combination of traditional features dating back to the archaic and even earlier eras, and completely different ones, generated by new phenomena in the socio-economic and political spheres. The birth of the new did not mean the death of the old. Just as in cities the construction of new temples was very rarely accompanied by the destruction of old ones, so in other areas of culture the old receded, but usually did not disappear completely. The most important new factor, which has had the most significant impact on the course of cultural evolution in this century, is the consolidation and development of the polis, especially the democratic one. It is no coincidence that the most striking works of material and spiritual culture were born in Athens. towards the middle

5th century BC e. the sharpness of the early classical style gradually outlived itself. The art of Greece entered a period of prosperity. Everywhere after the Persian destruction, cities were rebuilt, temples, public buildings and sanctuaries were erected. In Athens from 449 BC. e. Pericles ruled, a highly educated man who united all the best minds of Hellas around him: his friends were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the artist Poliklet and the sculptor Phidias.

The cities of the ancient world usually appeared near a high cliff, a citadel was erected on it, so that there was somewhere to hide if the enemy penetrated the city. Such a citadel was called an acropolis. In the same way, on a rock that towered almost 150 meters above Athens and had long served as a natural defensive structure, the upper city gradually formed in the form of a fortress (acropolis) with various defensive and religious structures.

Athens Acropolis began to be built up as early as 2 thousand BC. e. During the Greco-Persian wars, it was completely destroyed, later under the guidance of a sculptor and architect Phidias its restoration and reconstruction began (Fig. 156).

The new complex of the Athenian Acropolis is asymmetrical, however it is based on a single artistic idea, a single architectural and artistic design. In part, the asymmetry was suggested by the irregular outlines of the hill, the different heights of its individual parts, and the presence of previously built temple structures in some of its sections. The builders of the Acropolis deliberately went for an asymmetric solution, using it to create the most harmonious correspondence between the individual parts of the ensemble.

The artistic concept adopted by Phidias and the architects who collaborated with him was based on the principle of harmonious balance of individual structures within the entire complex and the consistent disclosure of the artistic qualities of the ensemble and the buildings included in it in the process of gradually walking around and viewing them outside and inside.

The walls of the Acropolis are steep and steep. A wide zigzag road runs from the foot of the hill to the only entrance. This Propylaea built by the architect Mnesicles- a monumental gate with Doric columns and a wide staircase.

The Propylaea were in fact a public building. The height of the columns of the western six-columned Doric portico of the building is 8.57 m; the Ionic columns located behind them on the sides of the central aisle are somewhat higher, their dimensions are 10.25 m. composition of the Propylaea introduced lateral wings adjacent to them. Left, north- Pinakothek - served to collect paintings, and in right, south, there was a repository of manuscripts (library). In general, an asymmetric composition arose, balanced by a small temple to Nike Apteros (the wingless goddess of victory, Nike), erected by the architect Kallikrates (Fig. 157). It is interesting that the axis of the temple of Nike Apteros is not parallel to the axis of the Propylaea: the main facade of the temple is somewhat turned towards the approach to the Propylaea, which is done in the interests of the greatest disclosure of the artistic qualities of this structure to the viewer. The Temple of Nike is one of the masterpieces of ancient Greek architecture from its heyday.

The main and largest building on the Acropolis was the Parthenon, the temple of the goddess Athena, built by the architects Iktin and Kallikrat. It does not stand in the center of the square, but somewhat to the side, so that you can immediately capture the front and side facades with your eyes (Fig. 158).

On the end facades it had eight columns, on the side - seventeen. The temple was perceived and not too elongated, and not too short. He was supremely harmonious thanks to combining in it the properties of two orders - Doric and Ionic. The outer columns of the Parthenon were of the Doric order. The walls of the temple itself - cella - crowned continuous Ionic frieze. If the outside of the Parthenon was decorated with scenes of fierce battles, in the style of which the strict style still sounded weighty, then the inner frieze depicted a peaceful event - the solemn procession of the Athenians at the feast of the Great Panathenas (festivities in honor of the goddess Athena). On the Panathenaic, a new robe for Athena was carried on a ship - peplos. This gift was a sign of her resurrection. The All-Athenian procession was presented here in a measured, festive rhythm: both noble elders with branches in their hands, and girls in new chitons and peplos, and musicians, and priests, and riders on rearing, agitated horses.

