Execution on the cross (crucifixion). Technical details
Crucifixion, cross execution(Matt. XXIII, 34, XXVII, 31, etc.). Crucifixion from ancient times served as the most cruel and at the same time the most shameful death penalty and still exists between Hindus and Chinese. The Romans considered crucifixion the most shameful, to which only traitors and great villains were condemned (Lk. XXIII, 2). It was considered a cursed death (Deut. XXI, 22, 23). For it is written, says app. Paul: Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree . Hence the power of expressions in the epistles of St. Paul: Corinthians (), Philippians (II, 8), Hebrews (XII, 2). How soon the sentence was pronounced: you were condemned to be crucified, the condemned was naked, leaving only a narrow girdle around the loins, tied to the chest to the tree of the cross, and then he was painfully beaten with rods, or scourges made of leather strips (), which alone often caused death . After scourging, the offender was forced to carry the entire cross or part of it to the place of execution. The place of execution was usually some elevated place outside the city and near the main road. The crosses were of various shapes: three-part, like the Greek letter tau - T, four-part - square +, or oblong †, - and indirect, like the Greek X. The four-pointed form of the cross of Christ has an irrefutable basis for itself, that only this cross satisfies the testimony of all evangelists. As for the tree from which the cross was made, the most common opinion is that it was made from 3 trees: cypress, pevga and cedar. This is repeated in church songs and in prayers (). The cross was driven into the ground, and sometimes it stretched in height, as they say, from 10 to 15 feet, so that the sufferer's feet usually stood 4 feet from the ground. The crossbar was usually 7 to 8 feet long. In the middle or near the middle of the upper part of the cross there was a crossbar, on which the criminal was lifted with ropes; and so, having previously taken off his clothes, they first tied him to the cross tree and then nailed his hands and feet to the cross with sharp iron nails. Others think that during the crucifixion, only the hands were nailed, and the legs were simply tied with ropes. Of course, ropes were also used to attach legs, so that later it would be easier to nail them. But the Savior Himself, assuring His disciples of His resurrection, pointed out to them the sores on their hands and feet (). In order to somewhat alleviate the suffering of the criminal, it was customary to give him wine mixed with myrrh. The Lord Savior did not accept it (), desiring to endure in full consciousness until the very end all the torments of this terrible death. Vinegar also served as a refreshing drink for the Roman soldiers, and when it was served to Him on the cross, He tasted somewhat of this refreshing drink. The heat aroused by nail ulcers caused unbearable thirst (Matt. XXVII, 18). The criminals were usually nailed to the cross by four Roman soldiers appointed for that purpose, who were usually given by lot the clothes of the crucified (Matt. XXVII, 35). The soldiers divided among themselves the clothes of the Savior and cast lots for parts thereof (). And about my clothes(the Lord Jesus), the psalmist prophetically observes, they cast lots. According to Roman custom, the crime of the crucified was written briefly on a tablet, which was attached to the top of the cross. She was called among the Romans titulus, or, in the Russian Bible, inscription(). Stretching of the limbs after a painful scourging, the inability to make the slightest movement without terrible pain, perforation of the arms and legs with sharp nails, and, moreover, in the parts of the body most susceptible to excruciating pain, hanging on the cross with ulcers on the arms and legs under the rays of the sun, loss of blood and a deep consciousness of the undeserved shameful execution suffered by the Divine Sufferer - all this increased the suffering on the Cross to the highest degree, which often lasted up to 3 days or even more. That is why Pilate was surprised when he learned that the Lord had betrayed His spirit before the appointed time (). Among the Romans, a person sentenced to death on the cross often remained on the cross until then, until his body fell to the ground from its own weight; but in the province of Judea, the Jews were allowed, by virtue of the prescriptions of the law of Moses (), to end the suffering of those condemned to death on the cross even before sunset. It was produced different ways: sometimes they put fire at the foot of the cross, and sometimes they interrupted their members with a hammer or pierced their side with a spear (). At the same time, it should be noted that the sufferings of those condemned on the cross were so great and terrible that it was considered the most terrible and shameful of all types of execution. The famous Roman orator Cicero considered even the very mention of the execution of the cross unworthy of a Roman citizen and a free man. But the Son of God, the Divine and innocent Sufferer, who shed His blood on this shameful instrument of torment for the sins of the entire human race, through this very thing made the cross a symbol of the highest honor and glory, a symbol of redemptive grace, salvation and eternal life. The cross is often mentioned in St. Scripture is allegorical in general to refer to the propitiatory sacrifice of the Cross of the Lord Jesus Christ and his obedience to His Father even to death (). As true followers of the Lord Jesus Christ, we all must crucify our flesh with passions and lusts (). We can crucify our flesh with passions and lusts mainly by abstaining from passions and lusts and by actions that are contrary to them: for example, when anger prompts us to slander the enemy and do evil to him, but we resist this desire and, remembering how Jesus Christ on the cross prayed for Our enemies, we also pray for our own, then in this way we crucify the passion of anger.
We often had to contemplate reproductions of world paintings depicting the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. And such canvases painted by old masters different countries And artistic directions, a great many. However, few of us thought about the meaning of the abbreviation on the tablet above the head of the Savior and why some artists depicted him alive and triumphant on the crucifixion, while others - dead and frozen in the pose of a martyr.
Crucifixion - an ancient type of execution
Crucifixion is a type of execution that was very common in many countries of the world. So they were executed in Japan, China, Babylonia, Greece, Palestine, Carthage. However, it was especially often resorted to in ancient Rome. And interestingly, it was a fairly common punishment in the Roman Empire long before the birth of Christ.
Crucifixion on the cross by the Romans. Author: Vasily Vereshchagin. "The reason why people were crucified was often that, in addition to killing, they also wanted to publicly humiliate the enemy to intimidate others. There are descriptions of how the executioner left the crucified in this position for a couple of hours or until sunset, and then killed with their sword"- wrote in his writings professor of history Tymon Skrich.
Jesus is universal love
However, for many of us, the crucifixion is associated with only one historical event - the execution of Jesus Christ, who voluntarily took the guilt of all people and suffered a shameful and martyr's death for it.
Iconography. Leading to the Cross. In those distant times, all dissidents were persecuted and punished mercilessly. But Jesus and his disciples, despite the mortal danger, carried faith in the people, won heart after heart, country after country, and not at all with weapons, but with love. This is centuries later, when the Christian religion will have a state basis, forced baptism will begin, the terrible times of the crusaders and the Inquisition will come.
On Golgotha. (1841). Author: Steiben Karl Karlovich. And before that, the Son of God, who loves all people, the whole human race, will ascend Golgotha and be crucified, in the name of the salvation of our souls. Therefore, in each of us there is a spark of God, and we all walk with it in our hearts, both believers and non-believers. And we all yearn for love and kindness.
Yes we know "that Christ died on the cross, but we also know that he was resurrected later, and that he suffered voluntarily in order to teach us to take care of the immortal soul; so that we, too, could be resurrected and live forever."
