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Scientific research and its methodology. Methodology and methodology of scientific research

The concept of method and methodology scientific research

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc. Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels. To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, simulation, etc. The methods of the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc. Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists to this the level includes the method of system analysis, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

- universal(philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

- general scientific, which can be applied in humanitarian, natural and technical sciences;

- private– for related sciences;

- special- for a specific science, area of scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of a method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts techniques, procedures and methods of scientific research.

Under research technique understand a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under research procedure- a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research. Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of knowledge.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings: a) methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.); b) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology. There are the following levels of methodology:

- universal methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

- private methodology scientific research for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena;

- methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of cognition.

Facts, their generalization and systematization. Classification of scientific research methods: empirical research methods (methods-operations, methods-actions); theoretical methods research (methods - cognitive actions, methods-operations)

The development of science proceeds from the collection of facts, their study, systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a logically coherent system of scientific knowledge, which makes it possible to explain already known facts and predict new ones.

The process of knowledge comes from the collection of facts. But facts in themselves are not science. They become part of scientific knowledge only in a systematic, generalized form.

Facts are systematized using the simplest abstractions - concepts (definitions), which are the most important structural elements of science. The broadest concepts of the category (form and content, product and cost, etc.).

An important form of knowledge is principles (postulates), axioms. The principle is understood as the initial position of any branch of science (the axioms of Euclidean geometry, Bohr's postulate in quantum mechanics, etc.).

The most important component in the system of scientific knowledge are scientific laws- reflecting the most significant, stable, repetitive, objective, internal connections in nature, society and thinking. Laws act in the form of a certain correlation of concepts, categories.

The highest form of generalization and systematization is theory. Theory - the doctrine of generalized experience (practice), formulating scientific principles and methods that allow you to know existing processes and phenomena, analyze the effects of various factors and offer recommendations for practical activities.

Method- a method of theoretical research or practical implementation of a phenomenon or process. A method is a tool for solving the main task of science - the discovery of objective laws of reality. The method determines the necessity and place of application of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, comparison of theoretical and experimental studies.

Methodology- this is the doctrine of the structure of the logical organization, methods and means of activity (the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific and research activities). The methodology of science characterizes the components of scientific research - its object, subject of analysis, research task (or problem), the totality of research tools necessary to solve a problem of this type, and also forms an idea of the sequence of research movement in the process of solving the problem. The most important point of application of the methodology is the formulation of the problem, the construction of the subject of research, the construction scientific theory, as well as checking the result obtained from the point of view of its truth.

Any research process is based on certain concepts, ideas, theories, methodological principles, approaches, as well as a set of applied methods and methodologies. For the qualitative performance of the work and the presentation of the results obtained, it is necessary to clearly understand the essence and relationship of such basic concepts as methodology, method and methodology. The indicated conceptual apparatus is shown in fig. 2.5.

Rice. 2.5. The relationship of the concepts of methodology, method and technique

Classification of scientific research methods

Empirical and theoretical research methods. Characteristics of theoretical methods (methods-operations) of research: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, formalization, induction, deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, model, subject modeling.

Theoretical methods (methods - cognitive actions): dialectics, proof, method of analyzing knowledge systems, deductive method, inductive-deductive method.

Empirical methods (methods-operations): observation, measurement, questioning, testing.

Empirical methods (action methods): object tracking methods, transformation methods, forecasting.

An essential, sometimes decisive role in the construction of any scientific work play applied research methods.

Research methods are divided into empirical And theoretical(see Table 2).