Another temple of the Athenian Acropolis - the Erechtheion, dedicated to the two main deities of the city of Athens - Athena Poliade and Poseidon, was completed later, already around 410 BC. e. Against the backdrop of the grandiose Parthenon, the graceful Erechtheion with three different porticoes and statues of caryatids (girls carrying a ceiling) seems like a magical toy. Great and small, archaic and modern, grandiose and intimate harmoniously merged in the Acropolis of Athens. Even today it remains the standard of naturalness, beauty and noble taste.

In ancient Greek art, in temple construction, there was an inextricable link between architecture and sculpture. This unity is very clearly seen in the Parthenon.

The fullness of the classical, perfection of Greek plastic reached in the friezes of the Parthenon, created by several artists under the guidance of the great Phidias, a friend of Pericles, in the 50-40s of the 5th century. BC e. The very first in the process of building the Parthenon were to be ready metopes, with them the sculptural work began, in which many masters of different generations and from different places of Greece participated. On each side of the temple, metopes were dedicated to a specific theme: in the east - gigantomachy, in the west - amazonomachy (Fig. 159), in the north - the battle of the Greeks and Trojans, in the south - centauromachy (Fig. 160, 161, 162).

Together with the last metopes, work began on frieze depicting the twelve Olympian gods and the Panathenaic procession. The frieze was about 160 m long and was placed above the entrance to the pronaos, the opisthod and on the walls of the cella at a height of 12 m and was already performed on the spot. If the metopes are given in very high relief - in some places the figures touch the background with only a few points - then the frieze is executed in very low relief (only 5.5 cm), but rich in picturesque modeling of a naked body and clothes.

frieze composition, undoubtedly belongs to an outstanding master who, when depicting such a large number of figures, managed to avoid repetition and created a lively picture of a national holiday, where all participants are imbued with a common mood, merged in a single movement, but each at the same time, obeying the general tone, retains his individuality. This individuality is expressed in gestures, in the nature of the movement, in the costume. The facial features, the structure of the figure, both gods and mere mortals, are a generalized image - the ideal of Greek beauty.

The alternation of figures of animals and people, riders and footmen, dressed and naked, the segmentation of the general flow of the procession by a figure turned back, give the whole frieze a special persuasiveness, vitality. Coloring and accessories made of copper contributed to the fact that the relief stood out clearly against the background of the marble wall. Despite the fact that many sculptors worked on the frieze, in proportions, the type of face, hairstyles, the nature of the movement of humans and animals, the interpretation of the folds of clothing, the performing artists strictly carried out the will of the author and remarkably subordinated their artistic style to the general style.

Compared to metopes, the frieze represents a further step in the development of realism.; no traces of rigidity or stiffness in poses, complete freedom of movement, lightness of clothes that not only reveal the shape of the body, but also contribute to the expressiveness of movement, such as fluttering cloaks, conveying the depth of space - all this makes the frieze the clearest example of the flowering of classical art.

Simultaneously with the frieze, work was underway on the pediments of the Parthenon. On the east was depicted scene of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus in the presence of the Olympian gods, in the west - the dispute between Athena and Poseidon over dominance in Attica. From the multi-figure composition, there are few heavily damaged figures left, each of which is a round sculpture, carefully processed from all sides.

The pediments of the Parthenon are the pinnacle of the compositional solution of a multi-figured group of this kind: the depth of the disclosure of the plot is expressed by perfect artistic means, a vivid characterization of the images and, at the same time, amazing harmony with the general architectural whole. The center of both pediments is divided between the two main characters: Zeus and Athena, Poseidon and Athena, between which was placed on the east - a small figure of Nike and on the west - an olive tree, given by the goddess to the inhabitants of Attica.

On the eastern pediment behind the main central figures were two more deities seated on thrones - Hera and Poseidon. In the background behind the main gods are the figures of the younger gods, Hephaestus, Iris, even further to the corners are the standing figures of the gods and the sitting and reclining gods: on the right are three goddesses: Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite(Fig. 163), on the left - a group of two goddesses, probably Demeter and Persephone and a reclining young god, apparently Dionysus(Fig. 164).

The ideal of the human personality is embodied by Phidias in large cultstatues of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. The figure of the goddess, 12 m high, is made of ivory and gold and stood inside the Parthenon temple. She testifies that famous master managed to overcome the rigidity and severity of the early classical style, while maintaininghis spirit of seriousness and dignity. The soft, deeply human look of the almighty god Zeus made everyone who came to his sanctuary in Olympia forget for a while about the worries that oppressed the soul, inspired hope.

In addition to Phidias, about the middle of the 5th c. BC e. created by the outstanding Greek sculptor Myron, originally from Elefevr in Boeotia, all of whose activities took place in Athens. Myron, whose work is known to us only from Roman copies, worked in bronze and was a master of round plastics. The sculptor has a great command of plastic anatomy and conveys freedom of movement, overcoming some stiffness that still existed in the sculptures of Olympia..