The image of the Savior in Orthodoxy and Catholicism
In Catholicism and Orthodoxy, there are not only differences in the shape of the cross (the first is four-pointed, the second is eight-pointed), but also in the very image of Jesus Christ on it. So, until the 9th century, in iconography, the Savior was depicted on the crucifix not only alive, but also triumphant. And since the 10th century, Western Europe images of the dead Jesus began to appear.
Crucifixion of Christ. Author: Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov. On the Orthodox interpretation of the crucifixion, the image of Christ remained triumphant. On the cross he "does not die, but freely stretches out his arms, his palms are open, as if he wants to embrace all of humanity, giving him his love and opening the way to eternal life."
Crucifixion. (1514) Author: Albrecht Altdorfer. In the Catholic crucifixion, the image of Christ is much more realistic. It depicts Jesus dead, and sometimes with streams of blood on his face, from wounds on his arms, legs and ribs. The iconography shows all the suffering of the tortured person and the torment that the Son of God had to experience. There are traces of unbearable pain on his face, his arms sagged under the weight of a body that is very believably curved.
Rogier van der Weyden. Christ is dead on the Catholic cross; there is no triumph of victory over death in it, the triumph that we see in Orthodox iconography.
crucifixion. Author: Andrea Mantegna. The cross accompanies a Christian all his life, he sees it in churches and wears it on his chest as protection. Therefore, it will be interesting for everyone to learn about the meaning of the abbreviation on the title of the crucifix.
The inscription on the instrument of execution of the Savior is "I.N.Ts.I.", it is also - "I.N.R.I", and in some Eastern churches - "I.N.B.I." stands for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews". Initially, this phrase was written on a tablet in Hebrew, Greek, Roman and attached to the cross on which Christ was martyred. According to the law of that time, such inscriptions were supposed to be given to each condemned to death, so that everyone could find out about the guilt that he was charged with.
Titlo INRI (lat. titulus) is a Christian relic found in 326 by Empress Helen. As is known from Holy Scripture, Pontius Pilate could not find another way to describe the guilt of Christ, so the words “Jesus of Nazarene King of the Jews” appeared on the tablet
Over time, this inscription in iconography was replaced by an abbreviation. In Latin in Catholicism, this inscription has the form INRI, and in Orthodoxy - IHЦI (or ІНВІ, "Jesus Nazarene, King of the Jews").
Jesus on the cross. Author: Jusepe de Ribera. There is also another Orthodox inscription - "King of the World", in Slavic countries- "King of Glory". In addition, in Orthodox Byzantium, nails were preserved with which the Son of God was nailed to the cross. According to the biography of Jesus, it is known for sure that there are four of them, and not three as it is customary to depict on a Catholic crucifix. Therefore, on Orthodox crosses Christ's feet are nailed with two nails - each separately. And the image of Christ with crossed feet, nailed with one nail, first appeared in the West in the second half of the 13th century.
The crucifix has a few more abbreviations: the inscriptions are placed above the middle crossbar: "IC" "XC" - the name of Jesus Christ; and under it: "NIKA" - the Winner.
Crucifixion in German painting
Many painters, referring to this topic, have brought many different interpretations of this execution to the history of art. The word "crux", translated from the Latin "cross", originally had a broader meaning, and could mean any pole on which those sentenced to death were hung. For example, on many canvases we see the crucifixion of the Savior on a T-shaped cross.
Author: Lucas Cranach the Elder. 
Albrecht Altdorfer. (1520).
Author: Hans Memling. 1491. 
Author: Hans Memling. 
Author: Robert Campin. 
Author: Matthias Grunewald. Crucifixion in Spanish painting
As we can see, on the crucifixes of the best masters of Spanish painting there is no background, no multi-figured compositions - only the figure of Jesus himself.
Author: El Greco 
Author: Francisco de Zurbaran. 
Author: Francisco Goya. 
Author: Diego Velasquez.
Author: Giovanni Bellini. 
Author: Paolo Veronese.
Crucifixion of Jesus. Author: Karl Bryullov. 
Author: Vasily Vereshchanin. 
Author: V.A. Kotarbinsky. 
Author: V. L. Borovikovsky. 
Crucifixion of Christ. Author: Mikhail Nesterov. 
Crucifixion of Christ. V. V. Belyaev. Mosaic of the Church of the Resurrection of Christ. Saint Petersburg The execution and death of Christ was accompanied by formidable natural phenomena: an earthquake, thunder and lightning, a dimmed sun and a crimson moon, which is what we see in the works of some painters.
Author: V.A. Golynsky. Returning to the history of the terrible execution on the cross, I would like to note that the Roman emperor Constantine, having converted to Christianity, in the 4th century AD introduced a decree banning execution by crucifixion. However, after 1000 years, she returned to the other side of the Earth - this is how Christians were executed in Japan. In 1597, 26 Christians were crucified in Nagasaki, and over the next century, hundreds more were executed in this horrific manner.
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The article deals with historical evidence of execution by crucifixion. Modern medical theories explaining the death of Jesus Christ are analyzed. It is noted that none of the existing theories can fully interpret all the circumstances of the execution, written in the Gospels. It has been suggested that the cause of the death of Jesus Christ during the crucifixion was disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome.
Abstract
Death by crucifixion. looking forensic expert.
Tumanov Eduard Viktorovitsh
The historical evidence of death by crucifixion are analyzed by modern medical theories to explain the death of Jesus Christ. Noted that none of the existing theories can not fully interpret all the circumstances of death, written in the Gospels. Suggested that the cause of the death of Jesus Christ at the crucifixion was a syndrome of disseminated intravascular coagulation
The gospel story of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, being the cornerstone of the New Testament and the Christian religion, has attracted the attention of many millions of people, both Christians and representatives of other religions and beliefs, for almost two thousand years. If in previous centuries the crucifixion was considered mainly from theological and historical positions, then the twentieth century was marked by a surge scientific research biomedical character, devoted to the study of the links of thanatogenesis during the crucifixion.
However, a careful analysis of the proposed concepts of death during crucifixion shows that not all of them are consistent, moreover, some authors sometimes not only do not take into account the existing historical facts. The published works not only fail to analyze the original, Greek text of the Gospels, but sometimes even neglect the Gospels themselves.
All this, of course, affects both the quality of the studies and the adequacy of the conclusions drawn.
At the same time, it seems obvious that a reliable theory explaining the physical death of Jesus Christ can only be built in full accordance with the texts of the Gospels, and should also take into account the available historical and archaeological information as much as possible and be based on fundamental medical data.
It is believed that crucifixion as a method of execution was invented by the Babylonians, who did not want to defile the land dedicated to Ahuramazda with the dead bodies of executed criminals. This can be found references in the surviving works of Herodotus (III, 132; 159; IV, 43; VI, 30; VII, 194), as well as other ancient authors.
In the 4th century BC, after the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great, this type of punishment spread throughout all the lands he conquered, being used in Greece, the countries of the Middle East, Egypt and Phoenicia. The Romans adopted crucifixion from their worst enemies, the Carthaginians, who used this execution quite often (Valery Maxim II, 7; Silius Italic II, 334, Polybius I, 24).