Table 2 - Methods of scientific research

THEORETICAL	EMPIRICAL
methods - operations	action methods	methods - operations	action methods
- analysis - synthesis - comparison - abstraction - concretization - generalization - formalization - induction - deduction - idealization - analogy - modeling - mental - experiment - imagination	- dialectics (as a method) - scientific theories tested by practice - proof - deductive (axiomatic) method - inductive-deductive method - identification and resolution of contradictions - problem setting - hypothesis building	- study of literature, documents and results of activities - observation - measurement survey oral and written - expert assessments - testing	- object tracking methods: survey, monitoring, study and generalization of experience - object transformation methods: experimental work, experiment - methods of object research in time: retrospective, forecasting

We consider methodology as a doctrine of the organization of activities. Then, if scientific research is a cycle of activity, then its structural units are directed actions. As is known, action- a unit of activity, the distinguishing feature of which is the presence of a specific goal. The structural units of action are operations correlated with the objective-objective conditions for achieving the goal. The same goal, correlated with action, can be achieved in different conditions; an action can be implemented by different operations. However, the same operation may include different activities.

Based on this, we distinguish (see Table 2):

– methods-operations;

– action methods.

This approach does not contradict the definition method, which gives encyclopedic Dictionary :

Firstly, a method as a way to achieve some goal, solve a specific problem - a method-action;

Secondly, the method as a set of techniques or operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality is a method-operation.

Thus, in the future we will consider research methods in the following grouping:

Theoretical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, building a hypothesis, etc.;

Methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, etc.

Empirical methods:

Methods - cognitive actions: examination, monitoring, experiment, etc.;

Methods-operations: observation, measurement, questioning, testing, etc.

Theoretical methods (methods-operations). Theoretical methods-operations have a wide field of application, both in scientific research and in practice.

Theoretical Methods - Operations are considered according to the main mental operations, which are: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and concretization, generalization, formalization, induction and deduction, idealization, analogy, modeling, thought experiment.

Analysis- this is the decomposition of the whole under study into parts, the allocation of individual features and qualities of a phenomenon, process or relations of phenomena, processes. Analysis procedures are an integral part of any scientific research and usually form its first phase, when the researcher moves from an undivided description of the object under study to revealing its structure, composition, properties and features.

Synthesis- the connection of various elements, sides of the subject into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not a simple summation, but a semantic connection. Analysis and synthesis are closely related. If the researcher has a more developed ability to analyze, there may be a danger that he will not be able to find a place for details in the phenomenon as a whole. The relative predominance of synthesis leads to superficiality, to the fact that details essential for the study, which can be of great importance for understanding the phenomenon as a whole, will not be noticed.

Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. With the help of comparison, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out. Comparison is comparing one thing with another.

Comparison makes sense only in a set of homogeneous objects that form a class.

Integral part comparison is always analysis, since for any comparison in phenomena it is necessary to isolate the corresponding signs of comparison. Since comparison is the establishment of certain relationships between phenomena, then, naturally, synthesis is also used in the course of comparison.

abstraction- one of the main mental operations that allows you to mentally isolate and turn into an independent object of consideration certain aspects, properties or states of the object in its pure form. Abstraction underlies the processes of generalization and concept formation.

Abstraction consists in isolating such properties of an object that do not exist by themselves and independently of it. Such isolation is possible only in the mental plane - in abstraction.

Specification- a process opposite to abstraction, that is, finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral and complex. The researcher initially forms various abstractions, and then, on their basis, reproduces this integrity through concretization.

Generalization- one of the main cognitive mental operations, consisting in the selection and fixation of relatively stable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. The function of generalization consists in ordering the variety of objects, their classification.

Formalization- displaying the results of thinking in precise terms or statements. Formalization is opposed to intuitive thinking.

Formalization plays essential role in the development of scientific knowledge, since intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer from the point of view everyday consciousness, are not very suitable for science: in scientific knowledge it is often impossible not only to solve, but even to formulate and pose problems until the structure of the concepts related to them is clarified. True science is possible only on the basis of abstract thinking, consistent reasoning of the researcher, flowing in a logical language form through concepts, judgments and conclusions.

In scientific judgments, links are established between objects, phenomena or between their specific features. In scientific conclusions, one judgment proceeds from another; on the basis of already existing conclusions, a new one is made.