Known for his magnificent sculpture "Discobolus"(Fig. 165) In it, Miron chose a bold artistic motif - the shortest stop between two strong movements, the moment when the last wave of the hand was made before throwing the disc. The entire weight of the body falls on the right leg, even the toes of which are tense, the left leg is free and barely touches the ground. The left hand, touching the knee, as if keeps the figure in balance. A well-trained athlete beautifully and freely performs a learned movement. With such a strong tension of the whole body, the young man's face surprises the viewer with its perfect calmness. The transfer of facial expressions corresponds to the tension of the body.

Compositional construction of "Discobolus" solved somewhat flat, as if in the form of a relief, but at the same time, each side of the statue clearly reveals the author's intention; from all points of view, the movement of the athlete is understandable, although the artist singles out one main point of view.

Also famous is the group of Myron, who once stood on the Acropolis of Athens, depicting Athena, who threw the flute she invented, and strong Marsyas(Fig. 166). A wild, unbridled forest demon with an animal-like face, sharp, rough movements is opposed to a very young, but calm Athena. The figure of Marsyas expresses fear of the goddess and a strong, greedy desire to grab the flute. Athena stops Silenus with a gesture of her hand. Miron in this group appears before us as a master of bright and sharp characteristics.

The third great classic of Greek sculpture was Polykleitos. from Argos, who worked for some time in Athens. He created the canons for the definition and plastic transfer of the proportions of the human body. According to the canon of Polykleitos, the length of the foot should have been 1/6 of the length of the body, and the height of the head - 1/8. These and other relationships are strictly observed in the figure. "Doriphora"(Fig. 167), who embodied the then ideal of male beauty, in sculpture "Wounded Amazon"(Fig.168).

And Phidias in the Parthenon friezes, and Myron in "Discobolus", and Poliklet in "Dorifor" depict ideal people, such as they should be.

In the period of high classics, painting undoubtedly developed. With the growth of realism in Greek art, painting had to find new means of expression. Two achievements paved the way for the further development of painting: the discovery of the rules of linear perspective and the enrichment of pictorial techniques with chiaroscuro.

During this period, such masters as Agafarchus, Zeuslis, Parrasius, Timanf worked (Fig. 168).

Second half of the 5th c. BC e. was an important stage in the development of ancient Greek art. The traditions of the high classics were reworked in new historical conditions. In this era, a high humanism of images, patriotism, citizenship can be traced. The ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens is a synthesis of the achievements of the high classic period. In the visual arts, the image of the victorious hero, the defender of the policy, dominates. The artists got as close as possible to the realistic depiction of the human figure, more and more often works are performed where a person is in motion and faces have their own individuality, facial expressions.

Art of the late Classic period (4th century BC).

The changed conditions of social life led to a change in the nature of ancient realism.

Along with the continuation and development of traditional classical forms of art of the 4th century. BC e., in particular architecture, had to decide andcompletely new challenges. Art for the first time began to serve the aesthetic needs and interests of the individual, and not the policy as a whole; appearedand works that affirmed monarchical principles. Throughout the 4th c. BC e. constantly intensified the process of departure of a number of representatives of Greek art from the ideals of nationality and heroics of the 5th century. BC e.

At the same time, the dramatic contradictions of the era were reflected in artistic images, showing the hero in a tense tragic struggle with forces hostile to him, engulfed in deep and mournful experiences, torn apart by deep doubts.

Greek architecture 4th c. BC e. had a number of major achievements, although its development was very uneven and contradictory. Yes, during first third of the 4th c. in architecture there was a well-known decline in constructionactivities, reflecting the economic and social crisis that engulfed all Greek policies, and especially those located in Greece proper. This decline was, however, far from universal. It affected most acutely in Athens, which was defeated in the Peloponnesian Wars. In the Peloponnese, the construction of temples did not stop. From the second third of the century, construction intensified again. In Greek Asia Minor, and partly on the peninsula itself, numerous architectural structures were erected.

Monuments of the 4th c. BC e. generally followed the principles of the order system. Nevertheless, they differed significantly in character from the works of high classics. The construction of temples continued, but especially extensive development compared to the 5th century. BC. received construction of theaters (Fig. 170),palaestra, closed spaces for public meetings(bouleuterium), etc.

