Japanese culture. Japanese Art - History - Introduction - Interesting Japan — LiveJournal

Japanese painting is one of the most beautiful in the world.

Japanese painting is one of the most ancient and amazing types of creativity. Like any other, it has its own long history, which can be divided into several periods according to techniques and features. Common to all periods is nature, which was given the main place in the paintings. In second place in popularity in the fine arts of Japan are domestic scenes from life.

Yamato

Yamato(VI-VII centuries) - the first period of Japanese art, which laid the foundation for writing. The impetus for the development of art was given by China's achievements in the fields of religion and writing. Japan rushed to rise to his level, making changes in its structure and building everything in the likeness of China. For the development of painting, a huge number of works by Chinese masters were brought to Japan, which inspired the Japanese, who boldly rushed to create similar paintings.

Painting in Takamatsuzuka Tomb

This period consists of two child periods:

• Kofun- the period of Japanese art, occupying the first half of Yamato. The name of the period is translated as "the period of barrows". In those days, indeed, mounds were given a big role, creating them everywhere.
• Asuka- the second part of the Yamato era. The period was named after the political center of the country that was active in those years. It is associated with the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, and in the future with the active development of all cultural areas.

Nara

Buddhism, which came from China, was actively spreading in Japan, which contributed to the emergence of religious themes in art. Japanese artists, carried away by this topic, painted the walls of temples, which were created by influential personalities. To date, the Horyu-ji temple has preserved wall paintings from that time.

Azuchi-Momoyama

This period is the exact opposite of its predecessor. Gloom and monochrome disappear from the works, being replaced by bright colors and the use of gold and silver in the paintings.

Cypress. Screen. Kano Eitoku.

Meiji

In the 19th century, the division of Japanese painting into traditional and European styles began, which vigorously competed with each other. During this period, tremendous political changes broke out in Japan. The influence of Europe in those years affected almost every corner of the planet, introducing its own features into each state. The European style of art was actively supported by the authorities, rejecting the old traditions. But soon the excitement around Western painting quickly subsided and interest in traditional art returned sharply.

Development of Japanese painting updated: September 15, 2017 by: Valentine

Since ancient times, Japanese art has been characterized by active creativity. Despite the dependence on China, where new artistic and aesthetic trends were constantly emerging, Japanese artists always introduced new features and changed the art of their teachers, giving it a Japanese look.

The history of Japan as such begins to take definite forms only at the end of the 5th century. Relatively few items dating back to previous centuries (the archaic period) have been found, although some finds made during excavations or during construction work speak of remarkable artistic talent.

archaic period.

The oldest works of Japanese art are clay pots of the Jomon type (cord impression). The name comes from the decoration of the surface with spiral impressions of a cord wrapped around the sticks that the master used to make the vessel. Perhaps, at first, the masters accidentally discovered prints of wickerwork, but then they began to use them consciously. Sometimes cord-like clay curls were stuck on the surface, creating a more complex decorative effect, almost a relief. The first Japanese sculpture originated in the Jomon culture. Dogu (lit. "clay image") of a person or animal probably had some kind of religious significance. Images of people, mostly women, are very similar to the clay goddesses of other primitive cultures.

Radiocarbon analysis shows that some finds from the Jomon culture may date back to 6-5 thousand BC, but such an early dating is not generally accepted. Of course, such dishes were made for a long time, and although exact dates cannot yet be established, three periods are distinguished. The oldest samples have a pointed base and are almost unornamented, except for the traces of a potter's tool. Vessels of the middle period are more richly ornamented, sometimes with molded elements that create the impression of volume. The forms of the vessels of the third period are very diverse, but the decor flattens again and becomes more restrained.

Approximately in the 2nd century. BC. Jōmon ceramics gave way to Yayoi ceramics, characterized by elegance of form, simplicity of design and high technical quality. The shard of the vessel became thinner, the ornament less whimsical. This type prevailed until the 3rd c. AD

From an artistic point of view, perhaps the best works of the early period are khaniva, clay cylinders dating back to the 3rd-5th centuries. AD Characteristic monuments of this era are huge hills, or burial mounds, burial structures of emperors and powerful nobility. Often very big size, they are evidence of the power and wealth of the imperial family and courtiers. The construction of such a structure for Emperor Nintoku-tenno (c. 395-427 AD) required 40 years. The most remarkable feature of these barrows was the clay cylinders surrounding them like a fence, khaniva. Usually these cylinders were quite simple, but sometimes they were decorated with human figures, less often with figures of horses, houses or roosters. Their purpose was twofold: to prevent the erosion of huge masses of earth and to supply the deceased with everything necessary that he used in earthly life. Naturally, the cylinders were made immediately in large quantities. The variety of themes, facial expressions and gestures of the figures decorating them is largely the result of the master's improvisation. Although they are the works of artisans rather than painters and sculptors, they are of great importance as a proper Japanese art form. Buildings, horses wrapped in blankets, prim ladies and warriors present an interesting picture of the military life of early feudal Japan. It is possible that the prototypes of these cylinders appeared in China, where various objects were placed directly into burials, but the execution and use of the haniwa belong to the local tradition.

The archaic period is often viewed as a time devoid of works of a high artistic level, a time of dominance of things that have mainly archaeological and ethnological value. However, it should be remembered that the works of this early culture generally had great vitality, as their forms survived and continued to exist as specific national features of Japanese art in later periods.

Asuka period

(552-710 AD). Introduction of Buddhism in the middle of the 6th c. made significant changes in the way of life and thinking of the Japanese and became the impetus for the development of the art of this and subsequent periods. The arrival of Buddhism from China through Korea is traditionally dated to 552 AD, but it was probably known earlier. In the early years, Buddhism faced political opposition, opposition to the national religion of Shinto, but after only a few decades, the new faith received official approval and was finally established. In the early years of its penetration into Japan, Buddhism was a relatively simple religion with a small number of deities who needed images, but after about a hundred years it gained strength and the pantheon grew enormously.
During this period, temples were founded, which served not only the purposes of promoting the faith, but were centers of art and education. The monastery-temple at Horyu-ji is one of the most important for the study of early Buddhist art. Among other treasures, there is a statue of the great triad Syaka-Nerai (623 AD). This work by Tori Busshi, the first great Japanese sculptor known to us, is a stylized bronze image, similar to similar groups in the great cave temples of China. Strict frontality is observed in the pose of the seated Shaki (Japanese transcription of the word "shakyamuni", the historical Buddha) and two figures standing on the sides of him. The forms of the human figure are hidden by heavy symmetrical folds of schematically rendered clothes, and in smooth elongated faces one can feel a dreamy self-absorption and contemplation. The sculpture of this first Buddhist period is based on the style and prototypes from the mainland fifty years ago; it faithfully follows the Chinese tradition that came to Japan through Korea.

Some of the most important sculptures of this time were made of bronze, but wood was also used. The two most famous wooden sculptures are statues of the goddess Kannon: Yumedono Kannon and Kudara Kannon, both in Horyuji. They are a more attractive object of worship than the Shaki triad, with their archaic smiles and dreamy expressions. Although the arrangement of the folds of the robes in the Kannon figures is also schematic and symmetrical, they are lighter and full of movement. Tall, slender figures emphasize the spirituality of the faces, their abstract kindness, distant from all worldly concerns, but sensitive to the pleas of the afflicted. The sculptor paid some attention to the outlines of the figure of Kudara Kannon, hidden by the folds of clothing, and in contrast to the jagged silhouette of Yumedono, the movement of both the figure and the fabric is directed in depth. In Kudar's profile, Kannon has a graceful S-shape.

The only surviving example of painting that gives an idea of ​​the style of the early 7th century is Tamamushi Zushi, the “winged shrine”. This miniature sanctuary takes its name from the iridescent beetle wings set into a perforated metal frame; later it was decorated with religious compositions and figures of individual characters, made with colored lacquer. Like the sculpture of this period, some of the images show great freedom of design.

Nara period

(710-784). In 710 the capital was moved to Nara, new town, built on the model of the Chinese capital Chang'an. There were wide streets, large palaces, numerous Buddhist temples. Not only Buddhism in all its aspects, but the entire Chinese cultural and political life perceived as a role model. No other country, perhaps, has felt the insufficiency of its own culture to such an extent and has not been so susceptible to outside influences. Scholars and pilgrims moved freely between Japan and the mainland, and administration and palace life were modeled after China during the Tang Dynasty. However, it must be remembered that, despite imitating the models of Tang China, especially in art, perceiving its influence and style, the Japanese almost always adapted foreign forms to their own.

In sculpture, the strict frontality and symmetry of the previous Asuka period gave way to freer forms. The development of ideas about the gods, increased technical skill and freedom of ownership of the material allowed artists to create closer and more accessible iconic images. The founding of new Buddhist sects expanded the pantheon to include even the saints and founders of Buddhism. In addition to bronze sculpture, a large number of works made of wood, clay and lacquer are known. The stone was rare and almost never used for sculpture. Dry lacquer was especially popular, perhaps because, despite the complexity of the process of preparing the composition, works made from it looked more spectacular than wood and were stronger than clay products that were easier to manufacture. Lacquer figures were formed on a wooden or clay base, which was then removed, or on wooden or wire fittings; they were light and strong. Although this technique dictated some rigidity in poses, a great deal of freedom was allowed in the depiction of faces, which partly contributed to the development of what may be called portrait sculpture proper. The image of the deity's face was performed in accordance with the strict prescriptions of the Buddhist canons, but the popularity and even the deification of some of the founders and preachers of the faith provided excellent opportunities for conveying portrait resemblance. Such a similarity can be traced in the dry lacquer sculpture of the Chinese patriarch Genjin, revered in Japan, located in the Toshodaiji temple. Genjin was blind when he arrived in Japan in 753, and his sightless eyes and enlightened state of inner contemplation are beautifully rendered by an unknown sculptor. This realistic trend was most clearly expressed in the wooden sculpture of the preacher Kui, created by the sculptor Kosho in the 13th-14th centuries. The preacher is dressed as a wandering beggar with a staff, a gong and a mallet, and small figures of the Buddha come out of his half-open mouth. Not satisfied with the image of the singing monk, the sculptor attempted to express the innermost meaning of his words.
The images of the Buddha of the Nara period are also distinguished by great realism. Created for an ever-increasing number of temples, they are not as imperturbably cold and reserved as their predecessors, have a more graceful beauty and nobility, and turn to the people who worship them with more favor.

