Types of musical instruments and features of their classification. What are musical instruments Musical objects and their names
Find a merchant where you can buy musical instruments, children's incl. not difficult, knowing exactly what you need, and also if you live in Moscow, St. Petersburg or another large city. There are a lot of stores in which they are available for sale, most of them have their own website. After reviewing the assortment lists and prices on the websites of such music salons, as well as their territorial location, you can make a choice and call them in order to clarify what may have remained unclear. These may be the conditions of order and delivery, availability the right tool opportunity to get the necessary advice. You will really need it if you do not have enough experience and you find it difficult to independently decide on the purchase of a particular model. In the store, it will be possible, for example, to evaluate how a guitar or piano sounds while listening to a game on it.
In small settlements the choice is smaller, therefore, it is quite possible that you will need to go or order what you need, at least to the nearest regional center, having previously found out if the necessary goods are in stock.
Types of musical instruments and their most famous representatives
As a rule, a list of types of musical instruments presented in stores specializing in the sale of these wonderful items allows gifted people show their talents, create and implement a variety of creative ideas, things that we uniquely associate with something magical and beautiful make up the following categories: guitars, folk, bowed, keyboards and wind instruments, drums and percussion, as well as harmonics.
Let's list the musical instruments belonging to each of the above categories.
What are the guitars?
The main types of guitars include the following varieties:
- Acoustic guitars and their subspecies such as classical, Spanish, Hawaiian, with metal and nylon strings.
- Electro-acoustic guitars with various pickups and piezo pickups that allow you to pick up sound, including from instruments equipped with nylon strings.
- Electric guitars without a hollow body, which require an amplifier and an acoustic cabinet to produce a sound, and their semi-acoustic subspecies with a smaller volume than acoustic, but still present body.
- Ordinary bass guitars with a different number of strings and neck arrangement, as well as their electro-acoustic variants.
Categories of keyboards
In addition to classic grand pianos and pianos, the range of modern music salons includes electric organs, synthesizers, midi keyboards, as well as digital pianos and pianoforte. In addition, useful electronic instruments used by many musicians, such as rhythm machines, samplers and sequencers, are on sale.
Drums, percussion and accessories group
In the first paragraphs of the lists of instruments in this category are drum kits, orchestral drums, various elements of percussion and noise. You can also buy separately pedals, cymbals, drums, various racks and other accessories. Electronic drums range from drum kits and drum machines to compact pad trainers with included practice lessons that can be used for other purposes, such as recording drum parts.
Popular wind instruments from trumpet and oboe to flute and clarinetWhat wood and metal wind instruments do modern musical groups use?There are more than a dozen of them:
Bowed string instruments
Harmonics and digital accordions and button accordions
Folk musical instrumentsFolk instruments are not only Russian, but also associated with other countries, including:
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Conditions for renting musical instruments
Since musical instruments are not the cheapest pleasure, and besides, there are many other objective reasons why it is more profitable to rent them. Rental of equipment and tools in Moscow and other cities is widely practiced.
Not every group has its own rehearsal space and the way out of the situation may be renting one. In addition to directly renting the premises with equipment for temporary use, organizations providing such services also provide other related services. Work, as a rule, is built flexibly, the range of services is quite wide and varied.
On mutually beneficial terms, you will be offered as separate units of sound equipment in most cases known reasons well-known brands, amplifiers, amps, stands, consoles, microphones, etc., as well as ready-made sets of equipment formed based on the experience and requests of customers. For regular customers, as a rule, there is a system of discounts.
Equipment is often provided famous musicians, stars, actors and provides high-quality sound.
Approximate prices for the rental of tools can be found on the pages of the website of the organization providing such services. For example, a set of equipment for a concert, corporate or other event, disco, presentation, wedding, etc., which requires sound amplification up to 1000 W, including acoustic systems, signal processing devices, microphones, players will cost about 8 tons .R. (300 ye).
In addition to direct rent, services are provided for the installation of equipment, sound engineering and maintenance of a holiday, disco, exhibition, etc.
View offers, as well as report on the sale or purchase of new, used. or commission musical instruments with their description you can on the bulletin board of the site.
In the same place, advertising of organizations providing services for setting them up and learning to play them is placed free of charge.