The most striking features of the development of Asia Minor architecture affected in built around 353 BC. e. the architects Pytheas and Satyr Halicarnassus Mausoleum - the tomb of Mausolus, the ruler of the Persian province of Karius (Fig. 171).

The mausoleum struck not so much with the majestic harmony of proportions asgrandiosity of scale and magnificent richness of decoration. In ancient times, it was ranked among the seven wonders of the world. The height of the Mausoleum probably reached 40 - 50 m. The building itself was a rather complex structure, which combined local Asia Minor traditions of Greek order architecture into motifs borrowed from the classical East. In the 15th century The mausoleum was badly damaged, and its exact reconstruction is currently impossible; only some of its most general features do not cause controversy among scientists. In plan, it was a rectangle approaching a square. The first tier in relation to the subsequent ones served as a plinth. The mausoleum was a huge stone prism built of large squares. At the four corners, the first tier was flanked by equestrian statues. In the thickness of this huge stone block there was a high vaulted room in which the tombs of the king and his wife stood. The second tier consisted of a room surrounded by a high colonnade of the Ionic order. Marble statues of lions were placed between the columns. The third, last tier was a stepped pyramid, on top of which were placed large figures of the ruler and his wife standing on a chariot. Maveola's tomb was surrounded by three rows of friezes, but their exact location in the architectural ensemble has not been established. All sculptural works were made by Greek masters, including Skopas.

The combination of oppressive force and the huge scale of the basement floor with the magnificent solemnity of the colonnade was supposed to emphasize the power of the king and the greatness of his power.

The general character of the sculpture and art of the late classics is mainlydetermined by the creative activity of realist artists. The leading and greatest representatives of this trend were Skopas, Praxiteles and Lysippus.

Head of a wounded warrior from the temple of Athena Alei in Tegea shows Scopas as a deep reformer of the concept of Phidias. Under his incisor, a previously beautiful form is distorted: suffering makes a person ugly, disfigures his face. Previously, Greek aesthetics generally excluded suffering.

And so the fundamental moral principle of ancient Greek art was violated. Beauty gives way to pain, pain changes the face of a person, and a groan escapes from his chest. The proportions of the face are distorted: the head becomes almost cubic and flattened. The image of grief has not yet reached such expressiveness.

The famous "Bacchae"(Fig. 172) - a small figurine of a cult minister of Dionysus - represents Skopas as a master of new plastic solutions. Half-naked, in a wild dance, the figure no longer stands, does not turn, but rotates around an axis in a swift, stormy movement. The Bacchante is seized with passion - she tears apart the animal, in which she sees the incarnation of God. Before the eyes of the viewer, a bloody ritual is performed, which has never before been depicted in Greek sculpture in this way.

Praxiteles, on the contrary, was a master of lyrical divine images. Many Roman copies of his works have survived: “Satyr pouring wine”, “Resting Satyr”, “Apollo Saurokton” (or “Apollo killing a lizard”), “Eros”, etc. His most famous sculpture of a naked Aphrodite, made by order of the island Spit, but repurchased by the inhabitants of the island of Knidos, which received the name "Aphrodite of Knidos"(Fig. 173). Praxiteles first exposed Aphrodite: only she alone was allowed to demonstrate her beauty without clothes. She seemed to have just come out of the water, hiding behind her hands.

One of the works of the great master has come down to our days inoriginal. This is Hermes with the baby Dionysus.(Fig. 174). The group was initiated into the temple of Hera at Olympia, where she was found during excavations. Only the legs and hand of Hermes, who was holding a bunch of grapes, are lost. Hermes, carrying the baby to be brought up by the nymphs, is resting on the way. The figure of the god is strongly inclined, but this does not make the sculpture ugly. She, on the contrary, is fanned by an atmosphere of bliss. Facial features are not marked too sharply, they seem to melt under the influence of the midday sun. The eyelids are no longer emphasized, and the look becomes languid, as if scattered. Often Praxiteleslooking for additional support for his figures: trunks, pylons or other supports, as if not relying on the strength of their own tectonics.

At the turn of the Greek classics and Hellenism, the last great sculptor, Lysippus, the court sculptor of Alexander the Great, worked. As an artist, he was very versatile - he created sculptural groups (for example, "The Labors of Hercules"), individual statues and even portraits, among which the portrait of Alexander the Great himself is most famous. Lysippos tried himself in different genres, but most of all he succeeded in depicting athletes.