IN ancient world there was an extremely negative attitude towards execution by crucifixion. The Greeks considered this execution as extremely humiliating and unworthy, the Jews considered all those hanged on the cross to be damned. The Romans perceived crucifixion as a shameful execution, servile supplicium - punishment for slaves (Tacitus. History IV, 11; Juvenal. Satires. VI, 219). As at one time, Greek law, and later Roman law, forbade the crucifixion of free citizens. However, crucifixion was widely used in the Roman Republic to punish slaves, deserters, and state criminals. So, for example, after the defeat of Spartacus, on the orders of Pompey, 6,000 thousand rebellious slaves were crucified along the Apian Way leading to Rome.
After the transformation of Rome into an empire that covered the entire Mediterranean, the crucifixion, as an effective means of intimidation, was also used by the Romans against the inhabitants of the conquered provinces. Josephus Flavius, calling the crucifixion "the most painful of deaths" (Jewish War. VII, 6, 4) noted a large number of such executions carried out by the Romans in Palestine, especially during the uprising of 66-70 AD. e. (Antiquities. 17, 10; 20, 6; Jewish War. II, 12, 6; 13, 2; 14, 9; III, 7, 33; V, 11, 1; VII, 10, 1).
Initially, the execution procedure was not clearly regulated; those condemned to crucifixion were simply tied to a tree, or to a vertically dug wooden pole, so that the convict's feet did not touch the ground. However, in order to give the convict maximum pain and prolong his suffering, the Romans over time not only significantly improved the technique of crucifixion, but also legitimized the procedure for its application in sufficient detail.
The usual form of the sentence to death on the cross was expressed in the words of the judge: “ibis ad (or in) crucem” - “go (you will go) to the cross!”.
After that, the condemned to death was subjected to scourging. For this purpose, they took off his clothes and tied him by the hands to a pole in the territory of the court. Then he was flogged with a short whip called flagrum (or flagellum). The whip consisted of a hilt to which leather straps of various lengths were attached, with pieces of lead woven into the ends, and jagged bone fragments along the length. The Romans did not have a legal limit on the number of blows, while according to Jewish law, more than forty blows were not allowed during scourging. Therefore, the Pharisees who supervised the scourging, in order not to break the law, if by chance they made a mistake in counting, limited the number of blows to thirty-nine. The Romans, on the other hand, did not observe Jewish laws and could not adhere to the exact count of blows.
Flagrum blows were applied by one or two executors of punishments (lictors) on the back, buttocks and thighs of the convict. They only avoided striking the projection of the heart, because this could lead to premature death. The consequences of such scourging were truly terrifying. In places where the flagrum straps hit, the skin was torn, and the underlying soft tissues were crushed. It is no coincidence that the lash for punishment was sometimes also called flagrum taxillatum - a stinging lash, "a terrifying scourge."
At the same time, flagellation, causing extensive damage to the soft tissues of the back, could not lead to significant blood loss, since it did not damage any large blood vessels. Bleeding from the blood vessels of the skin and subcutaneous tissue damaged during the execution was relatively insignificant, and stopped rather soon.
After the scourging, the convict was dressed again and forced to carry the cross on his shoulders to the place of execution, which was a great mockery of the crucified, his natural love for life and hatred for the instrument of his death.
The cross was made in advance, and was used for the execution of punishments many times. It consisted of two main parts - a horizontal beam (patibulum), and a vertical part (staticulum).
According to the available archaeological and historical data, the weight of the entire cross in the collection could reach 136 kg or more. It was extremely difficult to carry such a load even for a healthy person, and it was not at all possible for a person who had just been scourged. As a result, the convict sometimes did not carry the entire cross, but only the patibulum, which, according to various sources, weighed from 34 to 57 kg.
Exhausted after the scourging, Christ also could hardly carry his cross, and therefore, “And when they led Him away, they seized a certain Simon of Cyrene, who was walking from the field, and laid a cross on him to carry after Jesus” (Luke 23:26).
After the cross or parts of it were fixed on the back of the convict, he was accompanied in the last procession to the place of execution by an armed guard from a detachment of Roman soldiers led by a centurion (centurion). One of the soldiers went ahead and carried a tablet (titulus) on which was written the name of the condemned and his crime.
From that moment on, the guards did not leave the convict until the moment when they were completely convinced of the onset of his death.
The Romans used for crucifixion different types tools, among which the most common were crux simplex (a simple pillar without a crossbar), crux commissa (a cross connected, in the shape of the letter "T"), crux immissa (a cross driven in, in the form of a "†" sign) and crux decussata (a downed cross, in the shape of the letter "X").
However, there is every reason to believe that Jesus Christ was crucified on a four-pointed cross (crux immissa).
Extremely valuable, decisive evidence in this matter is the remark of the Evangelist Matthew: “And they put an inscription over His head, signifying His guilt: This is Jesus, the King of the Jews” (Matt. 27:37).
Here the evangelist speaks of a tablet on which the imaginary guilt of the Savior was indicated. But it is quite obvious that in order to place such a plank over the head of Christ, it is necessary that the main vertical pillar have a continuation at the top, above the transverse beam, i.e. it is necessary that the cross be four-pointed, and not three-pointed connected (in the form of the letter T), and also not knocked down (in the form of the letter X).
In the works of ancient writers (Tertullian, Origen, etc.) and in some archaeological evidence (coins, monograms, ancient Christian images) there are indications of the three-pointed Cross of Christ. However, this only testifies to the fact that the early Christian Church itself did not immediately decide the question regarding the form of that sacred tree of the Cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified. And the disagreement in this case is all the more natural and understandable because Christianity was accepted by the same Romans, who knew several forms of the cross.
After arriving at the place of crucifixion, the convict was stripped naked, and his clothes were given to the soldiers guarding the cross. However, in Judea, meeting the Jewish religious convictions (Gen. 9:22-23; Lev. 18:6-19; 20:17; Hos. 2:3), the Romans left a loincloth for the condemned (Mishnah. Sanhedrin. 6:3 ; Tosefta, Sanhedrin 9:6).
After that, the condemned was placed on the cross. The fixation of the body of the crucified to the cross could be carried out in different ways.
According to one of the methods for crucifixion, the convict was laid on his back with his arms extended along the patibulum, after which they were nailed to it with forged tetrahedral nails, which reached 13-18 centimeters in length and about 1 cm in diameter, or tied with ropes.
Then the patibulum, together with the person nailed to it, was lifted with the help of a special kind of pitchfork (furcilla) and placed on a vertical post dug into the ground beforehand (Cicero. In C. Verrem. 5:66; Josephus Flavius. Jewish War VII. 6:4).
After that, the legs of the crucified were somewhat bent at the knees and nailed to the staticulum or fixed with ropes.