Very few paintings from this period have survived. The multicolor drawing on paper depicts the past and present lives of the Buddha. This is one of the few ancient examples of emakimono, or scroll painting. The scrolls were slowly unrolled from right to left, and the viewer could only enjoy the part of the picture that was between the hands unrolling the scroll. The illustrations were directly above the text, in contrast to later scrolls, where a section of text alternated with an explanatory image. In these oldest surviving examples of scroll painting, outlined figures are set against the background of a barely outlined landscape, and the central character, in this case Syaka, appears in various episodes.

Early Heian

(784-897). In 784 the capital was temporarily moved to Nagaoka, partly to avoid the dominance of Nara's Buddhist clergy. In 794 she moved to Heian (now Kyoto) for a longer period. Late 8th and 9th centuries were a period when Japan successfully assimilated, adapting to its own characteristics, many foreign innovations. The Buddhist religion also experienced a time of change, the emergence of new sects of esoteric Buddhism, with its developed ritual and etiquette. Of these, the most influential were the Tendai and Shingon sects, which originated in India, reached China, and from there were brought to Japan by two scholars who returned to their homeland after a long apprenticeship. The Shingon ("True Words") sect was especially liked at court and quickly occupied a dominant position. Its main monasteries were located on Mount Koya near Kyoto; like other important Buddhist centers, they became the repository of huge collections of art monuments.

Sculpture 9th c. was mostly wood. The images of deities were distinguished by severity and inaccessible grandeur, which was emphasized by the solemnity of their appearance and massiveness. Draperies were skillfully cut according to standard patterns, scarves lay in waves. The standing Shaki figure from the temple at Muroji is an example of this style. For this and similar images of the 9th century. characterized by rigid carving with deeper, clear folds and other details.

The increase in the number of gods created great difficulties for artists. In complex, map-like mandalas (a geometric design with magical meaning), the deities were hierarchically arranged around a centrally placed Buddha, who himself was only one manifestation of the absolute. At this time, a new manner of depicting the figures of guardian deities surrounded by flames, terrible in appearance, but beneficent in nature, appeared. These deities were arranged asymmetrically and depicted in moving poses, with formidable facial features, fiercely protecting the faith from possible dangers.

Middle and Late Heian, or Fujiwara period

(898-1185). The transfer of the capital to Heian, which was intended to evade the difficult demands of the clergy, also caused changes in the political system. The nobility was the dominant force, and the Fujiwara family became its most characteristic representatives. Period 10-12 centuries. often associated with this name. A period of special power began, when real emperors were "strongly advised" to leave aside the affairs of the state for the sake of more pleasant pursuits of poetry and painting. Until reaching adulthood, the emperor was led by a strict regent - usually from the Fujiwara family. It was an age of luxury and remarkable achievements in literature, calligraphy and art; everything felt languid and emotional, which rarely reached depth, but on the whole was charming. Elegant sophistication and escapism were reflected in the art of this time. Even the adherents of Buddhism were looking for easier ways, and the worship of the heavenly Buddha, Amida, became especially popular. The notions of compassion and saving grace of the Buddha Amida were deeply reflected in the painting and sculpture of this period. The massiveness and restraint of the statues of the 9th c. in 10-11 centuries. gave way to bliss and charm. The deities are depicted as dreamy, thoughtfully calm, the carving becomes less deep, the surface becomes more colorful, with a richly developed texture. The most important monuments of this period belong to the sculptor Jocho.
The works of artists also acquired softer features, reminiscent of drawings on fabric, and even the terrible deities - the defenders of the faith became less intimidating. Sutras (Buddhist texts) were written in gold and silver on deep blue-toned paper, the fine calligraphy of the text often preceded by a small illustration. Most popular destinations Buddhism and their associated deities reflect the preferences of the aristocracy and the gradual departure from the harsh ideals of early Buddhism.

The atmosphere of this time and his works are partly connected with the termination of formal relations with China in 894. Buddhism in China at that time was persecuted, and the corrupt Tang court was in a state of decline. The secluded island existence that followed this disconnection prompted the Japanese to turn to their own culture and develop a new, purer Japanese style. Indeed, secular painting of the 10th-12th centuries. was almost entirely Japanese - both in technique and in composition and plots. A distinctive feature of these Japanese scrolls, called yamato-e, was the predominance of engi plots (origin, history). While the Chinese scrolls most often depicted vast amazing nature, panoramas of mountains, streams, rocks and trees, and people seemed relatively insignificant, on the narrative scrolls of the Japanese in the drawing and text, the person was the main thing. The landscape played only the role of a background for the story being told, subordinated to the main acting person or persons. Many scrolls were painted chronicles of the life of famous Buddhist preachers or historical figures, their travels and military campaigns. Others told about romantic episodes from the life of the nobility and courtiers.

The apparently idiosyncratic style of the early scrolls came from simple ink sketches on the pages of Buddhist notebooks. These are skilful drawings that caricature human behavior through images of animals: a monkey in monastic clothes worshiping an inflated frog, competitions between hares, monkeys and frogs. These and other late Heian scrolls provided the basis for the more complex narrative scrolls of the developed style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Kamakura period

(1185-1392). Late 12th century brought serious changes to the political and religious life of Japan and, of course, to its art. The elegance and aestheticism of the Kyoto court was replaced or, in the tradition of "special" rule, "received an addition" in the form of a new, harsh and courageous rule - the Kamakura shogunate. Although Kyoto nominally remained the capital, the shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199) established his headquarters in the city of Kamakura and in just 25 years established a rigid system of military dictatorship and feudalism. Buddhism, which had become so complex and ritualized that it was incomprehensible to ordinary lay people, also underwent a major change that did not promise patronage of the arts. The Yodo ("Pure Land") sect, a form of worship of the Buddha Amida, under the leadership of Honen Shonin (1133-1212) reformed the hierarchy of buddhas and deities and gave hope of salvation to all who simply believed in Amida. This doctrine of an easily attainable paradise was later simplified by another monk, Shinran (1173-1262), the founder of the Shin sect, who recognized that Amida's indulgence is so great that there is no need to perform religious acts, it is enough just to repeat the spell "Namu Amida Butsu" (the first word means "submit"; the second two are "Buddha Amida"). Such a simple way of saving a soul was extremely attractive, and now millions use it. A generation later, the militant preacher Nichiren (1222-1282), after whom the sect is named, abandoned this simplified form of religion. His followers revered the Lotus Sutra, which did not promise instant and unconditional salvation. His sermons often touched on political topics, and his beliefs and proposed reforms of church and state appealed to the new warrior class in Kamakura. Finally, the philosophy of Zen, which arose as early as the 8th century, began to play an ever greater role in Buddhist thought of that period. Zen emphasized the importance of meditation and contempt for any images that might hinder man in his quest to connect with God.

So, it was a time when religious thought limited the number of paintings and sculptures previously needed for worship. Nevertheless, some of the finest works of Japanese art were created during the Kamakura period. The stimulus was the inherent Japanese love for art, but the key to the puzzle is the attitude of the people to new creeds, and not dogma as such. Indeed, the works themselves suggest the reason for their creation, because many of these sculptures and paintings full of life and energy are portraits. Although Zen philosophy may have considered ordinary objects of religious worship as a barrier to enlightenment, the tradition of revering teachers was quite acceptable. The portrait itself could not be an object of worship. This attitude towards the portrait was not unique to Zen Buddhism: many ministers of the Pure Land sect were revered almost like Buddhist deities. Thanks to the portrait, even a new architectural form appeared - the mieido, or portrait chapel. The rapid development of realism was entirely in the spirit of the times.
Despite the fact that the picturesque portraits of priests, obviously, really were images specific people, they were often reworkings of paintings depicting the Chinese founders of Buddhism. They were painted preaching, mouths open, hands gesticulating; sometimes mendicant monks were depicted making a difficult journey for the glory of faith.

One of the most popular plots was raigo (desired arrival), which depicted the Buddha Amida with his companions, descending on a cloud in order to save the soul of a believer on his deathbed and transfer it to paradise. The colors of such images were often enhanced by applied gold, and wavy lines, fluttering capes, swirling clouds gave a sense of movement to the descent of the Buddha.

Unkei, who worked in the second half of the 12th and early 13th centuries, was the author of an innovation that made it easier to carve wood, which remained the favorite material of sculptors during the Kamakura period. Previously, the master was limited by the size and shape of the deck or log from which the figure was cut. The arms and clothing elements were superimposed separately, but the finished piece often resembled the original cylindrical shape. In the new technique, dozens of small pieces were carefully fitted to each other, forming a hollow pyramid, from which the apprentices could then rough cut out the figure. The sculptor had at his disposal a more malleable material and the ability to create more complex forms. Muscular temple guards and deities in fluttering capes and robes seemed more alive also because crystal or glass began to be inserted into their eye sockets; statues began to be decorated with gilded bronze. They became lighter and less likely to crack as the wood dried. The mentioned wooden statue of Kuya Shonin, the work of Unkei's son Kosho, demonstrates the highest achievement of realism of the Kamakura era in portrait sculpture. Indeed, sculpture at that time reached its apogee in its development, and subsequently it no longer occupied such a prominent place in art.

Secular painting also reflected the spirit of the time. The narrative scrolls of the late Heian period, in restrained colors and graceful lines, told of the romantic escapades of Prince Genji or the entertainments of the reclusive ladies of the court. Now, with bright colors and energetic strokes, the artists of the Kamakura era depicted the battles of warring clans, palaces engulfed in flames and frightened people fleeing from attacking troops. Even when a religious story unfolded on the scroll, the image was not so much an icon as a historical evidence of the travels of holy people and the miracles they performed. In the design of these plots, one can find a growing love for nature and admiration for native landscapes.