There are two main types of inference: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Induction- this is an inference from private objects, phenomena to general conclusion, from individual facts to generalizations.

Deduction- this is a conclusion from the general to the particular, from general judgments to particular conclusions.

Idealization- mental construction of ideas about objects that do not exist or are not feasible in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world.

Analogy, modeling. Analogy is a mental operation when the knowledge obtained from the consideration of any one object (model) is transferred to another, less studied or less accessible for study, less visual object, called the prototype, the original. It opens up the possibility of transferring information by analogy from model to prototype.

This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling (building and researching models). The difference between analogy and modeling lies in the fact that if analogy is one of the mental operations, then modeling can be considered in different cases both as a mental operation and as an independent method - a method-action.

Model- an auxiliary object that gives new information about the main object. Modeling forms are diverse and depend on the models used and their scope. By the nature of the models, subject and sign (information) modeling are distinguished.

Object Modeling conducted on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic, or functional characteristics of the modeling object - the original; in a particular case - analog simulation when the behavior of the original and the model is described by unified mathematical relations, for example, unified differential equations. If the model and

the object being modeled have the same physical nature, then we speak of physical modeling. At iconic modeling models are diagrams, drawings, formulas, etc. The most important type of such modeling is math modeling.

Simulation is always used together with other research methods, it is especially closely related to the experiment.

special kind modeling is thought experiment. In such an experiment, the researcher mentally creates ideal objects, correlates them with each other within the framework of a certain dynamic model, mentally imitating the movement and those situations that could take place in a real experiment.

Along with the operations of logical thinking, theoretical methods-operations can also include (possibly conditionally) imagination as a thought process to create new ideas and images with its specific forms of fantasy (creation of implausible, paradoxical images and concepts) and dreams(as the creation of images of the desired).

Theoretical methods (methods - cognitive actions). The general philosophical, general scientific method of cognition is dialectics- the real logic of meaningful creative thinking, reflecting the objective dialectic of reality itself. The basis of dialectics as a method of scientific knowledge is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete.

Laws of dialectics:

Transition quantitative changes in qualitative, unity and struggle of opposites, etc.;

Analysis of paired dialectical categories: historical and logical, phenomenon and essence, general (universal) and individual, etc. are integral components of any well-structured scientific research.

scientific theories, proven by practice: any such theory, in essence, acts as a method in the construction of new theories in this or even other areas of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the difference between scientific theory as a form of scientific knowledge and as a method of cognition in this case is functional in nature: being formed as a theoretical result of past research, the method acts as a starting point and a condition for subsequent research.

Proof - method - a theoretical action in the process of which the truth of a thought is substantiated with the help of other thoughts. Every proof has three parts:

arguments (arguments)

Demos.

According to the method of conducting evidence, there are direct and indirect, according to the form of inference, inductive and deductive.

Evidence Rules:

1. The thesis and arguments must be clear and precise.

2. The thesis must remain identical throughout the proof.

3. The thesis should not contain a logical contradiction.

4. The arguments given in support of the thesis must themselves be true, not subject to doubt, must not contradict each other and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.

5. The proof must be complete.

– deductive method(synonym - axiomatic method) - a method of constructing a scientific theory, in which it is based on some initial provisions axioms(synonym - postulates), of which all other provisions of this theory ( theorems) are deduced in a purely logical way by means of a proof. The construction of a theory based on the axiomatic method is usually called deductive;

- the second method has not received a name in the literature, but it certainly exists, since in all other sciences, except for the above, theories are built according to the method, which we will call inductive-deductive: first, an empirical basis is accumulated, on the basis of which theoretical generalizations (induction) are built, which can be built into several levels - for example, empirical laws and theoretical laws - and then these obtained generalizations can be extended to all objects and phenomena covered by this theory (deduction ).