His main work - "Apoxiomen" (Fig. 175) - depicts a young man cleaning sand from his body after competitions (Greek athletes rubbed their bodies with oil, to which sand stuck during competitions); it differs significantly from the works of the late classics and, in particular, from the works of Polykleitos. The athlete's posture is free and even somewhat unscrewed, the proportions are completely different - the head is not one sixth of the entire figure, as in the "square" canon of the Argive, but one seventh. figuresLysippus are more slender, natural, mobile and independent. However, something very important disappears in them, the athlete is no longer perceived as a hero, the image becomes more belittled, while in the high classics it was ascending: people were glorified, heroes were deified, and the gods were placed on the level of the highest spiritual and natural power.

All the achievements of classical architecture and art were put at the service of new social goals alien to the classics, generated by the inevitable development of ancient society. The development went from the obsolete isolation of policies to powerful, albeit fragileslave-owning monarchies, enabling the top of societystrengthen the foundations of slavery.

Greek art 4th c. BC. characterized by a bright flourishing of painting. Masters of this period widely used experience of previous artists and, being fluent in realistic techniques of depicting man and animal, they enriched painting with new achievements.

The landscape now occupies an even more significant place in the composition and begins to serve not only as a background for the figures, but as an important side of the entire plot design. The image of the light source revealed unlimited pictorial possibilities. The pictorial portrait reached a brilliant development.

In Sicyon at the beginning of the 4th c. BC e. a real academy of painting appears, which has developed its own rules for teaching, a solid, well-founded theory of painting. The theorist of the school was Pamphilus, who laid the basis for painting chrestography, that is, the construction of figures by calculation, in which the tradition of Polykleitos continued. Perspective, mathematics and optics were introduced into the course of painting, special attention was paid to drawing.

The famous painter Pausius was a student of Pamphilus and his follower, who worked in the technique of encaustics, which allowed him to bring to great perfection the play of chiaroscuro and convey subtle gradations of tones. Pausius became famous for his still lifes, depicting illusory bouquets and garlands of flowers.

A school of another direction was created in Thebes in the 70s. 4th c. BC e. Particularly noteworthy is the artist Aristide the Elder, whose paintings were distinguished by their dramatic design, the vivid expressiveness of the characters and the ability to convey complex pathetic feelings. The Theban-Attic school differed from the Sicyonian one in the depth of its ideological content, topicality of the plot, and its political sharpness.

An outstanding Attic artist - Nicias, famous for his painting skills. He painted easel paintings, far removed in spirit from high civil ideals. He took the plot from romantic myths, giving a reason to show off the grace and exquisite beauty of the characters, the sentimentality of the situation. In Roman and Pompeian frescoes, repetitions have been preserved paintings by Nikias "Perseus and Andromeda"(Fig. 176). Here is shown the moment when the feat has already been accomplished, the monster has been killed, and the hero, like a gallant cavalier, gives his hand to the beautiful heroine. A significant place in these paintings is occupied by the landscape, although it is generally written.

famous Apelles, also studied in Sicyon, from 340 BC. e. worked at the court of the Macedonian kings, where he painted portraits of Alexander. Apelles, in the portrait of Alexander with lightning, for the first time showed the source of light and highlights on the face and body, which was a great conquest in the history of realistic painting.

Apelles was especially famous for his painting depicting Aphrodite emerging from the sea. The goddess's feet were still hidden by the water and were slightly visible through it. The goddess, raising her hands, wringing out her hair,

Unfortunately, all the famous paintings of Apelles and his contemporaries have disappeared. Only painting by Philoxenus "Battle of Alexander with Darius"(Fig. 177, 178) is known to us from the mosaic repetition of the 3rd c. BC e. A large (5 m X 2.7 m) mosaic was the decoration of the floor in Pompeii. It is a complex myogo figure battle. The idea of ​​the picture is the glorification of the courage and heroism of Alexander. Philoxen perfectly conveyed the pathos of the characters, various emotions. Bold angles, such as a warrior falling in front of a chariot or a horse on foreground, a rich play of chiaroscuro, bright highlights that enhance the impression of three-dimensional figures, reveal the hand of an experienced and skillful master and, most importantly, make it possible to imagine the nature of painting in the second half of the 4th century. BC e.

In the period of the late classics, there was a close connection between vase painting and monumental and easel painting. By the second half of the 4th c. BC e. includes a number of excellent Attic and South Italian red-figure vases. By the end of the 4th c. BC e. the red-figure technique disappears, giving way to modest murals of a purely ornamental nature. The multi-color palette, the techniques of chiaroscuro in painting became inaccessible to the masters of vase painting due to the limited number of colors that can withstand heavy firing.