Muromachi, or Ashikaga period

(1392-1568). In 1392, after more than 50 years of strife, the third shogun of the Ashikaga family, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), reunited the country. The seat of government again became the nominal capital of Kyoto, where the Ashikaga shoguns built their palaces in the Muromachi quarter. (This period is sometimes called Muromachi, sometimes Ashikaga.) Wartime did not spare many temples - repositories of Japanese art, which were burned along with the treasures that were there. The country was severely devastated, and even peace brought little relief, as the warring clans, in their success, handed out favors at their whim. It would seem that the situation was extremely unfavorable for the development of art, but in reality the Ashikaga shoguns patronized it, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, when painting flourished.

The most significant art of this time was the monochrome poetic ink drawings encouraged by Zen Buddhism and influenced by the Chinese designs of the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), contacts with China were renewed, and Yoshimitsu, a collector and patron of art, encouraged the collection and study of Chinese painting. She became a model and starting point for gifted artists who painted landscapes, birds, flowers, images of priests and sages with light and fluent brush strokes. Japanese painting of this time is characterized by economy of line; the artist seems to extract the quintessence of the depicted plot, allowing the viewer's gaze to fill it with details. The transitions of gray and shiny black ink in these paintings are very close to the philosophy of Zen, which, of course, inspired their authors. Although this creed reached considerable influence even under the military power of Kamakura, it continued to spread rapidly in the 15th and 16th centuries, when numerous Zen monasteries arose. Preaching mainly the idea of ​​"self-salvation", it did not associate salvation with the Buddha, but rather relied on the severe self-discipline of man to achieve a sudden intuitive "enlightenment" that unites him with the absolute. The sparing but bold use of ink and the asymmetrical composition, in which the unpainted parts of the paper played a significant role in depicting idealized landscapes, sages and scientists, were in keeping with this philosophy.

One of the most famous exponents of sumi-e, a style of monochrome ink painting, was Sesshu (1420-1506), a Zen priest whose long and prolific life ensured him continued veneration. At the end of his life, he began to use the haboku (quick ink) style, which, in contrast to the mature style, which required clear, economical strokes, brought the tradition of monochrome painting almost to abstraction.
The activity of the Kano family of artists and the development of their style fall on the same period. In terms of the choice of subjects and the use of ink, it was close to Chinese, but remained Japanese in terms of expressive means. Kano, with the support of the shogunate, became the "official" school or artistic style of painting and flourished well into the 19th century.

The naive tradition of yamato-e continued to live in the works of the Tosa school, the second important direction of Japanese painting. In fact, at this time, both schools, Kano and Tosa, were closely related, they were united by an interest in modern life. Motonobu Kano (1476-1559), one of outstanding artists of this period, not only married his daughter to the famous artist Tosa, but also painted in his manner.

In the 15-16 centuries. there were only a few noteworthy works of sculpture. It should be noted, however, that the development of the noo drama, with its variety of moods and emotions, opened up a new field of activity for sculptors - they carved masks for actors. In classical Japanese drama performed by and for the aristocracy, the actors (one or more) wore masks. They conveyed a range of feelings from fear, anxiety and confusion to restrained joy. Some of the masks were so superbly carved that the slightest turn of the actor's head caused subtle changes in expression. Remarkable examples of these masks have been kept for years by the families for whose members they were made.

Momoyama period

(1568-1615). In 1593, the great military dictator Hideyoshi built his castle on Momoyama, "Peach Hill," and by this name it is customary to designate the period of 47 years from the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate to the establishment of the Tokugawa, or Edo period, in 1615. This was the time of the dominance of a completely new military class, whose great wealth contributed to the flourishing of the arts. Impressive castles with large audience halls and long corridors came into fashion at the end of the 16th century. and demanded ornaments appropriate to their greatness. It was a time of stern and courageous people, and the new patrons, unlike the former aristocracy, were not particularly interested in intellectual pursuits or the subtleties of craftsmanship. Fortunately, the new generation of artists lived up to their patrons. During this period, wonderful screens and movable panels appeared in bright crimson, emerald, green, purple and blue colors. Such exuberant colors and decorative forms, often on a background of gold or silver, were very popular for a hundred years, and their creators were rightly called "great decorators." Thanks to the subtle Japanese taste, the pompous style did not degenerate into vulgarity, and even when restraint and understatement gave way to luxury and decorative excesses, the Japanese managed to maintain elegance.

Eitoku Kano (1543-1590), one of the first great artists of this period, worked in the style of Kano and Tosa, expanding the concept of drawing of the first and combining them with the richness of colors of the second. Although only a few works of which Eitoku can be safely identified as the author have survived, he is considered one of the founders of the Momoyama style, and most of the artists of this period were his students or were influenced by him.

Edo or Tokugawa period

(1615-1867). The long period of peace that came to the newly unified Japan is called either the Tokugawa time, after the name of the ruler, or Edo (modern Tokyo), since in 1603 this city became the new center of power. Two famous generals of the brief Momoyama period, Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), through military action and diplomacy, finally managed to reconcile powerful clans and militant clergy. With the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, power passed to Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), who completed the measures begun jointly. The decisive battle of Sekigahara in 1600 strengthened Ieyasu's position, the fall of Oska Castle in 1615 was accompanied by the final collapse of the Hideyoshi house and the establishment of the undivided rule of the Tokugawa shogunate.

The peaceful rule of the Tokugawa lasted 15 generations and ended only in the 19th century. It was basically a period of "closed doors" policy. By a decree of 1640, foreigners were forbidden access to Japan, and the Japanese could not travel abroad. The only commercial and cultural connection was with the Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. As in other periods of isolation, there was an upsurge of national feelings and the emergence at the end of the 17th century. the so-called school of genre painting and engraving.
The rapidly growing capital of Edo became the center of not only the political and business life of the island empire, but also the center of arts and crafts. The requirement that daimyo, the provincial feudal lords, be in the capital for a certain part of each year created a need for new buildings, including palace buildings, and hence for artists to decorate them. A concurrently emerging class of wealthy but non-aristocratic merchants provided new and often unprofessional patronage to artists.

The art of the early Edo period partly continues and develops the Momoyama style, intensifying its tendencies towards luxury and splendor. The richness of bizarre images and polychromy inherited from the previous period continues to develop. This decorative style reached its peak in the last quarter of the 17th century. in the so-called. the Genroku era of the Tokugawa period (1688-1703). In Japanese decorative art, it has no parallels in extravagance and richness of color and decorative motifs in painting, fabrics, lacquer, in artistic trifles - attributes of a luxurious lifestyle.

Since we are talking about a relatively late period of history, it is not surprising that the names of many artists and their works have been preserved; here it is possible to name only a few of the most prominent. Among the representatives of the decorative school who lived and worked during the Momoyama and Edo periods are Honnami Koetsu (1558-1637) and Nonomura Sotatsu (d. 1643). Their work demonstrates a remarkable sense of pattern, composition and color. Koetsu, a talented ceramist and lacquer artist, was known for the beauty of his calligraphy. Together with Sotatsu, they created scroll poems that were fashionable at the time. In this combination of literature, calligraphy and painting, the images were not mere illustrations: they created or suggested a mood appropriate to the perception of the text. Ogata Korin (1658-1716) was one of the heirs of the decorative style and, together with his younger brother Ogata Kenzan (1663-1743), perfected its technique. Kenzan, better known as a ceramist than as an artist, fired vessels inscribed with designs of his famous older brother. The revival of this school in the early 19th century. by the poet and painter Sakai Hoitsu (1761-1828) was the last surge in the decorative style. Horitsu's beautiful scrolls and screens combined Korin's sense of drawing with the Maruyama naturalism's interest in nature, resulting in the richness of color and decorative motifs of the earlier period, tempered by the splendor and finesse of the brushstroke.

Along with the polychrome decorative style, traditional Kano school ink drawing continued to be popular. In 1622 Kanō Tanyu (1602-1674) was appointed court painter to the shogun and called to Edo. With his appointment to this position and the establishment of the Edo school of Kano painting at Kobikito, a half-century period of artistic leadership of this tradition began, which restored the prominence of the Kano family and made the works of the Edo period the most significant in Kano painting. Despite the popularity of screens painted with gold and bright colors, created by "great decorators" and rivals, Tangyu, thanks to the strength of his talent and official position, was able to popularize the painting of the revived Kano school among the nobility. Tanyu added power and simplicity to the traditional features of the Kano school, based on a rigid broken line and a well-thought-out arrangement of composition elements on a large free surface.

A new trend, in which the main feature was an interest in nature, began to prevail at the end of the 18th century. Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), head of the new school, was a peasant, then became a clergyman and finally an artist. The first two classes did not bring him happiness or success, but as an artist he reached great heights and is considered the founder of the Maruyama realistic school. He studied with the master of the Kano school, Ishida Yutei (d. c. 1785); on the basis of imported Dutch engravings, he comprehended the Western technique of perspective representation, and sometimes simply copied these engravings. He also studied Chinese styles from the Song and Yuan dynasties, including the subtle and realistic style of Chen Xuan (1235-1290) and Shen Nanping; the latter lived in Nagasaki at the beginning of the 18th century. Okyo made many works from nature, and his scientific observations formed the basis for the perception of nature, on which the Maruyama school was based.

In addition to interest in naturalism in the 18th century. renewed influence of the Chinese artistic tradition. Representatives of this trend gravitated toward the painting school of the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) painter-scientists, although their understanding of the current state of art in China was probably limited. The art of this Japanese school was called bujinga (the art of educated people). One of the most influential masters of the bujinga style was Ikeno Taiga (1723-1776), famous artist and calligrapher. His mature style is characterized by thick contour lines filled with light feathery strokes in light tones and ink; he also painted with broad, free strokes of black ink, depicting bamboo trunks bowed in the wind and rain. With short, curved lines, he achieved an effect reminiscent of engravings in the image of misty mountains above a lake surrounded by forest.
17th century spawned another remarkable art direction of the Edo period. This is the so-called ukiyo-e (pictures of the changing world) - genre scenes created by and for the common people. Early ukiyo-e originated in the old capital of Kyoto and were mostly picturesque. But the center of their production soon moved to Edo, and the attention of the masters focused on woodcuts. The close association of woodcut printing with ukiyo-e has led to the misconception that woodcut printing was the discovery of this period; in fact, it originated in the 11th century. Such early images were votive in nature, depicting the founders of Buddhism and deities, and during the Kamakura period, some narrative scrolls were reproduced from carved blocks. However, the art of engraving became especially popular in the period from the middle of the 17th to the 19th century.