The inductive-deductive method is used to construct most of the theories in the sciences of nature, society and man: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

Other theoretical research methods (in the sense of methods - cognitive actions): identifying and resolving contradictions, posing a problem, building hypotheses, etc. up to the planning of scientific research, we will consider below in the specifics of the time structure of research activity - the construction of phases, stages and stages of scientific research.

Topic 3. Methods of scientific research.

The concept of method, methodology and methodology of scientific research. Classification of research methods. General, general scientific and special methods research. Theoretical and empirical research methods.

Scientific research method is a way of knowing objective reality, which is a certainsequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Methodology - this is a set of methods and techniques of research, the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, the methodology, the purpose of the study, the methods developed, the general level of the researcher's qualifications.

Any scientific research is carried out by appropriate techniques and methods, and according to certain rules.

methodology called the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e., the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for successful solution cognitive tasks. Each science has its own methodology.

Methodology levels are distinguished:

1) a general methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and its content includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition;

2) a particular methodology of scientific research for a group of related economic sciences, which is formed by general, general scientific and particular methods of cognition;

3) the methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes general, general scientific, particular and special methods of cognition.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods are distinguishednatural sciences and methods of social and humanitarian research.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

dependingfrom the level of knowledge allocatemethods of empirical and theoretical levels.

To methodsempirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling.

To methodstheoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical - deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy).

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) special - for a specific science, area of scientific knowledge.

General and general scientific methods

scientific research

Among the general methods of scientific research, the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical.

Dialectics (Greek - “I am talking, I am reasoning”).The concept of "dialectic" originated in ancient Greece and originally meant the ability to argue in the form of questions and answers.

Dialectics – doctrine of the most general laws development of being and cognition, as well as the method of creatively cognizing thinking based on this teaching.

Dialectics appears in the unity of two sides - subjective and objective.

Subjective dialectic - unfolds in the consciousness of the subject as a reflection of the connections and development of the objective existence that exists independently of man and humanity -objective . Subjective dialectics is a theory of the development of thinking, cognition, the struggle of ideas in science, philosophy, unfolding in the human mind.

Objective dialectics - the theory of the development of objective being that exists independently of man.

Dialectics makes it possible to reflect the extremely complex, contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world.

In the doctrine of contradictions, it reveals the driving force and source of all development.

Dialectics is not a simple statement of what is happening in reality, but a tool for scientific knowledge and transformation of the world. (This is where the unity of dialectics as a theory (dialectical materialism) and method (materialist dialectics) is manifested.

dialectic the concept sees the source of development in the unity and struggle of opposites, considers development as a unity of quantitative and qualitative changes, as a unity of gradualness and leaps, as development in a spiral.

Principles of dialectics:

1. The principle of universal interconnection.

2. The principle of development through contradictions.

Basic laws of dialectics:

1. The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

3. The law of negation of negation.

Metaphysics - method of cognition, opposite to dialectics,

considering phenomena usually outside of their mutual connection, contradictions and

development.

Characteristics - one-sidedness, abstractness, absolutization of one or another moment in the composition of the whole. Objects are considered outside of them complex connection with other processes, phenomena and bodies. This is natural for human thinking, because. Man is incapable of knowing without dividing the whole into its component parts. Metaphysics is characterized by static thinking.

metaphysical concept development :

– Considers development as only a decrease or increase (i.e. as only quantitative changes) or as only qualitative changes without any quantitative changes, i.e.pulls opposites apart .

– Source of development seesonly in external influence on a thing.

– Development considered or howcircling , or just likemovement along ascending or descendingstraight and so on.

General scientific methods

All general scientific methods should be divided into three groups for analysis:general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis - this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization. The method of analysis is used both in real and mental activity.

Synthesis - this is a combination of separate parties, parts of the object of study into a single whole. However, this is not just their connection, but also the knowledge of the new - the interaction of parts as a whole. The result of synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external connection of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal interconnection and interdependence.