The condemned could also be crucified on already fully assembled crosses, lying first on the ground, and then raised vertically, as well as on crosses already dug into the ground. In order to raise the convict to the cross already fixed in the ground and nail him down, certain efforts were required. Ladders were attached to the patibulum. Two of the soldiers carrying out the execution climbed on them, who, with the help of ropes, raised the body of the convict, and those who remained below helped them. The crucified, raised to the proper height, was tied by the hands with ropes to the patibulum, after which two iron nails were placed on his wrists, which were driven into the tree with a blow of a hammer. The soldiers standing below at that time tied or nailed the convict's legs to the staticulum. To do this, they were either folded for him in such a way that one foot covered the other, after which one nail was driven through both feet at once, or each foot was nailed separately.
How the feet of Jesus Christ were nailed, with one or two nails, is not exactly known. Some fathers of the Christian Church (St. Gregory of Nazianzus, Egyptian Bishop Nonnus) pointed to one nail, while others (St. Gregory of Tours, Cyprian) speak of four nails - two for hands and two for feet. The iconography of the Orthodox Church adopted the second tradition, and the Roman Catholic - the first.
In order for the crucified person to remain alive on the cross for as long as possible and thus prolong the agony of the victim, the Romans used various devices that provided some support for the body of the victim (this may explain the phrase "sitting on the cross" used by the Romans). For this purpose, a small ledge or seat (sedile) was sometimes used, which was placed on the staticulum in such a way that this seat passed between the legs of the condemned. To increase the suffering of the victim, the seat was sometimes made pointed. Instead of the seat, sometimes they made an emphasis for the legs in the form of a plank (pedale, or suppedaneum) nailed to the bottom of the staticulum, which was less painful than being on a pointed seat, but also prolonged the suffering of the convict. In both cases, the crucified person did not rather hang on the cross, but sat or stood, nailed to it.
Traditional Christian iconography and painting depicts the Crucified with his hands pierced by nails in the middle of his palms. However, studies carried out in the first half of the 20th century by Pierre Barbet, the chief surgeon at the St. Joseph Hospital in Paris, showed that Christian artists were quite mistaken in this regard. After conducting a series of experiments with amputated hands, as well as with corpses, P. Barbet discovered facts that were unexpected at that time. It turned out that when nailed to the cross at the level of the middle of the palms, the brushes fell off the nails with a load of about 39 kg (88 pounds). Experimental data confirmed mathematical calculations, which showed that in the position on the cross, during which the hands of the crucified depart from the body to the patibulum at an angle close to 68º, the body of the condemned will certainly fall off the cross.
Looking for an anatomical place that could, on the one hand, correspond as fully as possible to the Gospel text and historical chronicles, and, on the other hand, securely hold the weight of the crucified on the nails, P. Barbet came to the conclusion that the Destot space available on the wrist best resembles this .
In the event that the nail was driven into the wrist located between the triquetral, capitate and hamate bones, Desto's space fully meets the requirements, the hands of the crucified were securely held on the cross, regardless of his body weight. An important circumstance was also the fact that when the nails passed through Desto's space, the bleeding from the pierced wrists was relatively insignificant, since there was no damage to the large main blood vessels.
It should be especially noted that the anatomical data revealed by P.Barbet on the fixation of the body of those crucified to the cross generally correspond to the text of the New Testament. The ancient Greek word χειρ used in the Gospel of John meant both the hand as a whole and the wrist - καί ἰδε τᾶς χειράς μου - and look at my hands (John 20:27) (χειράς lit. - wounds on the hands, wrists).
The discrepancy between the data revealed in the works of P. Barbet and traditional iconography can be explained by the fact simple fact that, starting from IV AD, after the edict of Constantine the Great, in the Christian world, execution by crucifixion was prohibited and much knowledge about this procedure was forgotten over time.
The first scientific works devoted to the study of the mechanism of death during crucifixion were carried out in the 20s of the twentieth century by the French doctor A. LeBec. He was the first to suggest that death during crucifixion was due to suffocation.
This assumption was later supported by many scientists and is currently accepted as the main cause of death during crucifixion, being considered as one of the options for death with positional asphyxia.
In the now classic experiments of P. Barbet, it was convincingly demonstrated that in the case of crucifixion with arms slightly bent at the elbows and outstretched along the patibulum, and with legs half-bent at the knee joints and feet fixed to the staticulum, a person sentenced to crucifixion could accept only two basic positions on the cross.
The first - with legs straightened at the knees and arms extended along the patibulum (according to P. Barbet - a straightened position). At the same time, the convict leaned on his legs, which in this position accounted for the load of almost the entire body weight.
The second - with legs bent at the knee joints. In this case, the crucified person's torso sagged down and somewhat forward, and the arms moved away from the torso to the patibulum upwards and to the sides at an angle close to 60-65º. In this position, the convict's wrists had to support the entire weight of his body.
As muscle fatigue increased, the crucified spent more and more time in the second position.
Under the influence of the weight of one's own body, the overextension of the chest rather quickly led to an increase in fatigue of the intercostal muscles and the abdominal diaphragm, which are responsible for the act of breathing normally. Under these conditions, inhalation becomes possible, but exhalation is sharply difficult, which leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the body, as well as other metabolic products that are excreted by the body during breathing through the lungs.
The crucified person could compensate for this condition only by taking the first position, for which it was necessary to straighten the legs at the knee joints and move the body up the cross.
However, a significant load began to act on the wrists, arms and shoulder joints of the crucified, under the influence of the weight of his own body, which gradually led to the dislocation of the articular joints of the girdle of the upper extremities. As fatigue developed, the hands of the crucified were increasingly in a position where they were directed backwards and upwards, and the torso sagged forward and downward on the legs bent at the knees, which made it difficult for the additional respiratory muscles to work.
In addition, with each attempt to change the position on the cross, the bones of the wrist and feet rotated around the driven nails, and the soft tissues of the back damaged during scourging were peeled off by the stabilum, which caused the crucified man severe pain. Since in order to speak a person must draw a sufficient amount of air into the lungs, the crucified person also had to rise on the cross to pronounce each word. To do this, each time, peeling off the periosteum, he had to lean on his legs pierced by nails and at the same time pull himself up on his hands nailed to the cross. One can imagine what severe pain each word uttered on the cross brought to the crucified person.
The longer the time passed from the moment of crucifixion, the more strength the executed lost, his convulsions and muscle pain increased, the dislocation of the joints of the belt of the upper limbs became more and more pronounced, and more and more often he assumed a position that prevented normal breathing. Inhalation was carried out only at the expense of the diaphragm, which gradually led to the development of pronounced suffocation, from which he was eventually crucified and died.
This state continued for many painful hours. The Roman historian Origen wrote that he saw a crucified man who lived all night and the next day. An example of three crucified Jews remaining alive on the cross for three days can be found in the writings of Josephus Flavius (Josephus Flavius of Antiquity XIV). During the mass executions that followed the Spartacus rebellion, some of the crucified rebels communicated with the soldiers for three days (Appian. B.Civ. I,20).
In order to shorten the time of torment of those crucified on the cross, there was a custom of crurifragium (skelokopia), which was used in cases where, for some reason, a decision was made to hasten the death of the condemned.