The subjects of the ukiyo-e engravings were the beautiful courtesans of the gay quarters, favorite actors and scenes from dramas. Early, so-called. primitive engravings were done in black, with strong rhythmic wavy lines, and were distinguished by simple designs. They were sometimes painted by hand in an orange-red color called tan-e (bright red paintings), with mustard yellow and green markings. Some of the "primitive" artists used hand painting called urushu-e (lacquer painting), in which dark areas were enhanced and made brighter by the addition of glue. An early polychrome print, which appeared in 1741 or 1742, was called benizuri-e (crimson print) and usually used three colors - rose red, green, and sometimes yellow. Truly multi-color engravings, using the entire palette and called nishiki-e (brocade images), appeared in 1765.

In addition to creating individual prints, many of the engravers illustrated books and made money by making erotic illustrations in books and on scrolls. It should be borne in mind that ukiyo-e engraving consisted of three types of activity: it was the work of a draftsman, whose name the print bore, a carver and a printer.

Hishikawa Moronobu (c. 1625-1694) is considered the founder of the tradition of creating ukiyo-e prints. Other "primitive" artists of this trend are Kiyomasu (1694-1716) and the Kaigetsudo group (a strange community of artists whose existence remains unclear), as well as Okumura Masanobu (1686-1764).

The transitional artists who created benizuri-e prints were Ishikawa Toyonobu (1711-1785), Torii Kiyohiro (active c. 1751-1760), and Torii Kiyomitsu (1735-1785).

The works of Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770) open the era of polychrome engraving. Filled with soft, almost neutral colors, populated by graceful ladies and gallant lovers, Harunobu prints were a great success. Around the same time, Katsukawa Shunsho (1726-1792), Torii Kienaga (1752-1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806) worked with him. Each of them contributed to the development of this genre; masters brought engravings depicting graceful beauties and famous actors to perfection. In a few months in 1794-1795, the mysterious Tosusai Saraku created stunningly strong and frankly cruel portraits of the actors of those days.

In the first decades of the 19th century this genre has reached maturity and began to decline. Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) are the greatest masters of the era, whose work connects the decline of the art of engraving in the 19th century. and its new revival at the beginning of the 20th century. Both were primarily landscape painters, fixing the events of modern life in their engravings. The brilliant mastery of the technique of carvers and printers made it possible to convey whimsical lines and the slightest shades of the setting sun or fog rising at dawn in the engraving.

The Meiji Restoration and the Modern Period.

It often happens that the ancient art of one or another people is poor in names, dates and surviving works, so any judgments can only be made with great caution and convention. However, it is no less difficult to judge contemporary art, since we are deprived of a historical perspective in order to correctly assess the scale of any movement or artist and his work. The study of Japanese art is no exception, and the most that can be done is to present a panorama of contemporary art and draw some provisional preliminary conclusions.

In the second half of the 19th century Japanese ports were reopened for trade, major changes took place on the political scene. In 1868, the shogunate was abolished and the reign of Emperor Meiji was restored. The official capital and residence of the emperor were moved to Edo, and the city itself became known as Tokyo (eastern capital).

As has happened in the past, the end of national isolation created a great deal of interest in the achievements of other nations. At this time, the Japanese made a huge leap in science and technology. Artistically, the beginning of the Meiji era (1868-1912) demonstrates the acceptance of everything Western, including technology. However, this zeal did not last long, and it was followed by a period of assimilation, the emergence of new forms, combining a return to their own traditions and new Western trends.

Among the artists, Kano Hogai (1828-1888), Shimomura Kanzan (1873-1916), Takeuchi Seiho (1864-1924) and Tomioka Tessai (1836-1942) gained fame. The first three adhered to the traditional Japanese style and subjects, although they sought to show originality in mood and technique. Seihō, for example, worked in the calm and conservative atmosphere of Kyoto. His early works created in the naturalistic manner of Maruyama, but later he traveled extensively in China and was deeply influenced by Chinese ink painting. His trips to museums and leading art centers Europe also left a mark in his work. Of all the prominent artists of this time, only Tomioka Tessai came close to developing a new style. In his energetic and full of strength works, rough, twisted, jagged lines and black ink smudges are combined with finely written patches of color. In later years, some young oil painters succeeded where their grandfathers had failed. The first attempts to work with this unusual material were reminiscent of Parisian canvases and were not distinguished by either special value or specifically Japanese features. However, works of exceptional appeal are now being created, in which a distinctive Japanese sense of color and balance shines through abstract themes. Other artists, working with more natural and traditional ink and sometimes using calligraphy as a starting point, create energetic abstract pieces in brilliant blacks with shades of gray.

As in the Edo period, in the 19th and 20th centuries. sculpture was not popular. But in this area, representatives modern generation, trained in America and Europe, experimented with great success. The small bronze sculptures, abstract in form and oddly named, show the Japanese sense of line and color, which manifests itself in the use of a soft green or warm brown patina; woodcarving testifies to the love of the Japanese for the texture of the material.

Sosaku hanga, the Japanese "creative print", appeared only in the first decade of the 20th century, but as a special art direction it eclipsed all other areas of modern art. This modern print is not, strictly speaking, a successor to the older ukiyo-e woodcut; they differ in style, plots and methods of creation. Artists, many of whom were heavily influenced by Western painting, realized the importance of their own artistic heritage and found suitable material in wood to express their creative ideals. Hanga masters not only paint, but also carve images on wooden blocks and print them themselves. Although woodworking is at its highest in this art form, all modern Western printmaking techniques are used. Experimenting with leaves, twine and "found objects" in some cases allows you to create unique surface texture effects. At first, the masters of this trend were forced to seek recognition: after all, even the best achievements of the ukiyo-e school were associated by intellectual artists with an illiterate crowd and considered plebeian art. Artists such as Onchi Koshiro, Hiratsuka Unichi, and Maekawa Senpan did much to restore respect for printmaking and establish it as a worthy branch of the fine arts. They attracted many young artists to their group and the engravers now number in the hundreds. Among the masters of this generation who achieved recognition in Japan and in the West are Azechi Umetaro, Munakata Shiko, Yamaguchi Gen and Saito Kiyoshi. These are masters whose innovation and undeniable talent have allowed them to occupy a worthy position among the leading artists of Japan. Many of their peers and other, younger hanga artists also produced remarkable engravings; the fact that we do not mention their names here does not mean a low assessment of their work.

ARTS AND APPLIED ARTS, ARCHITECTURE AND GARDENS

The previous sections dealt mainly with painting and sculpture, which in most countries are considered the main types of art. visual arts. Perhaps it is unfair to include at the end of the article the decorative arts and folk crafts, the art of gardens and architecture - forms that were an important and integral part of Japanese art. However, perhaps, with the exception of architecture, they require special consideration apart from general periodization Japanese art and with style changes.

Ceramics and porcelain.

The most important arts and crafts in Japan are ceramics and porcelain. Ceramic art naturally falls into two categories. The fine polychrome Imari, Nabeshima and Kakiemon china took its name from the places of production, and its rich painting on a cream or bluish-white surface was intended for the nobility and court circles. The process of making real porcelain became known in Japan in the late 16th or early 17th century; plates and bowls with a smooth glaze, with an asymmetrical or brocade-like pattern, are valued both at home and in the West.

In contrast to porcelain in rough pottery made of clay or low-quality stone mass, which is typical for Shino, Oribe and Bizen, attention is focused on the material, seemingly careless, but thoughtful arrangement of decorative elements. Influenced by the concepts of Zen Buddhism, such vessels were very popular in intellectual circles and were widely used, especially in tea ceremonies. In many cups, teapots and caddies, attributes of the art of the tea ceremony, the very essence of Zen Buddhism was embodied: tough self-discipline and strict simplicity. During the heyday of Japanese decorative art, talented artists Korin and Kenzan were engaged in decorating ceramic products. It should be remembered that the fame of Kenzan is associated more with his talent as a ceramist, and not as a painter. Some of the simpler types and techniques for making vessels come from folk craft traditions. Modern workshops, continuing the old traditions, produce beautiful products that delight with their elegant simplicity.

Lacquer products.

Already in the 7-8 centuries. varnish was known in Japan. From this time, the lids of the caskets, decorated with images of people and geometric motifs, applied with thin golden lines, have been preserved. We have already spoken of the importance of the dry-lacquer technique for sculpture in the 8th and 9th centuries; at the same time and later, decorative objects such as letter boxes or incense boxes were made. During the Edo period, these products were made in large quantities and with the most magnificent decoration. Luxuriously decorated boxes for breakfast, for cakes, for incense and medicines, called inro, reflected the wealth and love of luxury inherent in this time. The surface of the objects was decorated with patterns of gold and silver powder, pieces of gold foil, alone or in combination with shell inlays, mother-of-pearl, an alloy of tin and lead, etc.; these patterns contrasted with the lacquered red, black or brown surface. Sometimes artists such as Korin and Koetsu made lacquer designs, but it is unlikely that they personally participated in these works.

Swords.

The Japanese, as has already been said, have been a people of warriors for a considerable period of their history; weapons and armor were considered essential items for a large part of the population. The sword was the pride of a man; both the blade itself and all other parts of the sword, especially the handle (tsuba), were decorated in various techniques. Tsuba made of iron or bronze were decorated with gold and silver inlays, carved, or trimmed with both. They depicted landscapes or figures of people, flowers or family coats of arms (mon). All this complemented the work of sword makers.

Fabrics.

Richly patterned silks and other fabrics, favored by the court and clergy in times of opulence and abundance, as well as plain fabrics with an almost primitive design characteristic of folk art, are also expressions of national Japanese talent. Having reached its peak during the rich era of Genroku, the art of textiles has flourished again in modern Japan. It combines ideas and artificial fibers from the West with traditional colors and decorative motifs.

