Cities built in the 20th century. Why new cities were created in Russia in the 20th century

The course "History of Russian Culture" is integrative in nature, designed for students in grades 7-9 of secondary school and meets educational standards.

Russian city at the beginning of the 20th century.
What was new in the appearance and beautification of a Russian city in the 18th-19th centuries? How was this connected with the changes in the socio-economic and social life of the country of that period?

New in the shape of the city. The appearance of Russian cities at the beginning of the 20th century. began to change rapidly. Large cities began to grow skyward. Five, six and even seven-story buildings are no longer a rarity. In 1912, the first 10-story residential building was built in the center of Moscow (Fig. 1).

Urban land in the era of capitalism is rapidly becoming more expensive. The cost of a square meter of land in the center of St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 20th century. reached 100 rubles (for comparison: the average salary of a worker was about two hundred rubles a year), so they began to build more closely. In the interests of economy, residential buildings were erected in the form of a square (a closed rectangle), inside which courtyards-wells were left, necessary for illuminating apartments. This rather unattractive picture was especially characteristic of Petersburg at that time. Elegant facades of large houses overlooked the central streets, behind which cramped gloomy courtyards were hidden.

The outskirts of industrial cities were built up with buildings of factories and factories. Tall smoking chimneys have become an integral part of the urban landscape of the working outskirts.

And old. These changes affected primarily large cities. Small ones, and there were an overwhelming majority of them in Russia, remained the same as a hundred or more years ago. In the center is a trading square, on which stood the cathedral and the mayor's house. Nearby - the building of government offices (city government), a gymnasium, a fire tower, etc.

Content
FOR YOUNG READERS 5
PART 1 RUSSIAN CULTURE OF THE EARLY XX CENTURY 7
Chapter 1. RUSSIAN CITY AND CULTURE OF THE EARLY XX CENTURY
1. Russian city of the early XX century 8
2. Life and life of citizens 16
3. City holidays 25
4. Modern style 34
5. Art associations of the early 20th century 41
6. Russian avant-garde 53
7. Theatre, cinema and music 63
Events and dates 72
PART 2 CULTURE OF THE SOVIET TIME 75
Chapter 2. FORMATION OF SOVIET CULTURE. 1917-1920s
8. First cultural transformations 76
9. Art associations of the 20s 82
10. Soviet architecture 20s 91
11. Theater and cinema 98
Events and dates 106
Chapter 3. SOVIET CULTURE OF THE 30s - EARLY 50s
12. cultural policy 30s 110
13. Tragedy of culture 117
14. Cultural achievements 30s 125
15. War and culture 137
16. Culture of the first post-war decade 146
Events and dates 155
Chapter 4. LIFE AND LIFE OF THE SOVIET PEOPLE
17. Life Soviet man 158
18. Education of the Soviet people 166
19. Soviet holidays 174
Events and dates 183
Chapter 5. CULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN ABROAD
20. The emergence of the Russian diaspora 185
21. Culture of the Russian Abroad 192
Events and dates 199
Chapter 6. CULTURE OF THE THAW PERIOD
22. Changes in cultural policy 201
23. Art of the "thaw" period 207
Events and dates 215
Chapter 7
24. Cultural policy of the period of "stagnation" 218
25. Official Art 224
26. Unofficial art 232
27. Author's song 241
28. Culture of the new Russian diaspora 247
Events and dates 254
PART 3 CULTURE OF THE LAST DECADE OF THE 20TH CENTURY 257
Chapter 8. CULTURE OF THE PERIOD OF REFORM
29. Culture of the period of "perestroika" and the collapse of the USSR 258
Events and dates 264
30. Features of Russian culture of the XX century 265
The main events cultural life XX century 268
Final tasks and questions 272
APPS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 273
NAME DICTIONARY 279
DICTIONARY OF MONUMENTS OF CULTURE 293
DICTIONARY OF CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS 298
LIST OF RECOMMENDED LITERATURE 303.

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Yokohama today is the second most populous city in Japan with a thriving port economy. In these retro photographs, you can see what the city was like in the 20th century: foreigners came here, industry flourished here, in a word, life was in full swing. Founded in 1858, the city has grown in just a few decades and still does not lose its power, despite the fact that many terrible cataclysms have fallen to the lot of its inhabitants ...

Yokohama was originally a small settlement, a village that, united with Kanagawa, turned into a powerful conglomerate. After the revolution of 1868, ties with Great Britain were established, and the main source of income was the silk trade with the overseas country.

The photographs presented in this review were found in the archives of a German tradesman working in Yokohama in 1908. He managed to capture the most interesting historical moment, when industry was already beginning to develop actively, foreigners began to flood the city, but at the same time, a large number of people did not change the old way of life. Tradition and innovation intertwined in these photographs. Embroidery, textile manufacturing, and jewelry making are the main industries that flourished in Yokohama during this period. At the same time, despite the boom in industrialization, in this Japanese city they continued to conduct agriculture using the old-fashioned method.

These pictures also show the city after the terrible devastating earthquake of 1923, when Yokohama was completely reduced to ruins. True, we must pay tribute to the country: the restoration work took only 6 years.