Modern high-quality sound equipment
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Music is an amazing thing. Its sounds can touch the deepest nooks and crannies of human nature. A cheerful melody makes people dance, meekly obeying the irresistible influence of its intricate patterns. Some music, on the contrary, makes you feel sadness and sadness, carefully invested by the author in every note of the work. Good song is a journey into the musician, where he, like a guide, will lead the listener through the beautiful or terrifying depths of his soul. The sound of music pours out that which cannot be expressed in words.
Music in antiquity
Mankind has been familiar with the art of music for a long time. Archaeologists are constantly finding different kinds musical instruments in the places where our ancestors lived. It is assumed that the first instruments were percussion instruments. They allowed you to set the rhythm necessary for the same type of work or achievement. Some finds indicate that wind instruments also have their roots in ancient times.
With the development of civilization, people's preferences also changed. Musical instruments have constantly progressed, they have become more complex and sophisticated, bringing variety and novelty to cultural life person. Great musicians were revered and bestowed with generous gifts, which indicates their high status in society.
The place of music in the modern world
Over time, music became an integral part of the life of not only idle nobles, but also ordinary people who composed songs about their difficult fate. It can be assumed that the art of music has accompanied mankind since time immemorial and will accompany it until the last representative of our species leaves this mortal world.
Today, hundreds of different musical instruments are available to musicians. Anyone who decides to take up music will be able to choose an instrument to their liking. However, no matter how bizarre the forms modern devices to create music, most of them can be classified as percussion, strings or brass. Let's take a closer look at the main types of musical instruments.
Wind musical instruments
Wind instruments have firmly taken their place in the hearts of music lovers. How in classical works, as well as in modern musical compositions, their mesmerizing sound continues to delight listeners. Exist different types wind musical instruments. Basically they are divided into wooden and copper.
Wooden instruments produce different sounds by shortening the airflow through the instrument. A great example of such an instrument is the flute. In it, by opening or closing the holes on the body, you can make the sound higher or lower. Such instruments appeared quite a long time ago and were originally made of wood, which was the reason for their name. These include oboe, clarinet and saxophone.
To the sound copper tools affects the strength of the air flow and the position of the lips of the musician. The main material from which these tools are made is metal. Most brass instruments are made from brass or copper, but there are exotic options in silver. Initially, such instruments could only produce sounds, but over time they acquired mechanisms that allow them to extract chromatic tones. Most well-known representatives brass instruments can be called a tuba, trombone, horn, and various types of this type can diversify any composition with its bright and rich sound.
Huge popularity in modern society use stringed musical instruments. In them, the sound is extracted due to the vibration of the string and amplified by the body. There are various types of musical instruments that use strings to create sound, but all of them can be classified as plucked, bowed or percussion.
In order to create music, a string pluck is used. Outstanding representatives plucked are such popular instruments like guitar, double bass, banjo, harp. Bowed instruments differ from their plucked counterparts in that they use a bow to strike notes. It slides over the strings, making them vibrate. Violin, viola, cello - the most famous bowed instruments. The most popular percussion stringed instrument- piano. In it, notes are extracted by hitting a stretched string with a small wooden mallet. For the convenience of playing, musicians are provided with a keyboard interface, where each key corresponds to its own note.
musical instruments
It's hard to imagine modern musical ensemble without percussion. They set the rhythm of the entire composition, create the pulse of the song. The rest of the musicians in the band follow the rhythm set by the drummer. Therefore, one of the oldest and most important means of creating music is rightfully considered percussion types musical instruments.
Percussion instruments are divided into membranophones and idiophones. In membranophones, sound is extracted from a membrane stretched over the body of the instrument. These include such popular representatives music world like a tambourine, drums, timpani, bongos, djembe and countless other instruments. In idiophones, the sound is produced by the entire instrument or the instrument consists of many sounding elements. different heights. For example, xylophone, vibraphone, bells, gong, triangle are just a few examples of idiophones.
Finally
Whatever type of musical instrument you choose, the main thing to remember is that the music is created not by the instrument, but by the musician. good musician will extract a beautiful melody from empty cans, but even the most expensive instrument will not help someone who does not like music sound good.