Gardens.

In recent decades, interest in Japanese gardens and architecture has increased due to the Western public's greater exposure to these art forms. Gardens in Japan have a special place; they are the expression and symbol of high religious and philosophical truths, and these obscure, symbolic overtones, combined with the apparent beauty of gardens, arouse the interest of the Western world. It cannot be said that religious or philosophical ideas were main reason creating gardens, but when planning and creating a garden, the planner considered such elements, the contemplation of which would lead the viewer to reflect on various philosophical truths. Here, the contemplative aspect of Zen Buddhism is embodied in a group of unusual stones, waves of raked sand and gravel, combined with turf, or plants arranged so that the stream behind them disappears and reappears, all of which encourage the viewer to independently complete the laid down during the construction garden ideas. The preference for vague hints over intelligible explanations is characteristic of Zen philosophy. Bonsai dwarf trees and tiny potted gardens, now popular in the West, have become a continuation of these ideas.

Architecture.

Main architectural monuments Japan is temples, monastic complexes, feudal castles and palaces. From ancient times to this day, wood has been the main building material and to a large extent determines the design features. The oldest religious buildings are shrines of the national Japanese religion of Shinto; judging by the texts and drawings, they were relatively simple buildings with a thatched roof, like the ancient dwellings. Temple buildings erected after the spread of Buddhism and associated with it were based on Chinese prototypes in style and layout. Buddhist temple architecture has changed over time, and the decor and arrangement of buildings has varied in different sects. Japanese buildings are characterized by large halls with high roofs and a complex system of consoles, and their decor reflects the taste of their time. The simple and majestic architecture of the Horyu-ji complex, built near Nara in the early 7th century, is as characteristic of the Asuka period as the beauty and elegance of the proportions of the Hoodo, Uji's "Phoenix Hall" reflected in the Lotus Lake, is of the Heian period. The more elaborate structures of the Edo period received additional embellishments in the form of richly painted sliding doors and screens made by the same "great decorators" who decorated the interiors of moated castles and feudal palaces.

The architecture and gardens of Japan are so closely related that they can be considered parts of each other. This is especially true for buildings and garden houses for the tea ceremony. Their openness, simplicity, and carefully crafted connection to landscape and perspective have a great influence on modern architecture West.

IMPACT OF JAPANESE ART IN THE WEST

Within just one century, the art of Japan became known in the West and had a significant impact on it. There were also earlier contacts (for example, the Dutch traded with Japan through the port of Nagasaki), but the objects that reached Europe in the 17th century were mainly works of applied art - porcelain and lacquerware. They were eagerly collected as curiosities and copied in various ways, but these decorative exports did not reflect the essence and quality of Japanese art and even gave the Japanese an unflattering idea of ​​Western taste.

For the first time, Western painting experienced the direct influence of Japanese art in Europe in 1862 during the huge International Exhibition in London. Introduced at the Paris Exposition five years later, Japanese woodblock prints aroused renewed interest. Several private collections of engravings immediately sprang up. Degas, Manet, Monet, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others took Japanese color prints as a revelation; a slight but always recognizable influence of Japanese printmaking on the Impressionists is often noted. The Americans Whistler and Mary Cassatt were attracted by the restraint of line and the bright colors of ukiyo-e prints and paintings.

The opening of Japan to foreigners in 1868 created a fascination with all things Western and made the Japanese turn away from their own rich culture and artistic heritage. At this time, many beautiful paintings and sculptures were sold and ended up in Western museums and private collections. Exhibitions of these items introduced the West to Japan and stimulated interest in traveling to the Far East. Undoubtedly, the occupation of Japan by American troops at the end of World War II opened up more opportunities than before for acquaintance and deeper study of Japanese temples and their treasures. This interest was reflected in the attendance of American museums. Interest in the Orient in general was caused by the organization of exhibitions of Japanese art selected from Japanese public and private collections and brought to America and Europe.

Scientific research recent decades did a lot to refute the opinion that Japanese art is only a reflection of Chinese art, and numerous Japanese publications on English language introduced the West to the ideals of the East.

The modern Japanese art scene seems to be completely globalized. Artists travel between Tokyo and New York, almost all received European or American education, they talk about their work in international art English. However, this picture is far from complete.

National forms and trends turn out to be one of the most sought-after goods that Japan can offer to the world market of artistic ideas and works.

plane operation. How superflat combines American geek culture and traditional Japanese painting

Takashi Murakami. "Tang Tan Bo"

If in the Western world for almost everyone (except perhaps the most ardent postmodern theorists) the boundary between high and mass culture still remains relevant, albeit problematic, then in Japan these worlds are totally mixed.

An example of this is Takashi Murakami, who successfully combines exhibitions in the world's best galleries and streaming production.

Recording of the tour of the Murakami exhibition "There will be gentle rain"

However, Murakami's relationship with popular culture - and for Japan this is primarily the culture of manga and anime fans (otaku) - is more complicated. Philosopher Hiroki Azuma criticizes the understanding of otaku as an authentic Japanese phenomenon. Otaku consider themselves directly connected with the traditions of the Edo period of the 17th-19th centuries - the era of isolationism and the rejection of modernization. Azuma argues that the otaku movement - based on manga, animation, graphic novels, computer games - could only have arisen in the context of the post-war American occupation as a result of the import of American culture. The art of Murakami and his followers reinvents otaku with pop art techniques and debunks the nationalist myth of the tradition's authenticity. It represents a "re-Americanization of Japaneseized American culture."

From an artistic point of view, superflat is closest to early Japanese ukiyo-e painting. The most famous work in this tradition is the print The Great Wave Off Kanagawa by Katsushika Hokusai (1823–1831).

For Western modernism, the discovery of Japanese painting was a breakthrough. It made it possible to see the picture as a plane and seeks not to overcome this peculiarity of it, but to work with it.

Katsushiki Hokusai. "The Great Wave Off Kanagawa"

Pioneers of performance. What does Japanese art of the 1950s mean today

Documentation of the creative process of Akira Kanayama and Kazuo Shiraga

Superflat took shape only in the 2000s. But the artistic actions significant for world art began in Japan much earlier - and even earlier than in the West.

The performative turn in art took place at the turn of the 60s and 70s of the last century. In Japan, the performance appeared in the fifties.

For the first time, the Gutai Group has shifted its focus from the creation of self-sufficient objects to the process of their production. From here - one step to the abandonment of the art object in favor of an ephemeral event.

Although individual artists from Gutai (and there were 59 of them in twenty years) actively existed in the international context, understanding how their collective activity of Japanese post-war art in general began in the West quite recently. The boom came in 2013 with several exhibitions in small galleries in New York and Los Angeles, Tokyo 1955-1970: The New Avant-Garde at MoMA, and the massive historical retrospective Gutai: Splendid Playground at the Guggenheim Museum. The Moscow import of Japanese art seems to be an almost belated continuation of this trend.

Sadamasa Motonaga. Work (Water) at the Guggenheim Museum

It is striking how modern these retrospective exhibitions look. For example, the central object of the exposition at the Guggenheim Museum is the reconstruction of Work (Water) by Sadamasa Motonaga, in which the levels of the museum rotunda are connected by polyethylene pipes with colored water. They are reminiscent of brush strokes that have been torn off the canvas, and serve as an example of Gutai's central focus on "concreteness" (as the band's name translates from the Japanese), the materiality of the objects with which the artist works.

Many members of Gutai received an education related to classical nihonga painting, many are biographically attached to the religious context of Zen Buddhism, to its characteristic Japanese calligraphy. All of them found a new, procedural or participatory approach to ancient traditions. Kazuo Shiraga has videotaped how he draws his anti-Rauschenberg monochromes with his feet, and even created paintings in public.

Minoru Yoshida turned flowers from Japanese prints into psychedelic objects - an example of this is the Bisexual Flower, one of the first kinetic (moving) sculptures in the world.

The curators of the exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum talk about the political significance of these works:

"The Gutai demonstrated the importance of free individual action, demolition of audience expectations, and even stupidity as ways to counter the social passivity and conformity that, over decades, allowed a militaristic government to gain a critical mass of influence, invade China, and then join World War II."

Good and wise. Why Artists Left Japan for America in the 1960s

Gutai was the exception to the rule in post-war Japan. Avant-garde groups remained marginal, the art world was strictly hierarchical. The main way to recognition was participation in competitions held by recognized associations of classical artists. Therefore, many preferred to go to the West and integrate into the English-language art system.

It was especially hard for women. Even in the progressive Gutai, the share of their presence did not reach even a fifth. What can we say about traditional institutions, for access to which it was necessary special education. By the sixties, girls had already acquired the right to it, however, learning art (if it was not about decorative, which was part of the skill set ryosai kenbo- a good wife and a wise mother) was a socially frowned upon occupation.

Yoko Ono. cut piece

The story of the emigration of five powerful Japanese female artists from Tokyo to the United States was the subject of Midori Yoshimoto's study "Into Performance: Japanese Women Artists in New York". Yayoi Kusama, Takako Saito, Mieko Shiomi and Shigeko Kubota at the start of their careers decided to leave for New York and worked there, including on the modernization of the traditions of Japanese art. Only Yoko Ono grew up in the US - but she also deliberately refused to return to Japan, having become disillusioned with Tokyo's artistic hierarchy during her short stay in 1962-1964.

Ono became the most famous of the five, not only as the wife of John Lennon, but also as the author of proto-feminist performances dedicated to the objectification of the female body. There are obvious parallels between Cut Piece It, in which the audience could cut off pieces of the artist's clothes, and "Rhythm 0" by the "grandmother of performance" Marina Abramović.

On short legs. How to pass the author's acting training Tadashi Suzuki

In the case of Ono and Gutai, the methods and themes of their work, separated from the authors, became internationally significant. There are other forms of export - when the artist's works are perceived with interest in the international arena, but the borrowing of the actual method does not occur because of its specificity. The most striking case is Tadashi Suzuki's acting training system.