The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries were characterized by the industrialization of the city. Dull buildings of enterprises arose right along the banks of the Moskva River, factories invaded residential areas, chimneys surrounded the city center, polluted the rivers.

Chronology of events

In the early 1900s, the Rublevskaya waterworks was launched on the outskirts of the city, now the city receives clean water from Mytishchi springs. Increasingly, in these turbulent pre-revolutionary years, popular unrest arises on the part of the proletarian population. To various radical, sometimes harsh government measures, Moscow workers respond with a strike, which leads to the shutdown of numerous factories and industries in the city.

In the end, in the then capital of Petrograd, a revolution takes place in October 1917, which a few days later will entail an armed struggle in Moscow on the part of the workers and White Guards, and in November the armed people occupies the Kremlin, captured by the rebels. In 1918, the Soviet government finally moved from Petrograd to Moscow.

• More: Chronology of Moscow events at the beginning of the 20th century

Architecture

Private property is often in the best way reflected in the development of the architecture of pre-revolutionary Moscow. The desire to extract the greatest benefit from each land plot led to overcrowding of buildings, the appearance of slums. The creative searches of architects were suppressed by the commercial considerations of the owners. The principles of ensemble building were forgotten.

Moscow at the very beginning of the 20th century was quite cramped with broken, curving, now to one side, then to the other side of the street corridors with houses pressed close to each other; courtyards-wells into which the sun did not look; humpbacked cobblestone pavements, lanes and dead ends. Although this old Moscow had its own isolation and comfort in these crooked streets, which long, wide and straight streets do not have.

The main focus was on a reasonable location interior spaces, utilitarian use of volumes. Among the significant buildings should be mentioned the building of the Central Telegraph on Gorky Street (now Tverskaya Street) (1927), the planetarium (1929), the Ministry Agriculture at the corner of Sadovaya and Orlikov Lane.

• More: Architecture of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century

Culture and life

Basically, this time of early capitalism in Russia was a time of change that led to even more global changes in the country. The rich merchant class of the nobility and the poor working class of the proletariat were increasingly moving away from each other, which created a negative mood in society and escalated unrest. The indecisiveness of actions on the part of the authorities and the sharp radical actions of the government caused even greater discontent among the workers in the city.

Statistics from the archives of the old times give some idea of ​​what Moscow was like at the beginning of the twentieth century. Its entire housing stock in 1012 was 11.9 million square meters. meters and consisted of 190 thousand apartments, 65% of the living space was located in one-two-story buildings, 53% of the houses were wooden. The improvement of the city was as follows: 43% of the inhabitants used water supply (including those who took water from street columns), sewerage - 39%, electric lighting- 34%, central heating - 13%, gas - about 3%.

City transport consisted of several tram lines and 21,000 cabbies.

• More: Moscow culture at the beginning of the 20th century

Photos

Rare photographs of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century convey the atmosphere and mood of that city with narrow streets, shopping market rows right on Red Square, many cabbies and a huge number of one-story and two-story wooden buildings near the banks of the then small Moskva River. It was a noisy, cramped, but in a sense cozy city that had its own charm of old Moscow.

• More: Photos of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century

Moscow maps

It was an interesting Moscow, with very jagged blurry borders around the edges and rather crowded in the center. Even then, the city on the map was a ring-shaped structure with roads and buildings going from the center to the outskirts

• More:

It is obvious that 428 cities were clearly not enough for huge Russia, and by the 20th century. the country came up with a large deficit of cities. Small and very small towns predominated sharply. Using modern criteria, it turns out that at the end of the 19th century. only 24 cities on the territory of the current Russian Federation were not small.

Of the Russian cities that existed at the time of the 2002 census, 385, or 35.1%, received urban status before 1900. Thus, approximately 2/3 of Russian cities can be called new. Their numerical superiority has prompted critics of the recent past to preach: "Instead of creating hundreds of new cities, the old ones should have been developed."

To answer the question of whether new cities were needed, a geographical approach is needed. First of all, it is necessary to evaluate the processes that took place in the old cities. Then to identify the development of settlements that did not have the official status of a city, but had already joined the performance of city functions. Some of them could be considered true cities, as V.P. did. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky in his work "City and Village in European Russia", part of them are considered as "embryos" of future cities. It is also necessary to find out why a significant part of the old cities during periods of economic leaps in the 20th century. in economic development, practically did not budge or moved extremely slowly. And finally, consider the reasons for the emergence of new cities.

What happened to the old

Russian cities in the 20th century?

According to the All-Russian population census of 1897, the urban structure within the current Russian Federation looked as follows (table on p. 6).

It is obvious that 428 cities were clearly not enough for huge Russia, and by the 20th century. the country came up with a large deficit of cities. Small and very small towns predominated sharply. Using modern criteria, it turns out that in late XIX V. only 24 cities on the territory of the current Russian Federation were not small. Cities, which are now classified as small according to statistics, accounted for 94.4% of the total number of cities, and 173 cities had less than 5 thousand inhabitants. With their small population, they reflected more than limited opportunities for change for the better and later turned out to be unclaimed.