In the course of skelecopy, the bones of the legs were broken with a crucified hammer, after which the body of the convict lost its point of support and hung on his hands. Under these conditions, overextension of the chest quickly set in and suffocation occurred much faster - within several tens of minutes and even faster.
This point has been convincingly proven by K-S.D. Schulte, who, in a series of controlled experiments on volunteers, showed that if the crucifixion occurred only due to hanging on the hands, without relying on the legs, then in all subjects already at the 6th minute the volume of inhaled air decreased by approximately 70%, blood pressure fell by 50% of the norm, and the heart rate doubled. After 12 minutes, breathing was carried out only due to the movements of the diaphragm and loss of consciousness occurred.
When the volunteers were allowed to periodically (once within 20 seconds) lean on their feet during crucifixion, there was a pronounced normalization of the activity of the cardiovascular system and breathing. The experiment in the latter case lasted up to 30-40 minutes, after which the subjects experienced severe pain in the wrists and the experiment was terminated at this point.
The theory of P. Barbet that the death of those condemned to be crucified was due to positional asphyxia due to the position of the body of the crucified on the cross seems quite convincing, reasonably explaining the onset of death in crucified people, and is currently accepted by almost all researchers.
However, paying tribute to the pioneering works of P. Barbet, it should still be recognized that, having revealed the features of the onset of death during crucifixion, he could not adequately explain one specific case - the death of Jesus Christ on the cross.
Indeed, suffocation in general, and in particular due to the inability to make an adequate exhalation, makes impossible all attempts not only to pronounce any words, but also individual articulate sounds. However, during the crucifixion, Jesus Christ could speak quite clearly on the cross until the last moments of his earthly life. This is stated in all four Gospels. So, in particular, the Gospel of Luke says: “Jesus, having exclaimed with a loud voice, said: Father! into your hands I commit my spirit. And having said this, he gave up his spirit” (Luke 23:46).
The next, quite important, objection to suffocation as the cause of the death of Jesus Christ is the very time of his being on the cross. The crucified could have been on the cross until the moment of death for several days, and the death of Christ came only about 3 hours after being nailed to the cross, which is quite clearly written in the Gospels: “It was the third hour, and they crucified Him” (Mk 15 25) and “It was about the sixth hour of the day, and there was darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour: and the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was torn down the middle. Jesus, crying out with a loud voice, said: Father! into your hands I commit my spirit. And having said this, he gave up his spirit. (Lk 23 44-46).
Nor did the Pharisees, who watched the crucifixion, expect such a quick death of Christ.
Demanding execution in the morning, they understood that the crucified would stay on the crosses for a day or more. And this meant that the Old Testament Passover, which was supposed to begin on Saturday, would be overshadowed by execution, which was a serious violation of Jewish law. On the other hand, they were afraid that if the trial and execution were postponed until the days following Paschal, then this would give Pilate time to change his mind and cancel the execution. Thus, they drove themselves into a trap - they were afraid to postpone the execution, and insulting Easter with the death penalty meant not only violating, but also seriously insulting the law. Therefore, they were forced to ask Pilate to allow an act of mercy for the crucified - to break their legs, which would hasten their death, and would allow the bodies of the executed to be removed from the crosses before the start of the Old Testament Easter.
“But since it was Friday then, the Jews, in order not to leave the bodies on the cross on Saturday, for that Saturday was a great day, they asked Pilate to break their legs and take them off” (John 19: 31).
Pilate allowed this, after which the soldiers came and broke the shins of the robbers. When they approached Jesus Christ, they saw that He had already died, and therefore the skelecopy procedure was not applied to Him, since it was no longer needed. This fact is emphasized in the Gospel text. “But since it was Friday then, the Jews, in order not to leave the bodies on the cross on Saturday, for that Saturday was a great day, they asked Pilate to break their legs and take them off. “So the soldiers came, and the legs of the first were broken, and of the other who was crucified with Him. But when they came to Jesus, when they saw Him already dead, they did not break His legs” (John 19 31-33).
Then one of the Roman soldiers, wanting to make sure that Christ was dead, pierced his body with a spear.
“But one of the soldiers pierced His side with a spear, and immediately blood and water came out. And he who saw testified, and his testimony is true; he knows that he speaks the truth so that you may believe.” (John 19 34-35)
People of the ancient world, and especially soldiers, constantly saw violence in their lives, and they could well determine by the characteristics of the flow of blood whether it was released from a living or dead body. The outflow of blood and water from the wound of Christ fully convinced both the Roman soldiers and the Jews of the onset of the physical death of Christ.
It should be noted that such a quick death of Christ surprised not only those present, but also Pilate, who had seen a lot. “Joseph of Arimathea came, a famous member of the council, who himself was looking forward to the Kingdom of God, dared to enter Pilate, and asked for the body of Jesus. Pilate was surprised that He had already died, and, calling the centurion, asked him if he had died long ago. And having learned from the centurion, he gave the body to Joseph” (Mk 15:43-45).
The noted series of circumstances of the death of Jesus Christ, which is given in the Gospels, namely, the relatively quick onset of death, the ability of Jesus Christ to clearly pronounce words until the last minutes of his life, the clarity of consciousness maintained by the Crucified until his death, as well as the flow of blood and water that flowed from the wounds inflicted on Him posthumously by a spear make it possible to doubt the validity of the asphyxial genesis of the death of Christ.
This prompted many researchers to look for other theories than asphyxia that could explain His earthly death.
So in 1949, The Hibbert Journal published an article by R. Primrose “The surgeon looks at the crucifixion”, where it was stated that the death of Jesus Christ on the cross was imaginary, and a blow with a spear led to the fatal outcome.
The rationale for this opinion was the statement of the author of the article that in the post-mortem period, massive formation of blood clots occurs in the body of the deceased, which makes it impossible for blood and water to flow out of the wound. At present, the fallacy of such a “proof” is so obvious that this version could not even be considered in the context of this article if it had not yet been used by numerous critics of Christianity.
It has also been suggested that fatal cardiac arrhythmia caused by physical pain during crucifixion (Johnson C., 1978), progressive acidosis (Wijffels F., 2000), pulmonary embolism (Brenner B., 2005) led to the rapid onset of death on the cross. .
But even a superficial analysis of these and other versions similar to them shows that they can only explain the rate of death, leaving its other circumstances undisclosed, for example, the outflow of blood and water from a wound inflicted by a spear.
Justifying the assumption of thromboembolism, as possible reason death of Christ, Israeli professor B. Brenner (2005) suggested that the most likely source of thrombus formation was the deep veins of the basin of the lower extremities. According to the version put forward, this could have been facilitated by their previous damage (for example, as a result of thrombophlebitis) or hypercoagulability of the blood, which developed as a result of scourging, dehydration and prolonged immobilization that took place during the crucifixion.
As an indirect confirmation of his hypothesis, B. Brenner cites the opinion that Jesus was born in Israel in a Jewish family and therefore could well have inherited the factor-V mutation of the blood coagulation gene (Leiden factor), which is widespread among Jews living in Galilee, which leads to an increase in the tendency of thrombosis ( resistance to activated C-protein).