Classical art for the first time in the history of mankind set as its goal the truthful disclosure of the ethical and aesthetic value of humanindividual and human group. Classical art at its best expressed the ideals of democracy for the first time in the history of class society.

The artistic culture of the classics also preserves for us an eternal, enduring value, as one of the absolute pinnacles in the artistic development of mankind. In the works of classical art, for the first time, the ideal of a harmoniously developed person found its perfect artistic expression, the beauty and valor of a physically and morally beautiful person were truly revealed.

Classical Sculpture n Early Classic (500-450 BC) n High Classic (450-400 BC) n Late Classic (400-330 BC)

Sculpture of the classics n The image of a citizen - an athlete and a warrior - becomes central in the art of the classics. n Body proportions and diverse forms of movement have become the most important means of characterization. n Gradually, the face of the depicted person is freed from stiffness and static.

Bronze is the main material n Only bronze allowed the Greek sculptors to give the figure any position. n Therefore, bronze in the 5th c. BC e. became the main material in which all the great masters worked when they took up the creation of a round sculpture. n In a bronze statue, eyes were inlaid with glassy paste and colored stone, and lips, hairstyles or jewelry were made from a bronze alloy of a different shade.

Marble Sculpture n Sculptural decorations of temples, III tomb reliefs III and such statues were made in marble, which depicted either figures in long clothes or a naked figure standing upright with arms down. n Marble sculpture was still painted. n It was difficult to sculpt a nude figure with support on one leg with the other freely set aside from marble without a special support.

Early Classics n Personal originality, the contribution of his character did not attract the attention of the masters of the early Greek classics. n Creating a typical image of a human citizen, the sculptor does not seek to reveal the individual character. n This was both the strength and the limitations of the realism of the Greek classics.

Early Classic 1. 500 BC e. Tyrannicide. Bronze 2. 470 AD e. Charioteer from Delphi. Bronze 3. 460 BC e. Statue of Zeus (Poseidon) from Cape Artemision. Bronze 4. 470 BC e. Blond young man. Marble 5. 470 BC e. Runner at the start 6. 5 in. BC e. Miron. Discus thrower. Bronze 7. 5 c. BC e. Miron. Marsyas and Athena. Bronze 8. 470 -460 BC e. Throne of Ludovisi. Relief. Marble

500 BC e. Tyrannoslayers n Roman marble copy after a bronze original. n Critias and Nesiot are the creators of the famous group. n The monument to the patriotic heroes Harmodius and Aristogeiton, the tyrannicides by Antenor, erected on the slope of the Athenian Areopagus, was taken away in 480 BC. e. Persians. n After the expulsion of the enemies of Attica, the Athenians immediately ordered new monument sculptors Critias and Nesiotes.

Powerful figures n In the work on some remnants of the archaic, the decorative interpretation of the hair, the archaic smile. n The masters introduced a completely different spirit into the work, despite the fact that instead of graceful archaic kouros, we see completely different figures, powerful, elongated proportions, with a massive body, in energetic movement. n Height - 1.95 m

A stern monument n The elder - Aristogeiton - protects the younger, who raised his sword over the tyrant. n The muscles of the naked bodies of the heroes are sculpted in a somewhat generalized way, but very accurately, with a clear understanding of nature. n This monument is stern, full of patriotic pathos, glorified the victory of democracy, which not only threw off tyranny, but also repelled the Persian invasion.

474 BC e. Charioteer of Delphi n Famous original of ancient Greek sculpture. One of the few statues that managed to survive to this day. n It was discovered by French archaeologists in 1896 during excavations at the Delphic Sanctuary of Apollo. n The statue was erected to commemorate the victory of the chariot team at the Pythian Games in 478. n The inscription on the base of the sculpture says that it was erected by order of Polisalos, the tyrant of the Greek colony in Sicily, as a gift to Apollo.

Sculptural group n Initially, the Charioteer was part of a large sculptural group. n It included a chariot, a quadriga of horses and two grooms. n Several fragments of horses, a chariot, and the hand of a servant boy were found next to the statue. n In its original state, it was one of the most impressive statues of its time. n The group most likely stood on the flat roof-terraces descending from the sanctuary.

Tall growth n The sculpture, made in human height (height 1.8 m), depicts a charioteer. n Pictured is a very young man, a young man. n Charioteers were chosen for their light weight and high stature, so teenagers were often taken to this job. n The young man is dressed in a kind of tunic - xistis, the attire of charioteers during the competition. It reaches almost to the ankles and is girdled with a simple belt.