And if we are guided by the classification of cities proposed a hundred years ago by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky: up to 5 thousand inhabitants - a small town; 5-10 thousand - a small town; 10-40 thousand - an average city; 40-100 thousand - a big city; more than 100 thousand inhabitants - a large city, then in this case, towns and small towns (there are 283 of them) accounted for 66.1% of the total number of Russian cities of that time.

A.I. Voeikov, based on world statistical practice, proposed to consider settlements with at least 20 thousand inhabitants as cities. With this approach, only 71 official Russian city at the end of the 19th century. could be recognized as a city in essence.

Descriptions of many cities in the multi-volume Russia. Complete geographical description of our fatherland" (the first volumes began to appear on turn of XIX and XX centuries) - truly lamentations about their plight. The adjustment of the composition of cities in the first decade after the revolution cut off some of the lean cities, transformed them into villages, and made cities settlements that deserved urban status by their activity and population. Back in the summer of 1917, 41 settlements became cities by order of the Provisional Government, among which were Orekhovo-Zuevo, Nizhny Tagil, Kimry, Kotlas, and others. However, even after the adjustment, many cities remained with very limited development opportunities, which was recorded by the All-Union population census of 1926 Suffice it to say that 35% of the total number of Russian cities were located outside the railways, and this could not but restrain their activation.

The strong stratification of cities according to the prerequisites for socio-economic growth also predetermined the sharp divergence of their destinies in the Soviet era. Those cities that had such prerequisites developed, sometimes making a giant leap (Chelyabinsk, Krasnoyarsk, Tyumen, Kurgan, Cherepovets and many others).

All former provincial and regional cities (with the exception of Vyborg, which was part of Finland in 1918-1940, Tobolsk and Buynaksk *) became large, largest and millionaires, having strengthened and expanded their city-forming base.

Medium cities, which were not large administrative centers (there were only 4 of them), became large (Ivanovo, Taganrog) and millionaires (Volgograd, Yekaterinburg). Of the 27 so-called welterweights (a term introduced by L.L. Trube), 3 developed into the largest (Barnaul, Lipetsk, Tyumen), 2 - into large ones (Belgorod, Bryansk), 8 - into large ones; moved to the middle 10 cities.

Of the small (up to 20 thousand inhabitants) old cities (in 1926 there were 334 of them), 17 became large, 29 - medium, 71 - semi-medium.

In general, the involvement of old cities in industrial and, on its basis, in complex development was quite wide. But cities with disabilities have not changed significantly. And now, after significant shifts in the territorial structure caused by railway construction, 85 old Russian cities are separated from railway at a distance of 20 km or more, 49 of them are more than 50 km away, and 19 - 100 km or more.

This does not mean that such cities were not at all affected by the changes. Simply due to the mediocrity of the situation, they have remained in the role of local centers, using the modest resources of the nearby district and serving the needs of their districts. Nevertheless, only 14 cities have reduced the number of inhabitants over the century.

Young cities - old centers

This is a large and diverse group of modern cities in terms of genesis and functions. Only with a certain stretch, most of them can be called new, that is, they have arisen in a clean place. And it is completely wrong to call new cities that received urban status before 1926. For, with a few exceptions, these were true cities, in terms of their potential and the number of inhabitants sometimes surpassed not only county, but also some provincial cities. Nizhny Tagil, which became a city in 1917, had 30,000 inhabitants in 1897, while Petrozavodsk, the center of the Olonets province, had 12,000. The centers that received city status in the first quarter of the 20th century had already become cities by that time de facto, now they have become cities and de jure. But this was only a part of the centers that began to appear in Russia in large numbers starting from the era of Peter I. The rest of the "embryos" continued their further development and, as they matured, joined the ranks of official cities.

Initially semi-rural-semi-urban settlements, as a result of qualitative changes, they turned into cities. Dozens of cities have developed from settlements that arose at the railway, iron foundries, copper smelters of the Urals, Siberia, and the Center**.

V.N. Tatishchev called the settlements under them "mountain cities". In official publications, they were called "factories". According to the 1897 census, among the settlements with more than 2 thousand inhabitants, there were 105 "factories", including 85 in the Urals. In the 20s of the twentieth century. A.V. Lunacharsky proposed the apt name "city-factory", which was fixed in historical and geographical literature.

87 modern cities of Russia began their life as "cities-factories". And only 8 of them received city status before the 20th century. Naturally, the largest group was formed in the Urals (54 cities). Yekaterinburg, Perm and Alapaevsk became cities in the 18th century. In the 19th century Zlatoust joined them, in 1917-1926. - 10 more cities, including Nizhny Tagil, Izhevsk, Nevyansk, Miass, etc. The use of "factories" as a reserve of urbanization was not interrupted during the Great Patriotic War. Gornozavodsk in the Perm Region (1965) was the last to be formed.

There are also numerous cities that developed from factory villages, especially characteristic of the Center, and above all for Moscow, Ivanovo and Vladimir regions. In the XVIII and XIX centuries. some of these factory villages became cities (during the administrative reform of 1775-1785 - Vyazniki, Kineshma, Yegorievsk, Sudogda, etc.). Ivanovo-Voznesensk (now Ivanovo) in 1871 received the rank of a city without a county. The oldest of this galaxy is Shuya. It arose from a village that belonged to the Shuisky princes, and in historical records already in 1539 it was mentioned as a city.