Musical instruments are designed to produce various sounds. If the musician plays well, then these sounds can be called music, if not, then cacophony. There are so many tools that learning them is like exciting game worse than Nancy Drew! In modern musical practice, instruments are divided into various classes and families according to the source of the sound, the material of manufacture, the method of sound production and other features.
Wind musical instruments (aerophones): a group of musical instruments whose sound source is vibrations of an air column in the barrel (tube). They are classified according to many criteria (by material, design, methods of sound production, etc.). In a symphony orchestra, the group of wind musical instruments is divided into wood (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon) and brass (trumpet, horn, trombone, tuba).
1. Flute - a woodwind musical instrument. The modern type of transverse flute (with valves) was invented by the German master T. Bem in 1832 and has varieties: small (or piccolo flute), alto and bass flute.
2. Oboe - woodwind reed musical instrument. Known since the 17th century. Varieties: small oboe, oboe d "amour, English horn, haeckelphone.
3. Clarinet - woodwind reed musical instrument. Designed at the beginning 18th century IN contemporary practice common soprano clarinets, piccolo clarinet (Italian piccolo), alto (so-called basset horn), bass.
4. Bassoon - a woodwind musical instrument (mainly orchestral). Arose in the 1st floor. 16th century The bass variety is the contrabassoon.
5. Trumpet - a wind brass mouthpiece musical instrument, known since ancient times. The modern type of valve pipe has developed to ser. 19th century
6. Horn - a wind musical instrument. Appeared at the end of the 17th century as a result of the improvement of the hunting horn. The modern type of horn with valves was created in the first quarter of the 19th century.
7. Trombone - a wind brass musical instrument (mainly orchestral), in which the pitch is regulated by a special device - a backstage (the so-called sliding trombone or zugtrombone). There are also valve trombones.
8. Tuba is the lowest sounding brass musical instrument. Designed in 1835 in Germany.
Metallophones are a kind of musical instruments, the main element of which are plates-keys, which are beaten with a hammer.
1. Self-sounding musical instruments (bells, gongs, vibraphones, etc.), the sound source of which is their elastic metal body. The sound is extracted with hammers, sticks, special drummers (tongues).
2. Instruments such as xylophone, in contrast to which metallophone plates are made of metal.
String musical instruments (chordophones): according to the method of sound production, they are divided into bowed (for example, violin, cello, gidjak, kemancha), plucked (harp, harp, guitar, balalaika), percussion (cymbals), percussion keyboards (piano), plucked - keyboards (harpsichord).
1. Violin - a 4-string bowed musical instrument. Highest in register in the violin family that formed the basis symphony orchestra classical composition and string quartet.
2. Cello - a musical instrument of the violin family of the bass-tenor register. Appeared in the 15-16 centuries. Classic designs created by Italian masters 17-18 centuries: A. and N. Amati, J. Guarneri, A. Stradivari.
3. Gidzhak - stringed bowed musical instrument (Tajik, Uzbek, Turkmen, Uighur).
4. Kemancha (kamancha) - 3-4-string bowed musical instrument. Distributed in Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Dagestan, as well as the countries of the Middle and Near East.
5. Harp (from German Harfe) - a multi-stringed plucked musical instrument. Early images - in the third millennium BC. In its simplest form, it is found in almost all peoples. The modern pedal harp was invented in 1801 by S. Erard in France.
6. Gusli - Russian stringed musical instrument. Pterygoid gusli ("voiced") have 4-14 or more strings, helmet-shaped - 11-36, rectangular (table-shaped) - 55-66 strings.
7. Guitar (Spanish guitarra, from Greek kithara) - stringed plucked instrument lute type. It has been known in Spain since the 13th century, and in the 17th and 18th centuries it spread to the countries of Europe and America, including as a folk instrument. Since the 18th century, the 6-string guitar has become common, the 7-string has become widespread mainly in Russia. Varieties include the so-called ukulele; in modern pop music electric guitar is used.
8. Balalaika - Russian folk 3-string plucked musical instrument. Known from the beginning 18th century Improved in the 1880s. (under the direction of V.V. Andreev) V.V. Ivanov and F.S. Paserbsky, who designed the family of balalaikas, later - S.I. Nalimov.
9. Cymbals (Polish cymbaly) - a multi-stringed percussion musical instrument ancient origin. They are part of the folk orchestras of Hungary, Poland, Romania, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.