Induction - this is the movement of thought (knowledge) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning “suggests” a thought, a general idea. With the inductive method of research, in order to obtain general knowledge about any class of objects, it is necessary to investigate individual objects, find common essential features in them, which will serve as the basis for knowledge about the common feature inherent in this class of objects.

Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from any general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.

Analogy - this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others, a reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features. The degree of probability (reliability) of inferences by analogy depends on the number of similar features in the compared phenomena. The analogy is most often used in

similarity theory.

To methodstheoretical level rankaxiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, system analysis method.

Axiomatic Method - research method

consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical Method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e., an assumption about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of a certain phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method ishypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which are derived statements about empirical facts.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

1) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects;

2) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible;

3) derivation from the selected assumption (premises) of the investigation (conclusion) using deduction;

4) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

The hypothetical method is used in constructing the rules of law. For example, when establishing a tax rate of 13 percent on personal income instead of a progressive taxation scale, it was assumed that this measure would make it possible to bring objects of taxation out of the shadows and increase budget revenues. According to the tax authorities, this hypothesis was fully confirmed.

Formalization - displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

abstraction - mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e., highlighting the common properties and relations of the objects under study, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into special class, isolation, i.e., the selection of certain properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of study.

In theory, other types of abstraction are also distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization - the establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena, the definition of a general concept in which

the essential, main features of objects or phenomena of this class are reflected. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the selection of insignificant, but any signs of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.

historical method is to identify historical facts and on this basis in such a mental reconstruction historical process, which reveals the logic of its movement. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.

Examples of the use of this method are: studying the development of consumer cooperation over a long period of time in order to detect its trends; consideration of the history of the development of consumer cooperation in the pre-revolutionary period and during the years of the NEP (1921–1927).

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the subject (phenomenon) being studied, then traces how it changes into various conditions, opens new connections and in this way displays in to the fullness of its essence. The use of this method, for example, to study economic phenomena, assumes that the researcher has theoretical knowledge about their general properties and reveals character traits and their inherent patterns of development.

System Method consists in studying the system (i.e., a certain set of material or ideal objects), connections, its components and their connections with external environment.

At the same time, it turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects.

When analyzing phenomena and processes in complex systems, a large number of factors (features) are considered, among which it is important to be able to single out the main and exclude the secondary.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, counting, measurement, comparison, experiment, and modeling.

Observation - this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the object of study, simple and included observation are distinguished. The first is observation from the outside, when the researcher is an outsider in relation to the object, a person who is not a participant in the activities of the observed. The second is characterized by the fact that the researcher is openly or incognito included in the group and its activities as a participant.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the conditions environment, the situation was specifically created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on films and in other ways.

Description - this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object;

2) indirect, when the researcher notes the features of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).

Check - this is the definition of quantitative ratios of objects of study or parameters that characterize their properties. The method is widely used in statistics to determine the degree and type of variability of a phenomenon, process, the reliability of the obtained average values and theoretical conclusions.

Measurement is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with a standard. The value of this procedure lies in the fact that it provides precise, quantitative, definite information about the surrounding reality.

Comparison - this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing a difference between them or finding something in common in them, carried out both by the senses and with the help of special devices.

Experiment - this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments are classified on various grounds:

- by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

- by the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object -ordinary (experimental means directly interact with the object under study) andmodel (the model replaces the object of study). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

Modeling - a method of scientific knowledge, the essence of which is to replace the object or phenomenon under study with a special similar model (object) containing the essential features of the original. Thus, instead of the original (the object of interest to us), the experiment is carried out on a model (another object), and the results of the study are extended to the original.

Models are physical and mathematical. In accordance with this, physical and mathematical modeling are distinguished. If the model and the original are of the same physical nature, then physical modeling is used.

Mathematical model is a mathematical abstraction that characterizes a physical, biological, economic or any other process. Mathematical models with different physical nature are based on the identity of the mathematical description of the processes occurring in them and in the original.