Among the modern cities of Russia - 70 former factory villages, in the Moscow region - 28. Some of them have deeply transformed functional structure and left the ranks of the textile cities that they were at birth. In others, the parent industry, which was previously leading, has been preserved, but pushed into the background (Ramenskoye, Shchelkovo, Balashikha, Reutov, etc.).

One of the lines of self-development of settlement was the improvement of the hierarchical system of territorial service centers. This is connected with the transformation of rural regional centers into cities. This practice of converting villages into cities, which were entrusted with central (that is, essentially urban) functions, began long before the Soviet era. In 1775-1785. Thus, 165 cities - county centers were established. In Soviet times, rural settlements vested with administrative power expanded their economic base, increased their population, acquired urban features in their appearance and communal services. As a rule, at first they received the status of an urban-type settlement, and then, as if having passed the “candidate experience”, they became cities. This was an expressive manifestation (one might say, in its purest form) of “rural urbanization,” as the well-known demographer A.G. aptly put it. Vishnevsky.

Cities-factories, former factory and handicraft villages, rural regional centers, station settlements (we will talk about them below) are the most massive categories of “embryos”, which, gradually developing, filled the ranks of Russian cities in the 20th century. In terms of total population, economic and cultural potential, they, of course, were significantly inferior to the old cities, but not in number. It should be noted that the share of small towns was higher among them than among old towns.

"Embryos" were used as a reserve of urbanization and for solving sectoral problems, when they were chosen as growth points for certain industries that were important for the whole country and for arranging the territory that needed to be equipped with service centers for the population and the economy.

The activation of "embryos" meant the promotion of the natural process of self-development of settlement, which was expressed in the gradual maturation of urban settlements from rural ones. Investing in their development, also criticized (“they developed everything and everything”), was due not only to purely economic, but also to social tasks, which should be considered a priority in relation to both small old towns and “embryos”.

Reasons for the creation of new cities

and their role in the development of Russia

The use of old cities and the formation of young cities on the basis of the additional development of "embryos" could not solve the problems of modernizing the country, and the creation of new cities became a necessity.

This was clearly manifested in the creation of its own raw material base for the developing industry. Relying on one's own resources under the then conditions was an indisputable fact and had no alternative. Only in rare cases have mineral deposits been discovered near existing cities. Much more often this happened in underdeveloped areas, devoid of cities in general. Involvement in the use of resources has generated big number resource-producing cities, including in areas with extreme natural conditions, which increased the cost of development and doomed the cities created near the deposits to monofunctionality.

Raw-material cities, being necessary in the conditions of Soviet industrialization, by no means expressed the raw-material orientation of our economy. They formed the primary layer of centers that supplied raw materials and fuel to the leading industries that determined the economic face of the country. Among the cities with raw materials, small, mostly highly specialized centers prevailed. However, along with them, very large centers of integrated development have also emerged. Their multifunctional structure developed from the leading extractive industries and included related training, science and engineering. Such cities - Novokuznetsk, Almetyevsk, Norilsk, Ukhta, Surgut, Novomoskovsk - were the nuclei of important industrial regions.

Raw cities marked a movement to the North and East, where their share was higher than in the old developed part of the country (Zheleznogorsk in the Kursk region, Gubkin in Belgorod, the coal cities of Mosbass and the oil cities of the Volga region). Critics believe that it was not necessary to go to the North. But they completely neglect the fact that Russia in the post-Soviet era survives precisely thanks to the earlier campaign for resources to the North and East.

According to rough estimates, there are about 160-170 resource centers among Russian cities. In them, the extractive industry - coal, mining, oil and gas production - is the leading one, and in many cases, especially in the cities of the North, the only one.

Nearly three-quarters of the total number of cities with raw materials are new buildings. By specialization, resource cities are distributed as follows:

mining towns - 56 (new buildings - 32), including small - 38, medium - 15,

large - 8;

mining (extraction of ores and non-metallic minerals) - 63 (38), small - 48,

medium - 12, large - 3;

oil cities - 47 (41), small - 27, medium - 13, large - 7.

Significant costs of urbanization and its shadow sides are associated with the creation of raw-material cities. The evidence for this is complex ecological situation: waste rock heaps, sinkholes caused by underground workings, pollution of watercourses by mine waters, etc. Coal towns are characterized by conglomeration: even a small mining town usually consists of several settlements. Monofunctionality is widespread. The future is unclear after the reserves of developed fields are exhausted.

If we add to the centers of extraction of minerals the centers of the forestry and wood processing industries, centers of hydropower, then the total number of cities engaged in mining and partly processing natural resources at the place of their extraction, will reach approximately 250-260, that is, it will amount to almost a quarter of all Russian cities. Apparently, if our country could use the raw material resources of the world more widely, there would be no need to create such a large number of raw material cities. But in conditions of international isolation, this had to be done. Without raw material cities, there would be no high-tech industries that ensured the implementation of such important programs as space, nuclear, the creation of modern weapons, and so on.