This argument does not withstand serious criticism, not only from a theological point of view, but also from a medical one.
Indeed, it is extremely incorrect to extrapolate the data obtained from the study of the modern population of the inhabitants of Galilee to the people who inhabited it two thousand years ago. Obviously, the gene pool of the population has changed significantly over two thousand years. On the other hand, if any of its inhabitants at the beginning of the first millennium after R.Kh. and had a tendency to thrombophilia, then by the age of thirty-three he would have definitely manifested it.
A number of other researchers hypothesized that the death of Jesus Christ occurred as a result of a rupture of the heart with leakage of pericardial fluid from the wound.
However, this hypothesis has one serious drawback. For the development of myomaia, which in some cases can really complicate the course of myocardial infarction, a period is needed that significantly exceeds the time Jesus was on the cross.
In addition, the blood that would flow out through the ruptured heart wall into the pericardial cavity would inevitably mix with the pericardial fluid in a fairly small volume (about 30 ml), which would further make it impossible to form two separate flows of blood and water. It should also be added that even if we assume (hypothetically) that Jesus Christ developed a massive myocardial infarction, which led to the ultra-rapid development of myomalacia followed by hemotamponade, then such an event would inevitably lead to the development of cardiogenic shock with quite specific clinical symptoms. However, there are no indications in the Gospel texts that would allow such an assumption to be made.
In 2009, the Swedish researcher Omerovic E. put forward a version that the death of Christ was due to myocardial rupture caused by stress-induced cardiomyopathy (takotsubo cardiomyopathy), clinically and electrocardiographically resembling acute coronary syndrome and characterized by transient left ventricular dysfunction in response to physical or mental stress.
Such an assumption can hardly be considered completely substantiated. In addition to the objections already cited against the version of a heart rupture, in this case It should be noted that stress-induced cardiomyopathy is predominantly described in post-menopausal women without signs of coronary heart disease and has a relatively favorable prognosis.
Attempting to explain the flow of water from a wound inflicted by a spear of a Roman soldier can explain the theory that the previous scourging and the crucifixion itself caused the rapid development of post-traumatic exudative pericarditis in Jesus Christ, which led to cardiac tamponade and death. The water that poured out of the wound is nothing more than the pericardial fluid that has flowed out of the cavity of the heart shirt damaged by the spear.
However, post-traumatic exudative pericarditis does not develop at lightning speed, even with significant damage (myocardial injury, heart rupture), the time of its development is calculated in hours and is accompanied by well-known clinical symptoms (dysphagia, cough, shortness of breath, hoarseness, periodic loss of consciousness, etc.) , which does not correlate with the events described by the evangelists. In addition, even if we assume that during the crucifixion, serous fluid accumulated in the pericardial cavity, then its amount, even with hyperacute development of the hydropericardium, would hardly exceed the volume of 150-200 ml.
In the vertical position of the crucified body, after perforating the heart shirt with a spear, a larger amount of pericardial effusion would remain in the anteroinferior sinus of the pericardium (sinus pericardi anterior inferior), which is located between its sternocostal and lower (diaphragmatic) sections. The liquid that poured out of the pericardial cavity would be partially absorbed into the tissue of the mediastinum, and partially mixed with the flowing blood and would not be visible with external blood flow.
In search of an explanation for the death of Jesus Christ at the crucifixion, Dr. Frederick T Zugibe, formerly Chief Medical Examiner for Rockland County, New York, USA, performed a series of cross-hanging experiments on a group of physically healthy volunteers.
During the experiments, the outstretched hands of the volunteers were fixed with soft leather gloves to the horizontal beam of the cross, and the legs, slightly bent at the knee joints, were fixed with the plantar surface of the feet to the vertical beam of the cross. During the experiment, continuous monitoring of the state of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems was carried out, and stopped on average after 40-60 minutes, after the volunteers developed pain in the limbs and significant physical discomfort. Based on the data obtained, F.T. Zugibe came to the conclusion that the crucified did not experience any serious violations of breathing and cardiac activity, which could lead to death.
Criticizing P. Barbet's theory of increasing suffocation as the cause of death during crucifixion, F.T Zugibe came to the conclusion that the onset of death in such cases was hypovolemic shock caused by the circumstances of the execution itself: scourging with massive damage to the soft tissues of the back, blood loss and dehydration.
The conclusions made by the author caused objections from many researchers. So, for example, as a counterargument, it is indicated that F.T Zugibe in his conclusions did not take into account the data of K-S.D. Schulte, who noted that if the person being crucified can even periodically (once within 20 seconds) lean on his legs, then this leads to a pronounced normalization of the activity of the cardiovascular system and respiration.
It is obvious that under the conditions of the experiment, when the crucified person has the opportunity to constantly lean on half-bent legs, the phenomena of respiratory failure will not appear soon enough. Of course, at present, not a single researcher will dare to repeat in full the true historical circumstances of the execution, and the humane conditions of the provided experiments sharply reduce their value. The data of such a short-term experiment cannot correspond to real historical events, when executed people were on the cross for a day or more.
In addition, hypovolemic shock proceeds from a certain interchangeable stages, each of which has its own clinical signs, which are also manifested in a change in consciousness. So the first phase of shock (erectile) lasts several minutes and, among other things, is characterized by motor and conversational excitement, tachycardia, and increased breathing. In the second phase of shock (torpid), lethargy, hypodynamia, and prostration of the victim are noted.
However, there is no evidence in the Gospels that could testify to any such change of consciousness in Christ. All His words spoken on the cross and His behavior are completely meaningful.
In addition to positional asphyxia, as the cause of death during crucifixion, F.T. Zugibe sharply criticized P. Barbet's version of the place where nails were driven into the hands of the executed. However, all his objections, in contrast to the position of P. Barbet, are based not on experimental or calculated data, but on a subjective interpretation of the materials of the Shroud of Turin.
W.D. Edwards et al. (1986) concluded that the actual cause of Jesus' death "was most likely multifactorial, primarily due to hypovolemic shock, asphyxia, and possibly acute cardiac arrest." .
The researchers suggested that in conditions of progressive hypovemia associated with hypoxemia, loose blood clots could form on the leaflets of the aortic or mitral valves, which, having come off, could well lead to the development of an acute transmural myocardial infarction, which caused cardiac arrest.
Already at the first consideration, the proposed version shows that it is not completely original, but combines most of the theories proposed earlier, carrying all their advantages and disadvantages.
The integrative theory of the death of Jesus Christ was also put forward by researchers from South Africa F.P. Retief and L. Cilliers. After reviewing the available information about the history and pathogenetic aspects of the crucifixion, they suggested that death was due to progressive hypoxia, hypovolemic shock and vasovagal reflex. The liquid noted by the Evangelist John, in the opinion of the authors, is nothing more than a pericardial or pleural effusion.
Having critically examined a number of theories of the death of Jesus Christ, M.W. Maslen and P.D. Mitchell (2006) came to the skeptical conclusion that there are currently no medical versions that could adequately explain the death of Christ. The authors suggested that the situation could be resolved only with the advent of new archaeological or written evidence.