Math modeling - a method for studying complex processes based on a broad physical analogy, when the model and its original are described by identical equations. Thus, due to the similarity of the mathematical equations of electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to study electrical phenomena with the help of magnetic ones, and vice versa. Feature and dignity this method- the ability to apply it to individual sections of a complex system, as well as to quantitatively investigate phenomena that are difficult to study on physical models.

Special and private research methods

Private methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular industry or outside the industry where they originated. Thus, the methods of physics led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, and biophysics. The spread of chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often a set of interrelated particular methods is applied to the study of one subject, for example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, and cybernetics in their interconnection.

Special research methods are used only in one branch of scientific knowledge or their application is limited to several narrow areas of knowledge.

In the social sciences and humanities, among the special methods are used:

document analysis - qualitative and quantitative (content analysis);

surveys, interviews, testing;

biographical and autobiographical methods;

sociometry method - application of mathematical tools to the study social phenomena. Most often used in the study of "small groups" and interpersonal relationships in them;

game methods - used in the development of managerial decisions - simulation (business) games and games of an open type (especially when analyzing non-standard situations);

peer review method is to study the opinions of specialists with deep knowledge and practical experience in a particular field.

Control questions and tasks

1. Define the terms "method" and "methodology".

2. What is the methodology of scientific research.

3. Expand the dialectical and metaphysical concepts of development.

4. List the general scientific methods of scientific research.

5. What methods are classified as methods theoretical level?

6. What methods are classified as methods of the empirical level?

7. What methods are called private?

8. What methods are called special?

Methodology of scientific research.

The concept of methodology and method. 3
Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Methodology (from "method" and "logy") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical development of reality, based on the laws of behavior of the object under study.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called general methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can also be classified according to the ratio of empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its specific scientific, special methods, due to the essence of the object of study. However, often methods specific to a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that the objects of biological research include in one form or another the physical and chemical forms of the movement of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of cognition of reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside their mutual connection and development.

From the middle of the 19th century, the metaphysical method was more and more displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The ratio of general scientific methods can also be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the unification of the elements known as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization - the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment "this metal conducts electricity" to the judgment "all metals conduct electricity", from the judgment: "the mechanical form of energy turns into heat" to to the proposition “every form of energy is converted into thermal energy”.

Abstraction (idealization) - the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties, features of objects that are not essential for this study may be excluded from consideration. An example of such an idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point that has mass but no dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular single facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves the conclusion about all the objects of the set based on the knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction based on experimental research and including theoretical justification is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic. It's risky but creative method. With a strict formulation of the experiment, logical sequence and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general propositions are an established scientific truth, then the true conclusion will always be obtained by deduction. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and build their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving particular, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in any feature, based on their established similarity in other features. The analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. So, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of the object of knowledge on its specially arranged analogue - the model. Models can be real (material), for example, aircraft models, building models, photographs, prostheses, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) ones created by means of a language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system under study.

The historical method implies the reproduction of the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in fact, the logical reproduction of the history of the object under study. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental, insignificant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but liberated from its historical form.

Classification - the distribution of certain objects into classes (departments, categories) depending on their common features, fixing regular connections between classes of objects in a single system of a particular branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the studied objects, phenomena.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

The methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig.3.

observation.

Observation is a sensual reflection of objects and phenomena outside world. This is the initial method of empirical knowledge, which allows obtaining some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the task of the study);

regularity (observation should be carried out strictly according to the plan drawn up on the basis of the research task);

activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to fix the technical properties, aspects of the object under study, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of the results of observations form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the studied objects according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct and indirect.

With direct observation, certain properties, sides of the object are reflected, perceived by the human senses. At present, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method studies of the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Earth, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, the boundaries of the removal of muddy river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often the observation is indirect, that is, it is carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, before early XVII centuries, astronomers have observed celestial bodies naked eye, Galileo's invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observation, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From the foregoing, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, providing the collection of extensive information about the world around us.