The emergence and development of cities

as a result of the formation

nationwide systems

infrastructure

For our country, the transport frame is of particular importance. The mainline of roads contributed to overcoming the spatial friction, which is so significant in the vast expanses. For Russia - a continental country - the railways play a paramount role in the implementation of the interaction of regions. Their construction, unfolding rapidly starting from the second half of XIX century, radically affected the urban and territorial-urban situation, placed the accents of urbanization in a different way, influenced the stratification of cities according to the prerequisites for development.

Transport highways acted as the axes of urbanization, created favorable conditions for linear trends in settlement. Station settlements arose along the highways, gradually becoming the focus of local socio-economic ties. They intercepted the functions of the centers from the old cities that were outside the railway, used the possibilities of transit communications. The development of near-station settlements, which gradually turned into cities, is the response of the territory and settlement to the emergence of a highway - the axis of development.

The total number of cities that grew out of station settlements reaches 170. It is characteristic that almost all cities of this category received official city status in the 20th century. (a few - Armavir, Bogotol, Lyuban - before the revolution). The participation of station cities in the formation of a network of central places vested with administrative functions is evidenced by the fact that 135 cities, or 80% of the total number of cities in this group, head administrative districts.

Growing up in rural areas, mostly outside the agglomerations, station towns were formed in the image and likeness of rural settlements. They are characterized by the predominance of low-rise estate buildings, orchards and orchards, and outbuildings for keeping livestock.

In the most successful cities, the transport function has played the role of a foundation on which a complex combination of functions has developed. These are Armavir, Mineralnye Vody, Kotlas, Ruzaevka, Kanash, Svobodny. At the other extreme are highly specialized small towns with enterprises servicing rail transport. Among them are Necklace, Babushkin (former Mysovsk), Mikun, Agryz, Dno, Novosokolniki.

Most famous city, born by railway construction - Novosibirsk. He went through the "embryo" stage quickly. It took him ten years to get the status of a city in 1903, and another three decades to get ahead of all the cities beyond the Urals in terms of the number of inhabitants.

Contradictory mystery in the fact that they remained medium, and even small cities, large railway junctions - Bologoe, Sukhinichi, Ruzaevka, Povorino, Liski, Gryazi, Kotlas, Tynda, which deserved the obligatory name of the capital of BAM. There are too many similar cases to consider them accidental. What a strange pattern!

The Unified Energy System (UES) is one of the most important achievements in improving the territorial structure of the country. The UES increases the efficient use of generated electricity, ensures rational maneuvering of its flows during the day, which is of great economic importance for our country, which is spread over 11 time zones, and guarantees reliable energy supply to all regions.

Within the framework of the EEC, a galaxy of energy cities has developed - another new type of city in the 20th century. They are divided into three main groups: cities with thermal power plants operating on coal, gas, peat; at hydroelectric power stations; at nuclear power plants. Thermal power plants are located more freely. A significant part of them settled in already existing cities, primarily in large centers - consumers of electricity. The other is in the areas of fuel extraction. Hydroelectric and nuclear power plants, as a rule, gave rise to new cities.

The choice of site for the construction of the dam was determined by hydrological and geological conditions, and only in individual cases it turned out to be within the boundaries of existing cities (Perm, Irkutsk, Rybinsk, Uglich, Zeya). Nuclear power plants, due to technical and psychological factors, were built outside the cities.

The formation of the UES was initiated by the famous GOELRO plan, and in the course of its implementation, the first large power plants arose. The settlements under them eventually became cities. Volkhov, Ternovsk (renamed Shatura) - milestones in the development of the domestic electric power industry. Among them is Elektrogorsk, which received city rights in 1946, 34 years after the launch of the first in Russia large power plant on the peat "Power transmission".

Emerged as specialized industry centers - "electricity factories" - they had different prerequisites for integrated development. There were ample opportunities for hydropower centers built on large rivers. The construction of a high-capacity hydroelectric power station creates a set of conditions that favor the concentration of production and population: a reservoir is a powerful source of water supply, the basis for the development of recreation and fisheries; transport crossing on the dam; The “legacy” of the construction site is a large construction organization, building materials enterprises, repair and mechanical plants. A powerful source of cheap electricity attracted energy-intensive industries - non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, pulp and paper production. The combination of various industries served as the foundation for the formation of multifunctional centers.

Their prototype was a city of more than modest size, which arose at the Volkhov hydroelectric station. Volkhovstroy (the original name of the village) received a city rank in 1933. It became a pioneer not only in hydropower, but also in the domestic aluminum industry. The hydroelectric facilities themselves are recognized milestone in the development of industrial architecture. The production of building materials has also retained its place in the complex, has been developed chemical industry, also attracted by the electric power industry.

A special group of energy cities is formed by cities at nuclear power plants. Their significance is very great for areas deprived of fuel and hydropower resources. The choice of a point for the location of a nuclear power plant was determined by the requirements of the Unified Energy System. Nuclear power plants - fastening nodes of the energy frame - are located where the possibilities for the construction of power plants of a different type are constrained or absent.

Among the energy cities, there are often satellites of large leading centers: Elektrogorsk, Shatura, Kashira (Kashira-2 ***) and Konakovo in the Moscow region, Komsomolsk near Ivanovo, Kurchatov near Kursk, Novovoronezh near Voronezh, Zarechny and Sredneuralsk near Yekaterinburg, Kirovsk and Pinery near St. Petersburg, etc.