In our opinion, the most likely version of the fatal outcome that occurred is multiple organ failure as a complication of disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome (DIC, English-disseminated intravascular coagulation).
DIC is an acquired pathology of the blood coagulation system, which is characterized by circulatory disorders at the level of the microcirculatory bed in vital organs (liver, kidneys, adrenal glands, lungs, etc.). Developing in many cases of acute conditions, including injuries, DIC can occur within a few hours and cause extremely high mortality in victims.
During the course of DIC, several stages are distinguished, each of which is characterized not only by specific disorders of hemocoagulation and the clinical picture, but can also lead to a fatal outcome.
According to different authors, the number of stages of DIC ranges from two to six, mainly due to the division of the hypocoagulation phase, however, for practical use, a simplified division is convenient, which implies the presence of two stages - hypercoagulation and hypocoagulation.
The first stage of DIC is the phase of hypercoagulability, characterized by activation of plasma systems of blood coagulation, intravascular aggregation of platelets and other blood cells. This leads to blockade of the vascular bed by fibrin masses and cell aggregates. The phase of hypercoagulation often has a very rapid development, with rapid and significant activation of the blood coagulation system and proceeds the faster, the more powerful the damaging factor.
The second stage of DIC is the hypocoagulation phase, which replaces the hypercoagulation phase and is caused by the consumption of a significant part of the fibrinogen, factors XIII, V, VIII and other procoagulants, as well as platelets, in the body. At the same time, pathological inhibitors of blood coagulation accumulate in the blood, in particular fibrin and fibrinogen degradation products (FDP), which cause an increase in the anticoagulant activity of the blood.
Any injury associated with blood loss is accompanied by activation of coagulation. If at the same time there is a drop in blood pressure and the resulting slowdown in blood flow in the microcirculatory link, a hypercoagulable phase of DIC may occur, which is often observed with extensive tissue damage.
These conditions were also observed at the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Flagellations that occurred with massive destruction of the soft tissues of the back, procession, crucifixion and hanging on a cross, could well lead to the development of metabolic acidosis and activation of the blood coagulation system simultaneously along the external and internal pathways of the formation of prothrombinase (thromboplastin).
The soft tissues of the back, damaged during scourging, were subjected to additional alteration, hitting the cross with each movement. This stimulated the flow of tissue thromboplastin into the bloodstream from injured and decaying tissues, as well as by the vascular endothelium, which initiated the process of the hypercoagulable phase of DIC.
It should be noted that the rate of coagulation in the first phase of DIC can be so high that, due to the rapid formation, it is impossible to draw blood into the syringe, and the blood flowing from the wounds collects on their surface in the form of red clots surrounded by a translucent, yellowish rim of liquid lymph.
The external manifestations of the hypercoagulable phase of DIC are very modest: the patient's consciousness is clear, answers questions, as a rule, in monosyllables, no organ pathology is detected.
Death in DIC can occur both from acutely developed multiple organ failure and from thromboembolism of vital organs by forming blood clots.
When a lethal DIC occurs in this phase, the deceased often has intravascular separation of blood into a liquid part (lymph) and a loose cellular residue.
If there are wounds on the body of the deceased, then the blood pouring out of them immediately after death, flowing down the skin as if it were a dividing surface, will split into two streams - an almost transparent, watery lymph and a red cellular sediment.
Obviously, this circumstance was noted by those standing near the cross, after the body of a Roman soldier pierced the body of Jesus Christ with a spear.
It should be noted that the doctors of antiquity understood the importance of the state of the blood for the human body. So, already in the 4th century BC. Aristotle associated with the blood the general motor activity of a person. Considering blood as the material carrier of all mental functions. Aristotle, considering such qualities of blood as the rate of sedimentation and the degree of density and warmth, singled out two components in the blood - watery and fibrous. Doctors of antiquity believed that the development of certain diseases depends on their ratio, and the disintegration of blood into constituent elements was considered as a sign accompanying death. Both the ancient Greeks and the Romans called the liquid part of the blood, as well as all the clear body fluids (such as pericardial fluid) water.
However, of all the synonyms used in their languages, the Romans used the word lympha for water, both in the blood and in the body, and the Greeks used the word υδωρ (hydōr). This tradition has been preserved to this day. Doctors and biologists of all countries still call the liquid part of the blood lymph, and the root υδωρ (hydōr) is used to denote the accumulation of fluids in individual body cavities. An example of the latter is, for example, the term hydropericardium (ύδραπερικαρδία)
Just like the doctors of antiquity, of all the possible ancient Greek synonyms for the word water, John the Theologian chooses the word υδωρ to describe the blood and water flowing from the wound of Jesus Christ.
αλλ εισ των στρατιωτιων λογχη αὐτοῦ την πλευραν ενυων καί εimes ευζες αἷμαί υδωρ / but one of the soldiers with a spear pierced his ribs, and immediately expired blood and water (Фition 19:34).
It can be assumed that, pointing to the outflow of blood and leading from a wound inflicted by a spear on the dead Jesus Christ, John the Theologian not only pointed to the sacred, religious and mystical meaning of what happened, but also using the word υδωρ from all synonyms, emphasizes the posthumous nature, the irreversibility of what happened. This is indirectly evidenced by his words “And he who saw testified, and his testimony is true, he knows that he speaks the truth so that you believe.” (John 19:35).
Summarizing the foregoing, it can be reasonably assumed that the death of Jesus Christ occurred as a result of the development of DIC. Most likely in the hypercoagulable phase. The circumstances that caused the development of this pathological condition were scourging with extensive damage to the soft tissues of the back and their further traumatization, which occurred both during the carrying of the cross and during the stay on it during the crucifixion. Additional conditions that determined the development of DIC were increasing hypoxia due to shortness of breath, increasing hypovolemia as a result of blood loss and dehydration, unnatural position of the body on the cross, pain flow from extremities pierced by nails and strong psycho-emotional shock.
This assumption is most fully consistent with the Gospel texts, and in our opinion can serve for an adequate assessment of the events that took place at the time of the crucifixion.
Based on the presented positions, it should also be noted that the events that accompanied the crucifixion are described in the Gospels with demonstrative medical accuracy and extremely convincingly tell about the physical suffering and fortitude of Jesus Christ.
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Other publications of the author on this topic:
- Tumanov E.V. Medical Aspects of the Death of the Savior // Orthodoxy and Modernity. Scientific materials. conf. - Minsk 2008. - S. 69 - 72.
- Tumanov E.V. Medical Aspects of the Death of the Savior // Syngraal Surgery. - 2009. - No. 1-2. - P.23-25.
- Tumanov E.V. Execution by crucifixion - history, medicine, Gospel / Questions of criminology, forensics and forensics // Collection scientific papers- Minsk, "Law and Economics" 2012, - No. 1 (31), - S. 197-207.
The Romans borrowed this type of execution from their neighbors and used it most frequently in the provinces, mainly to intimidate their subjects and prevent riots. It is unlikely that the Romans could have imagined that the execution of a humble Jew on the far outskirts of the empire would make crucifixion a symbol of perseverance.