Deep folds n Deep parallel folds of his clothes hide the entire body. n But the modeling of the head, arms, legs shows how fluent the master of plastic anatomy, unknown to us, was

n Two straps criss-crossed on his back kept the xistis from blowing up in the wind while racing.

Early Classic n The Charioteer belongs to the Early Classic period and is more naturalistic than the kouros. n But the pose still remains frozen, in comparison with the classical statues of a later time. n Another legacy of the archaic is that the head is slightly tilted to one side. n Facial features have been given some asymmetry for greater realism.

Eye Inlay n This sculpture is one of the few Greek bronzes that preserved onyx eye inlay and copper detailing of eyelashes and lips. n The headband is made of silver, and could be decorated precious stones that have been taken out.

460 BC e. Statue of Zeus (Poseidon) n Bronze original Greek statue of the 5th c. BC e. n Found in 1926 by sponge divers in the Aegean off Cape Artemision in the shipwreck area n Raised to the surface in 1928. n Height of the statue: 2.09 m n The statue depicts Poseidon or Zeus, swinging to throw weapons that have not survived to this day: a spear, a trident (an attribute of Poseidon) or a lightning bolt (an attribute of Zeus)

470 BC e. Zeus n "Zeus of Dodona" holds a lightning bolt in his hands, made in the form of a flattened oblong disk.

Hidden Energy n The statue embodies hidden energy, great spiritual power. n The greatness of God is expressed not only by the powerful forms of the body, SH not only in a strong movement, SH commanding gesture, SH but mainly in the features of a beautiful courageous face, SH in a serious but passionate look.

n The statue has empty eye sockets, which were originally inlaid with ivory, eyebrows are made of silver, lips and nipples are made of copper

470 BC e. Blond young man n In the art of the 5th century. BC e. a new ideal of beauty appears, a new type of face: Ø oblong, but rounded oval, Ø straight bridge of the nose, Ø straight line of the forehead and nose, Ø smooth arch of the eyebrows, protruding above the almond-shaped eyes, Ø lips, rather plump, beautiful pattern, without a smile. n The folds of clothing gradually become an "echo of the body".

A new ideal of beauty n The overall expression is calm and serious. The hair is treated with soft wavy strands that outline the shape of the skull.

470 BC e. Runner at the start n The most difficult task in the art of sculpture was fixing the moment of transition from static to movement. n The successful implementation of all these difficult tasks can be seen in this small Greek figurine (16 cm) n The athlete is shown at the last second before a rapid leap forward, at the moment when the tension reaches its highest point.

Chiasmus n Stretched forward left hand and the right elbow pushed back, the left leg put forward creates a motif of cross movement. n The runner's legs are bent at the knees, the body is tilted forward. The figure contains two movements: Ø the lower part of the body is in its original position, Ø the upper one is given the position in which the lower will be in a moment. n Here there is a chiasm: Ø cross movement of arms and legs, Ø the location of the shoulders, body, hips in different planes.

Myron n Greek sculptor of the middle of the 5th century. BC e. from Eleuthera, on the border of Attica and Boeotia. n Myron was a contemporary of Phidias and Polykleitos. n He lived and worked in Athens and received the title of an Athenian citizen, which was then considered a great honor. n Miron is a master of round plastics. His work is known only from Roman copies.

Roman copies n He depicted gods, heroes and animals, reproduced difficult, fleeting poses with special love n The sculptor was excellent at plastic anatomy and conveys freedom of movement, overcoming some stiffness that still existed in the sculptures of Olympia. n The ancients characterize him as the greatest realist, but who did not know how to give life and expression to faces.

Discobolus n His most famous work is Discobolus, an athlete intending to throw a discus. n The statue has come down to our time in several copies, of which the best is made of marble and is located in the Massimi Palace in Rome. n And the copy in the British Museum has the head wrong.

The impression of stability n The sculptor depicted a young man, beautiful in spirit and body, who is in rapid motion. n The thrower is presented at the moment when he puts all his strength into throwing the disc. n Despite the tension that permeates the figure, the statue gives the impression of stability. n This is determined by the choice of the moment of movement - its climax.

Elastic body n n A moment of rest gives rise to a feeling of stability of the image. n Disco thrower. Roman copy, 2nd c. Glyptothek. Munich Bending over, the young man brought back his hand with the disk, another moment, and the elastic body, like a spring, would quickly straighten out, the hand would forcefully throw the disk into space. Despite the complexity of the movement, the main point of view is retained in the Discobolus statue, allowing you to immediately see all its figurative richness.

n Miron chose a bold artistic motif - a brief stop between two strong movements, the moment when the last wave of the hand was made before throwing the disc.