The construction of hydroelectric power stations, which required the creation of powerful construction organizations and an industry of building materials on the spot due to the huge amount of construction work, opened the way for the organization of new large-scale construction nearby. The "legacy" of the previous, already completed construction became a factor in the location of industry and the development of settlement. This is how the well-known industrial centers of Tolyatti, Angarsk, Shelekhov, Volgodonsk, Nizhnekamsk and similar cities arose, which can be called by-products of hydropower construction.

The emergence of small towns on the wave

centripetal processes in settlement.

The era of satellite cities

Very strong in the 20th century. the agglomeration factor manifested itself in the settlement. The unprecedented scale of territorial concentration caused a gigantic growth of large centers - industry and regional leaders - and the need effective use their outstanding potential. This predetermined the transition of settlement to the agglomeration stage of development, which was inevitable for all developed countries of the world and was of increased importance for Russia due to the peculiarities of its geographical conditions. For several decades, our country has been covered with agglomerations - the key forms of modern settlement.

The transition from a point form of territorial concentration to an areal (agglomeration) one increased the contrast of settlement. It was especially striking, since in the past the leading cities of Russia did not surround themselves with satellites. In general, it was as if the cities were charged with the obligation to keep a distance between themselves and not to approach the leader city in order to have their own zone of influence. The relatively even distribution of cities across the territory was due to the very logic of administrative-territorial division and the administrative function that was leading for cities in the past. The only exception was St. Petersburg, which was created simultaneously with the surrounding satellites for various purposes - residences, fortresses, industrial centers.

The creation of satellites fully corresponded to the logic of the evolution of settlement. This new category of cities, born in mass numbers in the 20th century, occupied a special place in the settlement. Satellites were a means of using the potential of the leading centers and solving their more complicated socio-economic and urban problems. Satellites - a diverse and necessary addition big city, a kind of his "spray". Together with the city that gave birth to them, satellites serve as engines of progress.

The economic profile of satellites is very different. What they have in common is companionship, due to proximity to the city center. Companionship is a kind of stamp on the life of a satellite city and its population. Orientation towards the city-center is expressed in intensive and diverse ties, labor and educational commuting, in systematic cultural and everyday trips of residents.

The creation of satellite towns is the response of settlement to the challenge of urbanization in the 20th century. In geo-urbanism, satellites are understood to mean all cities that exist in the zone of direct influence of the city center, and not just those that city planners built according to projects specially developed specifically for the satellite city. These are, so to speak, town-planning and official satellites, "legitimate" from the point of view of architects. There is only one such satellite near Moscow - Zelenograd, which is also the administrative district of the capital. But in reality, the cohort of satellite towns near Moscow includes cities not only in the Moscow region, but also in adjacent regions located near its borders: Obninsk, Balabanovo, Zhukov, Tarusa, Borovsk Kaluga region; Konakovo Tverskaya; Alexandrov from the towns of Strunino and Karabanovo, as well as Petushki from the towns of Kosterevo and Pokrov Vladimirskaya.

To determine the scale of satellites, a rigorous study of intra-agglomeration relationships is necessary. So far, this work has not been carried out due to its laboriousness and complexity of obtaining initial information. Approximate calculations will give an idea of ​​the scale of the phenomenon. About 350 cities are concentrated in the zones of direct influence of large cities of all ranks, of which there were 168 **** in 2002. Old cities in these zones are relatively few in number, young ones predominate. And among them there is a very significant proportion of new-build cities, although numerically they are inferior to cities that have developed from semi-urban-semi-rural settlements through a gradual increase in urban functions and urban features in appearance, population composition, and functional structure.

Thus, about 1/3 of all Russian cities are located in the zones of influence of large centers. This is a very impressive phenomenon, expressing a strong agglomeration accent in settlement. Relatively few large cities do not resort to the services of satellites, as if not trusting them to perform part of their duties. Among them are such significant centers as Omsk, Khabarovsk, Tyumen, Kurgan, Ulan-Ude, Syktyvkar, Yoshkar-Ola.

There are about 100 new-build cities among the satellites. The emergence and purposeful creation of cities surrounded by large centers is dictated by the evolution of settlement, corresponds to its natural course.

The role of science cities developing on the wave of scientific and technological revolution. Science cities became the result of scientific and technological revolution and the factor of its further development. They are based on a triad of functions: "science - science-intensive production - education", closely and organically interconnected. Science cities are a new type of city distinguished by its unique intellectual potential. The vast majority of them prefer to be companions. Near the leading city, which gave birth to them in the literal sense of the word, they have the most favorable conditions for their activities.