10. Crucifixions in Persia
Many ancient rulers used the crucifix to show their subjects what not to do. During the reign of the Persian king Darius I (r. 522-486 BC), the city of Babylon expelled the Persian rulers and rebelled against them (522-521 BC).
Darius undertook a campaign against Babylon and laid siege to the city. The city was defended for 19 months, until the Persians broke through the defenses and broke into the city. Herodotus in his "Histories" reports that Darius destroyed the walls of the city and demolished all its gates. The city was returned to the Babylonians, but Darius decided to warn the townspeople against riots and ordered 3,000 of the most senior citizens of the city to be crucified.
9. Crucifixes in Greece
In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great captured the Phoenician city of Tyre, which the Persians used as a base for their fleet. The city was taken after a long siege that lasted from January to July.
After Alexander's army broke through the defenses, the Tyrian army was defeated and, according to some ancient sources, about 6,000 people died that day. The ancient Roman authors Diodorus and Quintus Curtius, referring to Greek sources, report that after the victory, Alexander ordered the crucifixion of 2,000 youths from among the townspeople, setting up crucifixes along the entire sea coast.
8. Crucifixions in Rome
According to Roman law, crucifixion was not a generally accepted form of capital punishment, it was used only in certain cases. Slaves could only be crucified for robbery or rebellion.
Roman citizens were not initially sentenced to crucifixion unless they were found guilty of treason. However, in later imperial times, ordinary citizens could be crucified for certain crimes. In the provinces, the Romans used crucifixion to punish so-called "recalcitrant" people who were convicted of robbery and other types of crimes (Metzger and Coogan, 1993, pp. 141-142).
7. Rise of Spartacus
Spartacus, a Roman slave of Thracian origin, escaped from the gladiator school in Capua in 73 BC. and 78 more slaves fled with him. Spartacus and his people, taking advantage of the hatred of the super-rich members of Roman society and its social injustice, attracted into their ranks thousands of other slaves and the poor from all over the country. In the end, Spartacus created an army that opposed the war machine of Rome for two years.
The Roman general Crassus put down the rebellion, ending the war with one of the most famous mass crucifixions in Roman history. Spartacus was killed, and his people fell fighting for their lives. More than 6,000 surviving slaves were crucified along the Appian Way leading from Rome to Capua.
6. Crucifixion in Jewish tradition
Although in Hebrew Bible the practice of crucifixion and is not mentioned as a Jewish form of punishment, Deuteronomy (21.22-23) contains the lines: “If a crime worthy of death is found in someone, and he is put to death, and you hang him on a tree, then his body should not spend the night on a tree but bury him that same day.”
In ancient rabbinic literature (Mishnah, Sanhedrin 6.4), this was interpreted as the display of the body after the person had been executed. But this view is contrary to what is written in the ancient Qumran Manuscripts (64:8), which states that an Israelite who commits treason must be hanged so that he dies.
Jewish history records the number of crucifixion victims. The most notable of them is reported by the Hebrew writer Flavius Josephus ("Antiquities", 13.14): the king of Judea Alexander Jannay (126-76 BC) crucified 800 Jews - his political opponents, who were found guilty of state treason.
5. Location of nails
The idea that the victim's palms were nailed to the crucifix is dominant in paintings and sculptures depicting the crucifixion of Jesus. But today we already know that palms with nails driven into them are not able to support the weight of the body and, most likely, the nails will break through the flesh between the fingers.
Therefore, it is likely that the upper limbs of the victim were tied to the crossbar with ropes, and this provided the main support. But there is also a simpler solution. The nails could be driven between the elbows and wrists rather than into the palms. The bones and tendons of the wrist are strong enough to support the weight of the body.
But there is a problem regarding the holes near the wrists: this contradicts the description of Jesus' injuries in the Gospels. For example, in John 24:39, Jesus is said to have holes in his palms. Most scholars try to explain this contradiction with boring and predictable claims of translation errors.
The reality is that none of the gospel writers was a direct witness to the events. The earliest of the Gospels, the Gospel of Mark, dates back to 60-70 AD. AD, when a whole generation had already changed after the crucifixion of Jesus, so one should not expect a high degree of accuracy in such details.
4. The Roman method of crucifixion
There was no standard way of crucifixion. The most common way in the Roman world was to first tie the convict to a cross beam. Literary sources indicate that the convict did not carry the entire cross, he had to carry only a cross beam to the place of crucifixion, and the pillars dug into the ground were reused for numerous executions.
It was both practical and cost effective. According to the Hebrew historian Josephus, timber was a scarce commodity in and around Jerusalem in the first century AD.
Then the convict was undressed and the beam was attached to the post with nails and ropes. The beam on the ropes was pulled up until the convict's legs were off the ground. Sometimes after that the legs were tied or nailed.
If the condemned suffered for too long, the executioners could break his legs to hasten his death. The Gospel of John (19.33-34) mentions that a Roman soldier pierced the side of Jesus with a spear while he was on the cross, a practice that guaranteed death.
3. Causes of death
In some cases, the convict could die even at the stage of scourging, especially if lashes with bone or lead tips were used. If the crucifixion took place on a hot day, fluid loss from sweating, combined with blood loss from scourging and injury, could lead to death from hypovolemic shock. If the execution took place on a cold day, the convict may die of hypothermia.
But the main causes of death were not injuries from nails or bleeding. The position of the body during the crucifixion provided a gradual and painful process of asphyxia. The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm involved in the process of breathing gradually got tired and began to weaken. Given the duration of the execution, after some time the victim was simply unable to breathe. Breaking the legs was a way to speed up this process.
2. Data from medical experts
An analysis of the bones of the crucified victim, published in the Israeli Exploration Journal, showed a method of crucifixion that is rarely shown in paintings or mentioned in literary sources. Bone injuries showed that with this method, the heel bones were nailed.
The researchers suggest that instead of the traditional position of the legs, which we see in many images of the crucifixion, "the legs of the victim were attached to the vertical pillar of the cross, one on each side, and their heel bones were pierced with a nail."
The results of this study also explain why the remains of victims of crucifixion with nails are sometimes found. Apparently, the relatives of the executed man understood that it was impossible to remove the nails, which usually bent due to blows, without destroying the calcaneus. "This reluctance to cause further damage to the heel led [to his burial with a nail in the bone, and this in turn led] to the possibility of discovering a method of crucifixion."
1. The abolition of the crucifixion by Emperor Constantine
Christianity in the Roman Empire underwent an amazing transformation. It began as an offshoot of the Jewish religion, grew into an illegal cult, gained self-tolerance, grew into a state-sponsored religion, and finally became the main religion of the late Roman Empire.
Roman emperor Constantine the Great (272-337 AD) in 313 AD proclaimed the Edict of Milan, establishing tolerance for the Christian faith and giving Christians all legal rights. This decisive step helped Christianity become the official state religion of the Roman Empire.
After centuries of crucifixion as a form of torture and execution, Emperor Constantine abolished it in 337, citing the veneration of Jesus Christ.
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