10. Piano (Italian fortepiano, from forte - loud and piano - quiet) - the general name of keyboard musical instruments with hammer action (piano, piano). The pianoforte was invented in the beginning. 18th century Appearance modern type piano - with the so-called. double rehearsal - refers to the 1820s. The heyday of piano performance - 19-20 centuries.
11. Harpsichord (French clavecin) - a stringed keyboard-plucked musical instrument, the forerunner of the piano. Known since the 16th century. There were harpsichords various forms, types and varieties, including chembalo, virginel, spinet, claviciterium.
Keyboard musical instruments: a group of musical instruments combined common feature- the presence of keyboard mechanics and a keyboard. They are divided into different classes and types. Keyboard musical instruments are combined with other categories.
1. Strings (percussion and plucked keyboards): piano, celesta, harpsichord and its varieties.
2. Wind (wind and reed keyboards): organ and its varieties, harmonium, button accordion, accordion, melody.
3. Electromechanical: electric piano, clavinet
4. Electronic: electronic piano
pianoforte (Italian fortepiano, from forte - loud and piano - quiet) - the general name of keyboard musical instruments with hammer action (piano, piano). It was invented in the early 18th century. The appearance of the modern type of piano - with the so-called. double rehearsal - refers to the 1820s. The heyday of piano performance - 19-20 centuries.
Percussion musical instruments: a group of instruments combined according to the method of sound production - impact. The sound source is a solid body, a membrane, a string. There are instruments with a definite (timpani, bells, xylophones) and indefinite (drums, tambourines, castanets) pitch.
1. Timpani (timpani) (from the Greek polytaurea) - a percussion musical instrument of a cauldron shape with a membrane, often paired (nagara, etc.). Widespread since ancient times.
2. Bells - orchestral percussion self-sounding musical instrument: a set of metal records.
3. Xylophone (from xylo... and Greek phone - sound, voice) - percussion self-sounding musical instrument. Consists of a number of wooden blocks of various lengths.
4. Drum - percussion membrane musical instrument. Varieties are found in many peoples.
5. Tambourine - a percussion membrane musical instrument, sometimes with metal pendants.
6. Castanetvas (Spanish: castanetas) - a percussion musical instrument; wooden (or plastic) plates in the form of shells, fixed on the fingers.
Electric musical instruments: musical instruments in which sound is created by generating, amplifying and converting electrical signals (using electronic equipment). They have a peculiar timbre, they can imitate various tools. Electric musical instruments include theremin, emiriton, electric guitar, electric organs, etc.
1. Theremin - the first domestic electric musical instrument. Designed by L. S. Theremin. The pitch in the theremin varies depending on the distance of the performer's right hand to one of the antennas, the volume - from the distance of the left hand to the other antenna.
2. Emiriton - an electric musical instrument equipped with a piano-type keyboard. Designed in the USSR by the inventors A. A. Ivanov, A. V. Rimsky-Korsakov, V. A. Kreutser and V. P. Dzerzhkovich (1st model in 1935).
3. Electric guitar - a guitar, usually made of wood, with electric pickups that convert vibrations metal strings into fluctuations in electric current. The first magnetic pickup was built by Gibson engineer Lloyd Loer in 1924. The most common are six-string electric guitars.