The Suzuki Theater is loved even in Russia - and this is not surprising. Last time he was with us in 2016 with the performance of The Trojan Women based on the texts of Euripides, and in the 2000s he came several times with productions of Shakespeare and Chekhov. Suzuki transferred the action of the plays to the current Japanese context and offered non-obvious interpretations of the texts: he discovered anti-Semitism in Ivanov and compared it with the disdainful attitude of the Japanese towards the Chinese, transferred the action of King Lear to a Japanese lunatic asylum.

Suzuki built his system in opposition to the Russian theater school. IN late XIX century, during the so-called Meiji period, the modernizing imperial Japan experienced the rise of opposition movements. The result was a large-scale westernization of a previously extremely closed culture. Among the imported forms was the Stanislavsky system, which still remains in Japan (and in Russia) one of the main directorial methods.

Suzuki exercises

In the sixties, when Suzuki began his career, the thesis was spreading more and more that because of their bodily features, Japanese actors could not get used to roles from Western texts that filled the then repertoire. The young director managed to offer the most convincing alternative.

Suzuki's system of exercises, called leg grammar, includes dozens of ways to sit, and even more to stand and walk.

His actors usually play barefoot and seem, by lowering the center of gravity, as tightly tied to the ground as possible, heavy. Suzuki teaches them and foreign performers his technique in the village of Toga, in ancient Japanese houses filled with modern equipment. His troupe gives only about 70 performances a year, and the rest of the time he lives, almost without leaving the village and having no time for personal affairs - only work.

The Toga Center appeared in the 1970s and was designed at the request of the director by the world-famous architect Arata Isozaka. Suzuki's system might seem patriarchal and conservative, but he himself talks about Toga in modern terms of decentralization. Even in the middle of the 2000s, Suzuki understood the importance of exporting art from the capital to the regions and organizing local production points. According to the director, the theatrical map of Japan in many respects resembles the Russian one - art is concentrated in Tokyo and several smaller centers. The Russian theater would also benefit from a company that regularly goes on tour in small towns and is based far from the capital.

SCOT Company Center in Toga

Flower trails. What resource did modern theater discover in noh and kabuki systems

The Suzuki method grows out of two ancient Japanese traditions - but also kabuki. It is not only that these types of theater are often characterized as the art of walking, but also in more obvious details. Suzuki often follows the rule about the performance of all roles by men, uses characteristic spatial solutions, for example, hanamichi ("the path of flowers") of the kabuki sample - a platform extending from the stage into the depths of the auditorium. He also exploits quite recognizable symbols like flowers and scrolls.

Of course, in global world there is no question of the privilege of the Japanese to use their national forms.

The theater of one of the most significant directors of our time, the American Robert Wilson, was built on borrowings from but.

He not only uses masks and make-up that remind the mass audience of Japan, but also borrows the ways of acting based on the maximum slowdown of movement and self-sufficient expressiveness of the gesture. Combining traditional and ritualistic forms with ultra-modern light scores and minimalist music (one of Wilson's most famous works is a production of Philip Glass's opera Einstein on the Beach), Wilson essentially produces the synthesis of origins and relevance that much of modern art strives for.

Robert Wilson. "Einstein on the Beach"

From noh and kabuki, one of the pillars of modern dance has grown - butoh, literally translated - the dance of darkness. Invented in 1959 by choreographers Kazuo Ono and Tatsumi Hijikata, who also drew on a low center of gravity and concentration on the feet, butoh was about bringing reflections from traumatic war experiences into the bodily dimension.

“They showed the body sick, collapsing, even monstrous, monstrous.<…>The movements are either slow, or deliberately sharp, explosive. For this, a special technique is used, when the movement is carried out as if without involving the main muscles, due to the bone levers of the skeleton,” dance historian Irina Sirotkina inscribes butoh in the history of the liberation of the body, connects it with the departure from ballet normativity. She compares butoh with the practices of dancers and choreographers of the early 20th century - Isadora Duncan, Martha Graham, Mary Wigman, speaks of the influence on later "postmodern" dance.

A fragment of the dance of Katsura Kana, the modern successor of the butoh tradition

Today, butoh in its original form is no longer an avant-garde practice, but a historical reconstruction.

However, the movement dictionary developed by Ohno, Hijikata and their followers remains a valuable resource for contemporary choreographers. In the West, it is used by Dimitris Papaioannou, Anton Adasinsky and even in the video for “Belong To The World” by The Weekend. In Japan, the successor of the butoh tradition is, for example, Saburo Teshigawara, who will come to Russia in October. Although he himself denies parallels with the dance of darkness, critics find quite recognizable signs: a seemingly boneless body, fragility, noiseless step. True, they are already placed in the context of postmodernist choreography - with its high tempo, runs, work with postindustrial noise music.

Saburo Teshigawara. metamorphosis

Locally global. How is contemporary Japanese art similar to Western art?

The works of Teshigawara and many of his colleagues organically fit into the programs of the best Western contemporary dance festivals. If you skim through the descriptions of performances and performances that were shown at the Festival / Tokyo - the largest annual show of Japanese theater, then it will be difficult to notice fundamental differences from European trends.

One of the central themes is site-specificity - Japanese artists explore the spaces of Tokyo, ranging from clumps of capitalism in the form of skyscrapers to marginal areas of otaku concentration.

Another theme is the study of intergenerational misunderstanding, the theater as a place of live meeting and organized communication of people of different ages. Projects dedicated to her by Toshika Okada and Akira Tanayama were brought to Vienna for several years in a row to one of the key European festivals of performing arts. There was nothing new in the transfer of documentary materials and personal stories to the stage by the end of the 2000s, but the curator of the Vienna Festival presented these projects to the public as an opportunity for live, point-to-point contact with another culture.

Another main line is working through the traumatic experience. For the Japanese, it is associated not with the Gulag or the Holocaust, but with the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The theater refers to him constantly, but the most powerful statement about atomic explosions as the moment of the genesis of all modern Japanese culture still belongs to Takashi Murakami.

to the exhibition “Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture”

“Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture” is the title of his curated project shown in New York in 2005. "Little Boy" - "baby" in Russian - the name of one of the bombs dropped on Japan in 1945. Collecting hundreds of manga comics from leading illustrators, distinctive vintage toys, merchandise inspired by famous anime from Godzilla to Hello Kitty, Murakami has pushed the concentration of cuteness - kawaii - to the limit in the museum space. At the same time, he launched a selection of animations, in which pictures of explosions, bare earth, and destroyed cities became the central images.

This opposition was the first major statement about the infantilization of Japanese culture as a way to cope with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Now this conclusion seems already obvious. An academic study of kawaii by Inuhiko Yomota is built on it.

There are also later traumatic triggers. Of the most important - the events of March 11, 2011, the earthquake and tsunami that led to a major accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant. At Festival/Tokyo-2018, a whole program of six performances was devoted to understanding the consequences of a natural and technological disaster; they also became the theme for one of the works presented at Solyanka. This example clearly shows that the arsenal of critical methods used by Western and Japanese art is not fundamentally different. Haruyuki Ishii creates an installation of three television sets that loop through high-speed edited and looped footage from television programs about the earthquake.

“The work is made up of 111 videos that the artist watched every day in the news until the moment when everything he saw was no longer perceived as fiction,” the curators explain. New Japan is a telling example of how art does not resist interpretation based on national myths, but at the same time a critical eye reveals that the same interpretation could be relevant for art of any origin. The curators talk about contemplation as the basis of the Japanese tradition, drawing on quotations from Lao Tzu. At the same time, as if leaving out of the brackets that almost all contemporary art is focused on the “observer effect” (as the exhibition is called) - whether in the form of creating new contexts for the perception of familiar phenomena or in raising the question of the possibility of adequate perception as such.

Imagined Communities - another work by video artist Haruyuki Ishii

Game

However, one should not think that Japan of the 2010s is a concentration of progressiveness.

The habits of the good old traditionalism and love for orientalist exoticism have not yet been outlived. "The Theater of Virgins" is the title of a rather admiring article about the Japanese theater "Takarazuka" in the Russian conservative magazine "PTJ". Takarazuka appeared at the end of the 19th century as a business project to attract tourists to a remote city of the same name, which accidentally became the terminus of a private railway. Only unmarried girls play in the theater, which, according to the owner of the railway, were supposed to lure male spectators to the city. Today, Takarazuka functions like an industry, with its own TV channel, a dense concert program, even a local amusement park. But only unmarried girls still have the right to be in the troupe - let's hope they don't check for virginity at least.

However, Takarazuka pales in comparison to the Toji Deluxe club in Kyoto, which the Japanese also call theater. They show absolutely wild, judging by description New Yorker columnist Ian Buruma, striptease show: several naked girls on stage turn the demonstration of genitals into a public ritual.

Like many artistic practices, this show is based on ancient legends (with the help of a candle and a magnifying glass, the men from the audience could take turns exploring the “secrets of the mother goddess Amaterasu”), and the author himself was reminded of the noh tradition.

We will leave the search for Western analogues for Takarazuki and Toji to the reader - it is not difficult to find them. We only note that a significant part of modern art is directed precisely at combating such practices of oppression - both Western and Japanese, ranging from superflat to butoh dance.

Japan is a very interesting state, known for a wide variety of traditions and customs. The geographical position of the Land of the Rising Sun made it somewhat isolated from other states, thanks to which it developed without regard to European countries. The culture of Japan is extremely rich and diverse. Peculiar Japanese traditions were formed under the influence of historically important events. Gradually, Japan turned into a powerful, cohesive state with characteristic features and a certain mentality of the population.

Main aspects of Japanese culture

The culture of the country is manifested in many spheres of society. In Japan, its aspects are;

The process of drinking tea for the Japanese is not a simple satisfaction of the physiological needs of the body, but a real cult. The tea ceremony in Japan is accompanied by special attributes and contains a lot of traditions. Such a reverent attitude, it would seem, to the everyday process took its development from the meditation of Buddhist monks. It was they who brought so much significance to the process of tea drinking.

For Europeans, the concept of "kimono" characterizes the national clothes of Japan. However, in the Land of the Rising Sun itself, there are two meanings of this word - in the narrow and broad senses. The word "kimono" in Japan refers not only to the national costume, but also to all clothing in general. Under the kimono, as a rule, a special robe and seven belts are worn. A kimono worn in summer is called a yukata. Depending on the age of the woman, the model of attire may also vary.