The Union of Science Cities existing in the Russian Federation unites about 70 centers. Of these, 46 official cities, 6 "numbered" (status unknown), 4 Academgorodok of Siberian centers, 7 urban-type settlements, two urban areas (in Balashikha and Balakhna). Old cities - Biysk, Michurinsk, Istra, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Melenki. Young cities, but old centers - Reutov, Klimovsk, Krasnoarmeysk, Primorsk, the Ural city-factories of Miass, Nizhnyaya Salda, Ust-Katav. New buildings prevail. The largest family of science cities is located near Moscow. The capital stimulated the development in its surroundings of almost half of Russia's science cities. These are celebrities - Obninsk, Dubna, Korolev, Fryazino, Chernogolovka, Protvino, Pushchino, Zhukovsky and others.

conclusions

Russia at all stages of its history constantly created and established new cities, but also constantly lacked cities. The creation of new cities was largely determined by the constant expansion of the state territory, its consolidation, economic development, and equipping with service centers.

Russia in the 20th century continued to form a network of cities, in some areas doing it from scratch, while the Western European countries completed this process centuries ago. In the 20th century, without missing a single decade, Russia actively created new cities, including cities of a new type.

The emphasis on the development of old cities is quite obvious. All the old cities that had the prerequisites for development were used as points of growth. They radically transformed their functional structure, increased the number of inhabitants many times over, and rapidly moved up the rungs of the hierarchical ladder. Cities with modest development opportunities remained local centers. The growth of a significant group of old cities was hindered by an unfavorable transport and geographical position (remoteness from railways).

They were widely used to build up the composition and network of cities "embryos" - city-factories, factory and handicraft villages, rural district centers, etc.

The creation of new towns became necessary, as the old centers were not enough to modernize the country. New cities arose where it was not possible to rely on the old cities or they simply did not exist.

The main factors in the construction of new cities were the need of an industrializing country for raw materials and fuel, the formation of unified transport and energy systems, the transition to the agglomeration stage of settlement, and the arrangement of the territory with a hierarchically constructed network of central places.

The creation of new cities corresponded to the leading trends in the evolution of settlement - centripetal (development of satellites in agglomeration areas) and linear (emergence of cities on the axes of urbanization - transport routes). The "maturing" of cities from numerous and typologically diverse "embryos", as well as the emergence of cities on the basis of centrifugal and linear processes, expressed the self-development of settlement.

An assessment of the feasibility of creating a particular new city must be based on a geographical analysis, answering the question posed by N.N. Baransky: "Why did the city arise and arise in this particular place?". Denial of city building policies and practices, devoid of evidence obtained geographical analysis, unfounded.

Urbanization takes place in a constantly and objectively changing environment. The deep geographic reasons for the emergence of new cities lie in the constant transformation of the territorial structure of the economy. New centers and lines emerge. Their use as growth points and development axes meets the economic, social and military-political interests of the country.

* Until 1922 Temir-Khan-Shura.

** According to the well-known researcher of mining settlements in Russia R.M. Lotareva, more than 260 plants were built in the Urals, and about 40 in Siberia.

*** Former Novokashirsk.

**** The radius of the zone of direct influence was assumed: 50 km for cities from 100 thousand inhabitants to 1 million inhabitants, 70 km for millionaire cities, 100 km for Moscow and St. Petersburg.

G.M. Lappo

doctor geogr. Sciences

main Researcher

Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Internet source:

New cities of the 20th century

One of distinctive features century-old process of urbanization in is the nature of renewal of the composition and network of cities. He was drastic and extremely fast.
Quantitative growth clearly outpaced qualitative development. Approximately 2/3 of the currently existing cities in Russia were formed during the 20th century. About 400 cities have less than 40 years of urban experience. For the city, this is not age. Due to the short duration of their existence as cities, they have not yet managed to become true cities, either in terms of their economic base, or in terms of the quality of the urban environment, or in terms of the image and quality of life of the population.

Throughout its history, Russia has tirelessly and continuously created new cities, which was largely associated with the expansion of the territory of the state, its consolidation and development. And in the 20th century, Russia convincingly confirmed its right to be called the country of new cities. The question is often asked: was it necessary to create so many of them in a relatively short time? Critics saw this as an irrational "smearing" of limited funds across the territory. Wouldn't it be better to develop existing cities as it happened in most countries?

However, there were few existing cities. All the former provincial and regional centers really expanded and strengthened their economic base, increased their cultural potential, and increased the number of inhabitants over the course of a century. The county towns with a favorable economic and geographical position (EGP) also grew dozens of times, but a significant part of them did not have sufficient prerequisites for development. Therefore, there was a strong need to create new cities - both to involve new natural resources in circulation, and for the development and territorial organization of the country.

Over the century, completely new types of cities arose - the capitals of autonomous (national) republics, centers of fundamental and applied science, etc.

A fundamentally new type of city that appeared in the 20th century is science cities. Being closely connected with the leading cities, they form the vanguard of scientific and technological progress and have a unique potential, which greatly distinguishes them from all Russian cities. The vast majority of science cities are associated with the military-industrial complex and have a successful experience in developing high technology.

The secrecy of the activities that science cities were engaged in made most of them "cities in an invisibility cap": they were not reported in the press, they were not shown on maps. The administrative closure of some of them helped to maintain the high quality of the population.