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Exist., Number of synonyms: 1 instrument of profit (1) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary
musical instrument- muzikos instrumentas statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: engl. musical instruments vok. Musicinstrument, n rus. musical instrument, m pranc. instrument de musique, m … Fizikos terminų žodynas
musical instrument- ▲ instrument musical keyboard instrument. piccolo. A string is a tight thread that, when vibrated or rubbed, emits a sound of a certain frequency. neck. instruments: chordometer. monochord. fork. ↓ resonant lumber … Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language
musical instrument electronic- An electronic device such as an electronic organ, electronic piano or musical synthesizer that plays music under the control of a musician ... Source: GOST R IEC 60065 2002. Audio, video and similar electronic equipment. ... ... Official terminology
A musical instrument whose name in Russia refers to several varieties of recumbent harps. G. psalted have similarities with the Greek psalter and the Jewish kinnor; these include: G. Chuvash, G. Cheremis, G. ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Musical instrument Caucasian highlanders: a round, bucket-shaped wooden body, on which a bubble with two holes (voices) is stretched. A stick passes through the body, half wooden (vulture), half iron. There are 2 or 3 pegs on the neck ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Musical instruments instruments that have the ability to reproduce, with the assistance of a person, rhythmically organized and fixed in pitch sounds or a clearly regulated rhythm. Each M. and. has a special timbre (color) of sound, as well as its own musical and expressive dynamic capabilities, a certain range of sounds. Sound quality M. and. depends on the relationship of the materials used for the manufacture of the instrument and the shape given to them and can be changed with the help of additional devices (for example, mute (See Mute)), various sound extraction techniques (for example, Pizzicato, Flagiolet). M. i. It is customary to divide into folk and professional. Folk M. and. can be original, belong to only one people, and "interethnic", which are widespread among different peoples, interconnected by an ethnic community or long-term historical and cultural contacts. So, for example, the bandura exists only in Ukraine, panduri and chonguri only in Georgia, and the psaltery, snot, pity, bagpipes are simultaneously among Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians; saz, tar, kemancha, duduk, zurna in Azerbaijan and Armenia; almost all instruments are the same in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Ensembles of folk music and music have long existed in Russia. (gusliars, gudoshnikovs, domrists); in the 2nd half of the 18th century. on the basis of the hunting horn, horn orchestras were created; in the 70s. the horn-shepherd choirs gained great fame; the choir organized by N. V. Kondratiev was especially famous. At the end of the 19th century thanks to the activities of V. V. Andreev and his closest assistants S. I. Nalimov, F. S. Passerbsky, N. P. Fomin, some Russian M. and. (balalaika, harp, etc.) were improved or reconstructed (domra) and on their basis orchestras of folk instruments were created. The republics of the USSR have a centuries-old and diverse folk instrumental culture in their national forms. Here, in Soviet time orchestras and ensembles of folk instruments have been created, big job to improve folk instruments. Professional M. and. the instruments that make up the symphony (opera), brass and pop orchestras are considered. Almost all professional M. and. its origins go to folk prototypes. Narodny M. and. in the distant past there was a violin, from the simplest folk flute a modern one was created, from a primitive shawl - an oboe, etc. M.'s development and. directly related to the development human society, its culture, music, performing arts and production techniques. At the same time, some musical instruments, due to the peculiarities of their design, have been preserved for centuries and have come down to our time in their original form (for example, the Uzbek stone castanets - kayrak), many others have been improved, and still others, which turned out to be unable to meet the growing musical and performing requirements, died off and were replaced by new ones. Most distinctly M.'s connection and. with creativity and performance, their selection and improvement can be traced in the field of professional music, rather than in folk music (where these processes proceed much more slowly and where musical instruments have been preserved for centuries in an unchanged or little changed form). So, in the 15-16 centuries. coarse and inactive fidels (viels) were replaced by gentle, matte timbre "aristocratic" viols. In the 17-18 centuries. In connection with the coming to replace the polyphonic style of the homophonic-harmonic and the emergence of music requiring dynamic performance, the viols with their quiet sound and chord playing technique gradually replaced the violin and its family, which have a bright, expressive sound, rich stroke technique and opportunities for virtuoso playing. Simultaneously with the viols, the same gentle sounding, but "lifeless" longitudinal flute, giving way to a more sonorous and technically mobile transverse flute. At the same time, in ensemble and orchestral practice, the European lute and its varieties, the theorbo and kitarron (arch-lute), were no longer used; in home household music-making, the