An experiment is a more complex method of empirical knowledge compared to observation. It involves an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object under study in order to identify and study certain of its aspects, properties, connections. It has a number of unique features:

The experiment allows to study the object in a "purified" form, that is, to eliminate all kinds of side factors, layers that impede the research process;

During the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial, in particular, extreme conditions (at ultra-low temperatures, at high pressures, at huge voltages electromagnetic field and etc.);

· studying any process, the experimenter can intervene in it, actively influence its course;

· Experiments can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results.

The preparation and conduct of the experiment require compliance with a number of conditions. So, scientific experiment:

1. never taken at random, it presupposes a clearly formulated goal of the study;

2. it is not done “blindly”, it is always based on some initial theoretical positions;

3. not carried out without a plan, the researcher preliminarily outlines the ways of its implementation;

4. requires a certain level of development of technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation;

5. must be carried out by people who have a sufficiently high qualification.

Depending on the nature of the problems solved in the course of experiments, the latter are usually divided into research and testing.

Research makes it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object. The result of such an experiment may be conclusions that do not follow from the existing knowledge about the object of study. Testing are used to verify, confirm certain theoretical constructions.

Measurement is a process that consists in determining the quantitative values of certain properties, aspects of the object under study, the phenomenon with the help of special technical devices.

An important aspect of the measurement process is the method of its implementation. It is a set of techniques that use certain principles and means of measurement. Under the principles of measurement, in this case, we mean some phenomena that form the basis of measurements (for example, temperature measurement using the thermoelectric effect).

According to the method of obtaining results, direct and indirect measurements are distinguished. In direct measurements, the desired value of the measured quantity is obtained by directly comparing it with the standard or given by the measuring device. With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined on the basis of a known mathematical relationship between this value and other quantities obtained by direct measurements (for example, finding the electrical resistivity of a conductor from its resistance, length and cross-sectional area).

Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes in the object under study in accordance with the objectives of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, attributes of objects can be excluded from consideration. Thus, the idealization widespread in mechanics, called a material point, implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient in describing motion. Moreover, such an abstraction makes it possible to replace a variety of real objects in the study: from molecules or atoms in solving many problems of statistical mechanics to planets. solar system when studying, for example, their movement around the Sun.

The expediency of using idealization is determined by the following circumstances:

First, idealization is expedient when the real objects to be investigated are sufficiently complex for the available means of theoretical, in particular, mathematical analysis.

Secondly, it is advisable to use idealization in those cases when it is necessary to exclude certain properties, connections of the object under study, without which it cannot exist, but which obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it.

Thirdly, the use of idealization is advisable when the properties, sides, and connections of the object under study that are excluded from consideration do not affect its essence within the framework of this study.

The main positive value of idealization as a method of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that the theoretical constructions obtained on its basis make it possible then to effectively investigate real objects and phenomena.

Formalization. Formalization means special approach in scientific cognition, which consists in the use of special symbols that allow one to abstract from the study of real objects, from the content of theoretical provisions describing them, and instead operate with a certain set of symbols (signs).

To build any formalized system, it is necessary:

a) setting the alphabet, that is, a certain set of characters;

b) setting the rules by which "words" and "formulas" can be obtained from the initial characters of this alphabet;

c) setting the rules by which one can move from one word, formula of a given system to other words and formulas.

An important advantage of this system is the possibility of conducting within its framework the study of any object in a purely formal way without direct reference to this object.

Another advantage of formalization is to ensure the brevity and clarity of the recording of scientific information, which opens up great opportunities for operating with it.

Bibliography.

1. Kochergin A.N. Methods and forms of knowledge. – M.: Nauka, 1990.

2. Kraevsky V.V. Methodology of scientific research: A manual for students and graduate students of humanitarian universities. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg. GUP, 2001.

3. Novikov A.M., Novikov D.A. Methodology. Moscow: Sinteg, 2007.

4. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific research: Proc. Allowance for universities. – M.: UNITI-DANA, 1999.