In 1994, part of the closed cities (19) received names, entered the directories and appeared on the maps. In the 1990s, the non-profit organization Union of Science Cities was formed, uniting, at the beginning of 2002, 70 centers. Among them - 46 official cities, 6 "numbered", 7 Academgorodoks, 7 urban settlements, 2 partially cities (Balashikha-1 and Pravdinsk as part of Balakhna) and 4 settlements that do not have urban status (Borok, Zvezdny, Orevo, Remmash) . In the USSR, the first science cities arose even before the Great Patriotic War (for example, the city of Zhukovsky, which developed on the basis of the aircraft building complex), but new cities with a fundamentally new city-forming base predominate among them. However, there are also old settlements that have radically changed their economic basis. So, the former commercial and industrial settlement Melekes became the city of Dimitrovgrad - the center of research in the field of nuclear energy. The old factory settlements of Fryazino and Reutov changed their specialization. The development of military-industrial components made Biysk a science city. Sarov, Dzerzhinsky (Nikolo-Ugreshsky Monastery), Istra (New Jerusalem), "hid" under the canopy of the Sarov monasteries, which settled on the site of the famous Sarov monastery. The ancient Pereslavl-Zalessky, better known for its Pleshcheev Lake, museums and monasteries, also became a science city. Among the science cities are the ancient cities-factories of Ust-Katav, Miass, Nizhnyaya Salda. In large cities, characterized by a dismembered territorial structure, only some part of it is actually a science city?

But most science cities were built out of the blue, like new cities for special purposes. Obninsk, Zelenograd, Korolev (Kaliningrad), Protvino, Pushchino, Raduzhny, Novouralsk, Seversk - all these are new and well-built, solid cities.

Most science cities are centers of applied science. However, in some of them, fundamental science served as the firstborn or basis - Dubna, Protvino, Pushchino, Troitsk, Chernogolovka. In most cases, science cities are municipalities (except for Zelenograd, which is considered a district of Moscow, and rural settlements). As a rule, these are medium or small cities, but seven of them are included in the number of large ones. Science cities are characterized by location near largest cities- Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, as well as Tomsk, Penza. They prefer to be satellite cities, even if they are away from the leader city. So, Sarov, among whose numerous names were "Moscow-2" and Kremlev, indicating its special relationship with the capital, is 400 km away from it, but has an airport connected with Moscow by regular flights.

In the literature, seven main specializations of science cities in Russia are distinguished: aircraft rocket building and space research; electronics and radio engineering; automation, machine and instrument making; chemistry, chemical physics and creation of new materials; nuclear complex; energy; biology and biotechnology.

Paradoxical as it may seem, science cities with their greatest opportunities and merits turned out to be unclaimed in the 1990s. The state order for their products has decreased, which caused curtailment of activities and unemployment, there is a "brain drain". Fighting for survival, science cities are developing side industries and activities, mastering the production of non-core products, which is favored by the benefits provided to them. The veil of former secrecy is removed, links with foreign firms are established. It is to be hoped that the "hitch" in the activities of science cities is temporary and will be overcome.

Urbanization in Russia developed on the wave of industrialization. It was industry that gave birth to most of the new cities, including a significant number of monofunctional centers. Industry forced young cities to grow rapidly, resulting in accelerated cities in which growth outpaced development; the territory of the country was dotted with "semi-finished" cities.

Infiltrating old cities, industry naturally expanded their economic base, provided multifunctionality, but at the same time endowed them with a kind of "industrial flux". Obtaining the importance of a priority industry, the industry sometimes deprived other activities of resources. The deterioration of the ecological situation was also associated with it.

In a number of cases, the centers that arose on the basis of industry gradually turned from highly specialized cities into multifunctional ones. And it was industrial enterprises that played a positive role in this, which were overgrown with scientific institutions, design bureaus, educational institutions. With their help, houses of culture, theaters, museums, libraries were created, since the development of the social sphere of the industrial city was financed, like housing and communal construction, through industrial enterprises. Ivanovo, the "Russian Manchester", Lipetsk, Tolyatti, and others have taken this path. Some of these cities were put forward by industry for the role of regional centers, which, by definition, developed as multifunctional ones.

Nevertheless, the efforts of industry alone were still not enough to overcome the shortage of cities. It was widely practiced to transform rural settlements into cities, which usually began to perform some urban functions, most often being the administrative centers of districts. Similar processes had a long history in Russia. In the course of the administrative reform of 1775-1785 during the reign of Catherine II, 165 new cities were established from villages in the territory of the present Russian Federation by transformation. The transformation of villages into cities during the 20th century. went constantly, and in some parts of the country such "rural" towns, which have retained largely rural features, make up a significant part of the cities.

2 - It is noteworthy that the oldest Russian city was named new - Novgorod. It was followed by Nizhny Novgorod, Novaya Ladoga, Novocherkassk and others. At the beginning of its existence, Kazan was called New Bulgar, and Arkhangelsk was called New Kholmogory. Many cities whose names included or included the words and letter combinations "new", "new", etc., arose in the 20th century (Novonikolaevsk, or Novosibirsk, Novovoronezh, etc.)
3 - An analogue of science cities abroad are technopolises, the development of which on a large scale unfolded in leading countries in the second half of the 20th century. In France, the first technopolis, which went into operation in 1969, was Antipolis in the south of the country near the famous Cote d'Azur.
4 - So, not the whole city of Balashikha is considered a science city, but Balashikha-1; The city of Pravdinsk is a science city included in the city of Balakhna.