lute was replaced by the vihuela, and then by the guitar. By the end of the 18th century the harpsichord and chamber clavichord were replaced by a new keyboard instrument - the pianoforte. In view of the complexity of their design, professional M. and., more than folk ones, depend in their development also on the state of the exact sciences and production technology - the presence music factories and factories with their experimental laboratories, design bureaus and qualified tool building specialists. The exception is the instruments of the violin family, which require purely individual production. Improved on the basis of folk samples by the famous Breschan and Cremonese masters of the 16-18 centuries. Gasparo da Salo, J. Magini, N. Amati, A. Stradivari, J. Guarneri del Gesu and others - they remain unsurpassed in their merits. The most intensive development of professional M. and. took place in the 18th and 19th centuries. The creation of a rational valve system by T. Böhm (the first model appeared in 1832), its use first on the flute, and then, in different options, on the clarinet, oboe and bassoon, significantly expanded the performing possibilities and increased the intonational purity and stability of the structure of woodwind instruments, allowed composers to use them more widely and in a more diverse way in their work, and contributed to the development of solo concert performing art. A real revolution was made by the appearance at the beginning of the 19th century. valve mechanics (see Valve) for brass wind instruments, which turned them from the so-called. natural musical instruments, with a limited number of sounds and hence limited performance capabilities, into chromatic, capable, like woodwind instruments, of reproducing any music. Radical stylistic change in music of all genres for strings keyboard instruments occurred with the advent of the hammer-action piano. With the invention of radio, it became possible to design electrophonic M. and. For definition of types M. and. There are various classification systems. The 3-group system is well known, according to which M. and. are divided into wind, string and percussion; in turn, wind instruments are divided into wood (flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, saryusophone, bassoon and their varieties) and copper (trumpet, cornet, horn, trombone, tuba, instruments brass band), and strings - on plucked (harp, lute, guitar) and bowed (families of violins and viols). To shock M. and. include timpani, drum, xylophone, celesta, gong, cymbals, etc. In the scientific study, especially of various folk musical instruments, more complete and accurate classification systems are used. Among them, the system developed at the beginning of the 20th century enjoys recognition. by the Austrian musicologist E. Hornbostel and the German musicologist K. Sachs (which was founded in the second half of the 19th century by the Belgian musicologists Fr. Gevaart and W. S. Mayyon). The Hornbostel-Sachs system is built on two features: the source of the sound of the instrument and the way it is extracted. On the first sign of M. and. are divided into self-sounding (idiophones or autophones), membrane (membranophones), stringed (chordophones) and wind (aerophones). The sound source of the former is the material itself from which the instrument or its sounding part is made; the second - a stretched elastic membrane; third - a stretched string; fourth - a column of air enclosed in the bore (tube). According to the method of extracting sound, self-sounding ones are divided into plucked (vargan), frictional (kraatspeel, nail and glass harmonicas), percussion (xylophone, cymbals, castanets); membrane - for friction (bulk), percussion (drum, timpani); strings - on plucked (balalaika, harp, guitar), bowed (kemancha, violin), percussion (cymbals); wind - flute (all types of flutes), reed (zurna, oboe, clarinet, bassoon), mouthpiece (pipes and horns). Further division is made according to the design features of the tool. So, for example, flutes are divided into longitudinal (open and whistling), transverse and multi-barreled; strings to keyboard-plucked (spinet, harpsichord) and keyboard-percussion (piano, clavichord), etc. Among modern M. and. a special group is made up of electric ones, the sound source of which is generators of sound frequency oscillations. These instruments are divided mainly into two subgroups: electronic (actually electric instruments) and adapted, i.e. instruments of the usual type, equipped with sound amplifiers (electric guitar, electric balalaika, Turkmen electric dutar). Lit.: Zaks K., Modern orchestral musical instruments, trans. from German., M., 1932; Belyaev V. M., Musical instruments of Uzbekistan, M., 1933; his own, Folk musical instruments of Azerbaijan, in the collection: Art of the Azerbaijani people, M. - L., 1938; Agazhanov A., Russian folk musical instruments, M. - L., 1949; Yampolsky I. M., Russian violin art. Essays and materials, [ch. 1], M. - L., 1951; Vinogradov V. S., Kyrgyz folk music, Frunze, 1958; Zhinovich I. I., State Belarusian folk orchestra.. Minsk, 1958; Struve B. A., The process of formation of viols and violins, M., 1959; Chulaki M., Symphony Orchestra Instruments, 2nd ed., M., 1962; Vertkov K., Blagodatov G., Yazovitskaya E., Atlas of Musical Instruments of the Peoples of the USSR, L., 1964 (lit.); Berov L. S., Moldavian musical folk instruments, Kish., 1964; Gumenyuk A. I., Ukrainian folk musical instruments, Kiev, 1967 (lit.). K. A. Vertkov, S. Ya. Levin.
Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
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