The method of scientific research is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.

Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.

To methods empirical level include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, simulation, etc.

TO theoretical level methods they include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

a) universal (philosophical), acting in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

b) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

c) private - for related sciences;

d) special - for a particular science, area of scientific knowledge.

From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.

Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Each science has its own methodology.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Private methodology of scientific research, for example, for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, state-legal phenomena.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, particular and special methods of cognition.

Among universal (philosophical) methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems. So, the dialectical method in K. Marx was combined with materialism, and in G.V.F. Hegel - with idealism.

Russian legal scholars use the dialectical method to study state-legal phenomena, because the laws of dialectics are of universal importance, inherent in the development of nature, society and thinking.

When studying objects and phenomena, dialectics recommends proceeding from the following principles:

1. Consider the objects under study in the light of dialectical laws:

a) unity and struggle of opposites,

b) the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones,

c) negation of negation.

2. Describe, explain and predict the phenomena and processes under study, based on philosophical categories: general, particular and singular; content and form; entities and phenomena; possibilities and reality; necessary and accidental; cause and effect.

3. Treat the object of study as an objective reality.

4. Consider the objects and phenomena under study:

comprehensively,

in universal connection and interdependence,

in continuous change, development,

specifically historical.

5. Check the acquired knowledge in practice.

All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.

General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.

Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies the analytical method of research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.

Synthesis- this is a combination of individual aspects, parts of the object of study into a single whole.

Induction- this is the movement of thought (cognition) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea.

Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from any general position, the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.

To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.

Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements are accepted without evidence and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.

Hypothetical Method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.

A variation of this method is the hypothetical-deductive method of research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived.

The structure of the hypothetical-deductive method includes:

a) putting forward a guess (assumption) about the causes and patterns of the studied phenomena and objects,

b) selection from a set of guesses of the most probable, plausible,

c) deduction from the selected assumption (premise) of the consequence (conclusion) with the help of deduction,

d) experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis.

Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.

Formalization is the basis for algorithmization and programming, without which the computerization of knowledge and the research process cannot do.

abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.

Types of abstraction: identification, i.e. highlighting the common properties and relations of the objects under study, establishing the identical in them, abstracting from the differences between them, combining objects into a special class; isolation, i.e. highlighting some properties and relationships that are considered as independent subjects of research. In theory, other types of abstraction are also distinguished: potential feasibility, actual infinity.

Generalization– establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition of a general concept, which reflects the essential, basic features of objects or phenomena of a given class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.

historical method consists in revealing historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge consists in the fact that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes under various conditions, discovers new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.

System Method consists in the study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these interrelations and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects.

TO empirical level methods include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.

Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.

If the observation was carried out in a natural setting, then it is called field, and if the environmental conditions, the situation were specially created by the researcher, then it will be considered laboratory. The results of observation can be recorded in protocols, diaries, cards, on films and in other ways.

Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description happens:

direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object;

indirect, when the researcher notes the signs of the object that were perceived by other persons.

Check- this is the definition of quantitative ratios of objects of study or parameters that characterize their properties. The quantitative method is widely used in statistics.

Measurement- this is the determination of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; the speed of movement of vehicles, a person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes, temperature, size, weight, etc.

Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.

In a scientific study, this method is used, for example, to compare the state-legal institutions of different states. This method is based on the study, comparison of similar objects, identification of common and different in them, advantages and disadvantages.

Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested.

Experiments can be classified on various grounds:

by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.;

according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).

The above classification is not exhaustive.

Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - an analogue, a model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object.

Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.

In modeling theory, there are:

1) ideal (mental, symbolic) models, for example, in the form of drawings, records, signs, mathematical interpretation;

2) material (natural, real- physical) models, for example, mock-ups, dummies, analogue objects for experiments during examinations, reconstruction of a person’s appearance according to the method of M.M. Gerasimov.

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