In Japan, two religious movements are successfully preached at once - Shintoism and Buddhism. Shintoism appeared in ancient Japan, it is based on the worship of various creatures. Buddhism, in turn, is divided into several varieties. In Japan, there are many schools promoting one or another trend of Buddhism.

Rock gardens are of particular importance in the culture of Japan. They are not only an architectural creation that attracts the attention of tourists, but also a place spiritual growth. Here the Japanese find enlightenment from the contemplation of stone structures located in a special order. The rock gardens include a specific plan, which only an enlightened person can unravel.

Tango no sekku is a celebration in honor of the boys. It is dedicated not just to all small male representatives, but also to the masculinity and strength of the entire Japanese people. It is customary to celebrate the holiday in spring, when nature wakes up and pleases with its beauty. On the day of tango no sekku, the boys are taken care of by their parents. The father must tell his son about all the Japanese warriors and their exploits. And his mother sets the table for him with delicious food.

Cherry blossom is considered the most beautiful natural phenomenon. Many tourists come here just to enjoy the contemplation of a flowering plant. In the spring, a large crowd of people can be observed in the parks of Japan. Many families go on picnics and watch the beauty of the Japanese cherry tree.

Bows can be attributed to the peculiar traditions of the country. They represent the rules of good manners. It is not customary for the Japanese to say goodbye, instead they bow as many times as the interlocutor did.

Samurai represent a certain class of society that has developed under the influence of traditions and customs. It has a direct connection with the culture of the country. Samurai are warriors who carry out a certain service, which can be both military, security or household. In any of these cases, samurai personify the courage, masculinity and nobility of the Japanese people.

The process of formation of the culture of ancient Japan

The culture of ancient Japan began to develop with the birth of the Japanese language and writing. The land of the rising sun borrowed the basis for this from China. Japanese writing also contains hieroglyphs, which a foreign citizen will not be able to understand. Over time, new words, sounds and phrases began to be added to the Japanese language. So he completely transformed, however common features with China are still traceable.

The religiosity of the country also originates from ancient times. Shintoism was a consequence of the development of various mythologies. On this moment this teaching promotes the cult of leaders and dead people. Buddhism, on the other hand, has such deep roots that the opinions of scientists and historians about the emergence of this type of religion vary greatly.

Japanese art

Almost all types of art practiced in Japan carry one main idea - calmness and relaxation. It is precisely the harmony of a person with himself that contains art, regardless of the way information is presented. Many art forms known all over the world began their development in Japan. Among them, origami can be distinguished - the ability to fold various shapes from paper.

Another popular part Japanese art became ikebana. This is a skill to form bouquets of flowers using a special technology. From here came an equally popular activity, which is called bonsai. This is the creation of a variety of compositions from dwarf trees. In Omiya, not far from Tokyo, there is a whole Bonsai park. Each dwarf tree presented here is unique and beautiful in its own way.

Paintings of Japan will deserve special significance, since each painting carries a hidden meaning. As a design, as a rule, bright colors, contrasting transitions and clear lines are used. Japan also has the art of calligraphy. This is the skill of aesthetically beautiful writing of hieroglyphs. Applied art is also widespread in Japan. There is a whole museum in Tokyo dedicated to this craft. Here you can see products made of paper, glass or metal. And this is not a complete list of materials used for this purpose.

The Japanese style of interior design also deserves special attention. It includes functionality and simplicity, along with originality of execution. In addition, interior design carries a religious philosophy, like any other form of Japanese art.

Japanese architecture

Architectural structures in Japan, in one way or another, are associated with religion. Temple buildings at first, most often, were devoid of any flowers. This was due to the use of unpainted wood in construction. Later they began to use red and blue shades.

The main material for architectural buildings in Japan is considered to be wood. This is due to the fact that the stock this resource large enough in the country. In addition to the fact that the tree conducts heat well and absorbs moisture, it is also practical during earthquakes, which occur quite often in Japan. If a stone house is very difficult to recreate after destruction, then a wooden one is much easier.

The main feature in the architecture of Japan is the presence of even geometric shapes. Most often, these are triangles and rectangles. It is almost impossible to meet smoothness and roundness of lines in any structure. The main principle, based on which the Japanese equip their homes, is the inseparable existence of the inside of the house and the outside. This applies to Japanese gardens. They should be decorated in exactly the same style as the house itself. Otherwise, it is considered bad taste and complete bad taste. The Japanese pay special attention to their gardens.

Japanese music

In terms of musical development, Japan looked to other countries, using any musical instruments. But later she modernized them under the influence of local tastes and traditions. The first influence on the formation of classical music in Japan was the local Dengaku folklore, mixed with foreign influences and giving rise to the music that is currently familiar to Japan.

The religious side of the issue also contributed to the musical origin. Thanks to Christianity, organ playing began to spread. And Buddhism promoted playing the flute.

At present, classical music has gained popularity in Japan. Many members of this cell of creativity travel outside of Japan. These include Goto Midori, Ozawa Seiji and Uchida Mitsuko. Relatively recently, halls designed for comfortable listening to classical music were opened in Japan. These include Kiyo Hall, Osaka Symphony Hall, Orchard, etc.

Household traditions of Japan

The Japanese are a well-mannered people, observing their traditions and customs. Respect for yourself and others in Japan is considered the norm. From childhood, children are taught the norms of good manners, explain to them the basic values ​​of the Japanese people, and enlighten them in every possible way. And it's all for the benefit of society. Any tourist who comes to the Land of the Rising Sun from another country is surprised at how friendly, friendly and well-mannered the Japanese are.

Unlike European countries, Japan has long had a ban on smoking in public places. This also applies to private property. Smoking near other people is allowed only if they have given their consent.

Among other things, the Japanese strictly observe all the rules of hygiene that society dictates to them. For example, in any room, including religious buildings, there are special straw rugs. You can’t walk on them in shoes, they are considered not only an interior decoration, but also a real sacrilege. Also, the Japanese decided to protect themselves from possible bacteria that they bring from the toilet on their feet. In any public place and in apartments there are special slippers for the toilet, which do not allow the transfer of harmful germs to other rooms.

Eating for the Japanese is not considered a process of life, but a real cult. Before eating, the Japanese always wipe their hands with a special towel soaked in water, which is called oshibori. Table setting does not occur randomly, but according to a special scheme. Even each device has its own place. The Japanese divide them into male and female, and this is very important for them. Spoons in Japan are used only for eating o-zone soup, which is prepared for the New Year, the Japanese prefer to drink other first courses exclusively from special bowls. Moreover, smacking your lips during a meal is not considered bad form. It is believed that in this way the taste of the dish is better revealed.

The relevance of good form in Japan is proved by the presence of the following rules:

• It is necessary to discuss the place and time of the meeting in advance. Being late in Japan is considered impudent and beyond the bounds of decency.
• You can not interrupt the interlocutor, you need to patiently wait for the person to speak out, then begin to express his opinion.
• If you call the wrong number, you need to apologize.
• If someone came to your aid, then you definitely need to thank him.
• Some guests of the Japanese can be considered honorary. For them, they even allocate a special place at the table, which, as a rule, is the most extreme from the entrance to the room.
• When giving a gift to the Japanese, one should apologize for being humble despite what it is. Those are the rules, you shouldn't break them.
• Sitting at the dinner table, men can cross their legs, while women are strictly forbidden to do this. Legs should be tucked in and pointed in one direction.

Also, the traditions in the life of Japan include the veneration of people older in age. It doesn’t matter what a person’s profession, earnings, appearance or character traits are, if he is older, then he must be treated with respect. Old age in Japan inspires respect and pride. This means that the person has come a long way and now he deserves honors.

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Hello, dear readers seekers of knowledge and truth!

Today we invite you to touch the beauty and talk about the art of Ancient Japan. In the article below, we will briefly review the stages of history that influenced the formation of Japanese art, and then dwell on each of its components in more detail. You will learn about the features of not only traditional types, such as architecture, painting, but also about the art of combat, miniatures, theater, parks and much more.

So, the article promises to be interesting, and most importantly - informative!

Historical periods

The Land of the Rising Sun has a unique culture, embodied in traditional original buildings and temples, paintings, sculptures, decorations, gardens, literary works. In recent centuries, such non-trivial areas as woodcuts, poetry, origami, bonsai, ikebana, and even manga and anime are gaining popularity. All of them took shape for a long time, rooted in antiquity.

Very little was known about this time until the beginning of the last century, because Japan was a rather closed country to the rest of the world. However, numerous studies have been carried out since then, the archaeological excavations of which finds are amazing. They show that already in the second millennium BC there was a cultural Japanese society, and primitive tribes lived on the islands 15-12 thousand years ago.

Japanese culture began to take shape around the 4th millennium BC, but reached its peak in the Middle Ages - in the period from the 6th to the 18th centuries.

Ancient Japanese history begins in prehistoric times and ends with the Heian stage in the 8th-9th centuries, although many researchers include later periods as well. In this regard, three major stages are distinguished, which, in turn, are divided into smaller periods, or jidai. Each of them is characterized by the appearance of new products, structures, styles.

1. Primitive communal system

The primitive society in Japan existed in the Neolithic era, when the first stone tools appeared, as well as during the Jomon and Yayoi period. It is believed that the Jōmon lasted from the 10th millennium to the 4th century BC. Then the first ceramics began to appear, which had the same name as the whole era - jomon.

Jōmon earthenware vessel

These vessels were asymmetrical in shape and had traditional ornaments in the form of a twisted rope. It is believed that they were used in various rituals and rituals. At the same time, various kinds of jewelry appeared - earrings, bracelets and necklaces made of clay, animal teeth, shells, rocks, crystal.

Clay earrings and bracelets from the Jomon period

In the III century BC, the Yayoi era began, which lasted six centuries. Then locals they learned to grow rice crops, took up agriculture, continued to master the art of ceramics, and also began to melt metals, among which the most important was iron, made weapons from copper and bells from bronze.