450 BC e. Front side of the tetradrachm. Silver Late 2nd - early 3rd century. Discus thrower. Mosaic from Rome.

450 BC e. Athena and Marsyas n Ancient writers mention with praise the statue of Marsyas grouped with Athena. We also get a concept of this group from its several later repetitions.

n The famous group of Myron, which once stood on the Acropolis of Athens, depicted Athena throwing the flute invented by her, and the silena of Marsyas has been preserved in marble copies.

The myth of Athena and Marsyas n According to the myth, Athena invented the flute, but her cheeks swelled ugly when playing the instrument. The nymphs laughed at her, then Athena threw down her flute and cursed the instrument that disturbed the harmony of the human face. n Silenus Marsyas, ignoring the curse of Athena, rushed to pick up the flute. n Myron depicted them in the moment when Athena, leaving, turned to the disobedient, and Marsyas recoiled in fright.

n n Calm self-control, dominance over one's feelings is a characteristic feature of the Greek classical worldview, which determines the measure of a person's ethical value. The affirmation of the beauty of rational will, which restrains the power of passion, found expression in this sculptural group.

Marsyas n The chosen situation contains a full disclosure of the essence of the conflict. Athena and Marsyas are opposite characters. n The movement of Silenus, who leaned back swiftly, was rude and abrupt. His strong body is devoid of harmony. A face with a bulging forehead and a flattened nose is ugly. n A wild, unbridled forest demon with an animal-like face, sharp, rough movements is opposed to a young, but calm Athena. n The figure of Marsyas expresses fear of the goddess and a strong, greedy desire to grab the flute.

A stern look n The movement of Athena, imperious, restrained, is full of natural nobility. n Only contemptuously half-drooped lips and a stern look betray anger. n Silena stops Athena with a single gesture.

n n The group "Athena and Marsyas" figuratively affirms the idea of ​​the superiority of the mind over the elemental forces of nature. This sculptural group outlined the development of realistic plot composition, showing the relationship of characters connected by a common action.

Smooth movements n … The movement here is more complex than in Disco Thrower. n Athena turns back, but there is no sharp break in her waist, when the upper and lower parts of the body were perceived as independent elements. n The bends of the folds of clothing are smooth, the inclination of the head is harmonious.

The statue of the runner Lada n n The statue of the runner has not survived to our time. About the statue of the runner Lada, a famous athlete who died after one of his victories, the ancient poet wrote: Ш The runner is full of hope, only breath is visible on the tips of his lips; drawn inward, the sides became hollow. Ш Bronze strives forward for a wreath; do not hold back her stone; W Vetra is the fastest runner, you are a miracle of Miron's hands.

Statue of a cow (Heifer). Copper n According to contemporaries, it looked so much like a living copper that horseflies sat on it. n The shepherds and bulls also took it for the real one: Ш You are copper, but look at you the plow was brought by the tiller, Ш The harness and the reins were brought, the heifer is a deceiver of all. Sh Miron was the thing, the first in this art, Sh Made you alive, giving the appearance of a working heifer. Unknown author. Bull statue. Olympia. 5th c. BC e.

n Greek marble tripartite altar. n Discovered during the renovation of the Villa Ludovisi in Rome in 1887. n Height 84 cm 470 -460 BC e. Throne of Ludovisi

Birth of Venus n The central part - with the scene of the birth of Aphrodite from sea foam. n The beautiful fragile figure of Aphrodite in a thin, tight-fitting tunic is depicted emerging from the sea waves. n Her slightly upturned face is beaming with joy. n The relief of the throne of Ludovisi is not high, but the master perfectly conveyed the plasticity of the body and numerous folds of clothes. The drawing is thin and precise.

n n On the sides of the goddess, her two young servants - Ores (seasons), standing on the seashore, bending down, support the goddess rising from the waters and cover her with a cloak. The girls are dressed in long, flowing clothes, and their symmetrically arranged figures are enlivened by the various play of tunic folds.

n n On the side reliefs: on the one hand, a naked girl (hetaera) is depicted playing the flute, on the other hand, a seated figure of a woman (matron), wrapped in a cloak, in front of an incense burner. These are the servants of the cult of Aphrodite, who symbolize different incarnations love or images of service to the goddess.

Realism of interpretation Realistically interpreted cushions on which the attendants sit, small coastal pebbles under Or's feet give the whole scene a convincing concreteness.

n The movements of Aphrodite rising up and Or leaning towards her are opposed in direction, but the lines of the composition are not broken. The interweaving of hands and the soft folds of the garments give the impression of continuous action.