Dotaku bronze bell, end of the Yayoi era

• The formation of the state. Japanese statehood began to take shape from the 4th to the 8th centuries. This period is known as the Kofun and Yamato periods. Then a whole network of burial mounds appeared in the country, and Japan itself began to move closer to the Celestial Empire, inevitably adopting religion - and with it - architecture, sculpture. The most important building of the era is Horyu-ji, represented by a pagoda in five tiers. Special sculptures made of clay, called “khaniva”, began to be installed near the mounds.

Horyu-ji, Japan

• Establishment of laws. This stage falls on the periods of Nara (VIII century) and Heian (late VIII-XII centuries). At that moment, the Japanese become even closer to their neighbors - the Chinese and Koreans, along with the Buddhist concept, they also borrow Confucian and Taoist concepts, adopt metal processing techniques, construction methods and building design, new trends in painting. Architecture is especially changing - simple Shinto shrines are being replaced by tiered Buddhist stupas similar to Indian ones. In the dwellings of ordinary people, instead of bare earth, wooden planks appeared on the floor, and cypress roofs appeared on top.

Depiction of the Nara period in Japan

If we talk about a later time, then we can distinguish several more periods and their main cultural features:

• Karakum (XII-XIV century) - the appearance of samurai and martial arts;
• Sengoku and Jidai (XV-XVI centuries) - the time of European expansion into the world of the East, during which Christianity and Western cultural trends penetrated even into the Land of the Rising Sun;
• Edo (XVII-XIX centuries) - the power of the famous Tokugawa family, characterized by the isolation of Japan and the development of cultural identity.

Everything that happened later is already New time and modernity, and now, undoubtedly, even in relatively closed Japan, there is a certain cultural globalization- the experience of Western masters is adopted, and in the West, in turn, Japanese motifs become fashionable. However, the art of Japan has always had a special flavor, had features that are unique to it.

Simplicity, proportionality with man, conciseness, natural materials, unity with nature - this is how you can characterize Japanese masterpieces, both ancient and modern.

Painting

Japan, as you know, stood apart for a long time, its borders were closed to other countries. When, with the advent of the 7th century, the Japanese began to communicate more and more often with their neighbors, to establish ties with the continental world, they discovered paints, parchment, ink, and with them, fine arts.

At first, it was extremely simple and concise: simple images were made on black or white paper, usually one of three colors - yellow, green or red. However, gradually the skill of local painters grew, and largely due to the spread of the teachings of the Buddha, as more and more pictures were created from the life of the Teacher and his students.

Pictures with Buddhist themes in ancient Japan

By the 9th century, Japan had already formed its own branch of painting, which was independent of the Chinese. At the same time, the role of Buddhism began to weaken, and religious motives were replaced by the so-called secular, that is, secular, which were especially popular during the reign of the Tokugawa family.

Shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty

Kaiga, as the Japanese called painting, took on completely different forms and styles, and nature took an important place in it. Since then, painting has manifested itself in new forms:

• Yamato-e is the main school of painters. It arose in the 9th-10th centuries and was supported by the Academy of Arts under the emperor. The works were rolled scrolls, which depicted literary plots coupled with skillful calligraphy. There were two main types of scrolls: emakimono - many meters long, folded horizontally and often viewed on the table, and kakimono - folded vertically and hung on the wall. Usually, silk or paper was brightly painted in the yamato-e style, but later ceramic dishes, national clothes, fans, walls, and screens were increasingly used as canvas. Particular attention was paid to conveying the state of mind.
• Sumi-e - as an independent style was formed around the XIV century. Its features are the use of watercolor and black and white colors.
• Portraits - became popular in the XIII-XIV centuries.
• Landscape - achieved popularity in the XIV-XV centuries, largely due to the spread of Zen Buddhism throughout the country, which is based on the idea of ​​contemplation and unity with nature.
• Ukiyo-e is a characteristic bright painting on the boards. It appeared in the 17th century and contained images of nature, famous Japanese geisha or Kabuki theater artists. A century later, this trend became so popular that it even won the hearts of Europeans - they began to apply this style in their own works.

Traditional Ukiyo-e print

architectural direction

Initially, Japanese architecture was reduced to the construction of ancient traditional houses - haniwa. They were created before the 4th century, and their appearance can only be judged by the surviving miniature clay models and drawings, since they have not survived to this day.

Here passed the life and life of ordinary people. These were original dugouts, covered from above with a straw canopy. It was supported by special wooden frames.

Later, takayuka appeared - an analogue of granaries. They also consisted of special support beams, which made it possible to save the crop from natural disasters and pests.

Around the same time, in the I-III centuries, temples of the ancient Shinto religion began to appear in honor of the deities patronizing the forces of nature. They were most often built from untreated and unpainted cypress, and had a laconic rectangular shape.

The thatched or pine roof was gable, and the structures themselves were built on pillars surrounded by pavilions. Another characteristic feature of Shinto shrines is the U-shaped gate in front of the entrance.

In Shinto, there is a law of renewal: every twenty years, the temple was destroyed, and almost exactly the same, but new, was built in the same place.

The most famous such temple is called Ise. It was first built at the beginning of the 1st millennium and, according to tradition, was constantly rebuilt. Ise consists of two similar complexes located slightly apart from each other: the first is dedicated to the powers of the sun, the second is dedicated to the deity of fertility.

Since the 6th century, the Buddhist teachings that came from China and Korea began to spread in the Land of the Rising Sun, and with it the principles of building Buddhist temples. At first they represented Chinese copies, but later a special, truly Japanese style began to be traced in temple architecture.

The structures were built asymmetrically, as if merging with nature. Conciseness and clarity of forms, a wooden frame, coupled with a stone foundation, pagodas in several tiers, not too bright colors - this is what distinguishes the sanctuaries of that time.

Many of them have survived to this day. Monuments of architecture include Horyu-ji from the beginning of the 7th century with its famous Golden Temple and 40 other buildings, Todai-ji from the middle of the 8th century in the city of Nara, which is still considered the largest wooden structure on the planet. At the same time, Buddhist architecture is closely intertwined with sculpture and painting, which depict deities and motifs from the life of the Teacher.

Todai-ji Temple

At the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, feudalism began in the state, and therefore the Shinden style, which is distinguished by splendor, became popular. It was replaced by the sein style, at the head of which is simplicity and some intimacy: instead of walls there are almost weightless screens, on the floor there are mats and tatami.

At the same time, palaces-temples of local feudal lords began to appear. Masterpieces of this type of structure are the famous 14th-century Kinkaku-ji, or the Golden Pavilion, as well as the 15th-century Ginkaku-ji, also known as the Silver Temple.

Ginkakuji Temple (Golden Pavilion)

Together with palaces-temples in the XIV-XV centuries, landscape gardening art began to emerge. In many ways, its appearance is due to the penetration of the contemplative teachings of Zen into Japan. Gardens began to appear around temples and large dwellings, where the main components were not only plants, flowers, but also stones, water, as well as sand and pebble mounds, symbolizing the water element.

The unique city of Kyoto is famous all over the world.

Another type of garden is a tea garden, which is called “tyaniva”. It surrounds the tea house, where a special, leisurely ceremony is held, and a special path runs through the entire garden to the house. Having appeared in the Middle Ages, pulling is found everywhere today.

Sculptural direction

Sculpture in ancient Japan is mostly associated with religious and ritual traditions. Also in III-V centuries people learned how to make small figures called dogu.

Dogu depicted people, animals, and given that they were found in mounds, we can conclude that they were put in the grave along with the dead - these were their servants who could be useful in the next world. Dogu were clay, bronze, wooden, lacquer figures. Later, larger statues of deities were also created near mounds and Shinto shrines.

dogu figurine

The arrival of Buddhism in the country, of course, affected the local sculpture. Numerous monuments to Buddha began to appear in the 6th-7th centuries. Following the Chinese and Korean masters, local sculptors began their journey.

By the 9th century, the sculptural direction began to develop even more, but the appearance of the buddhas changed and they began to have several, up to a thousand, faces and hands. Most often they were made of strong wood species, varnish, bronze, clay.

Many beautiful monuments have survived to this day. For example, in the temple of Haryu-ji, a majestic figure of Buddha sits on a lotus flower, and in Todai-ji there is a whole ensemble of deities headed by a 16-meter Buddha, which was created by sculptors Kaikei and Unkei.

Other types

Japanese art is multifaceted and you can talk about it for hours. Let's talk about several other types of art that originated in antiquity.

• Calligraphy

It is called sedo, which means "the road of notifications." Calligraphy in Japan appeared thanks to the beautiful hieroglyphs that were borrowed from the Chinese. In many modern schools, it is considered a compulsory subject.

• haiku or haiku

Haiku is a special Japanese lyric poetry that appeared in the 14th century. The poet is called "haijin".

• Origami

This name translates as "paper that has been folded." Coming from the Middle Kingdom, origami was originally used in rituals and was an occupation for the nobility, but has recently spread throughout the world.

ancient art origami in japan

• Ikebana

The word in translation means "living flowers". Like origami, it was originally used in rituals.

• Miniatures

The two most common types of miniatures are bonsai and netsuke. Bonsai are copies of real trees in a greatly reduced form. Netsuke are small figurines like talisman charms that appeared in the 18th-19th centuries.

• Martial arts

They are primarily associated with samurai - a kind of chivalry, ninja - assassins-mercenaries, bushido - warriors.

• Theatrical art

The most famous theater, the pride of all Japanese is the classical Kabuki theater. You can read more about theatrical art in Japan.

Kabuki theater in Japan

Conclusion

As we can see from the article, Japan is a whole treasury of masterpieces of art, not only on a national, but also on a global scale. Since ancient times, which begin long before our era, the Japanese began to create and create beautiful things around: paintings, buildings, statues, poems, parks, miniatures - and this is not the whole list.

Interestingly, the features embedded in Japanese culture of antiquity, can be traced in the creations of our time - this is simplicity, conciseness, naturalness, the desire for harmony with nature.

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! We hope that today you have learned a lot about such a mysterious and distant country as Japan. Join us - leave comments, share links to articles with friends - we will be very happy to explore mysterious world East with you!

See you soon!