Artistic culture and art of ancient Sumer. Mesopotamian ArtIntroduction
Chapter "The Art of Sumer (27-25 centuries BC)". Section "The Art of Front Asia". General history of arts. Volume I. Art ancient world. Author: I.M. Losev; under the general editorship of A.D. Chegodaev (Moscow, Art State Publishing House, 1956)
At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. the growth of class contradictions led to the formation in Mesopotamia of the first small slave states in which the remnants of the primitive communal system were still very strong. Initially, such states were individual cities (with adjacent rural settlements), usually located in the places of ancient temple centers. Between them there were incessant wars for the possession of the main irrigation canals, for the capture of the best land, slaves and livestock.
Earlier than others, the Sumerian city-states of Ur, Uruk, Lagash, etc. arose in the south of Mesopotamia. Later, economic reasons caused a tendency to unite into larger state formations, which was usually done with the help of military force. In the second half of the 3rd millennium, Akkad rose in the north, whose ruler, Sargon I, united most of Mesopotamia under his rule, creating a single and powerful Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. The royal power, which represented the interests of the slave-owning elite, especially from the time of Akkad, became despotic. The priesthood, which was one of the pillars of the ancient Eastern despotism, developed a complex cult of the gods, deified the power of the king. An important role in the religion of the peoples of Mesopotamia was played by the worship of the forces of nature and the remnants of the cult of animals. The gods were depicted as people, animals and fantastic creatures of supernatural power: winged lions, bulls, etc.
During this period, the main features characteristic of the art of the Mesopotamia of the early slave era were consolidated. The leading role was played by the architecture of palace buildings and temples, decorated with works of sculpture and painting. Due to the military nature of the Sumerian states, the architecture was of a fortified nature, as evidenced by the remains of numerous urban structures and defensive walls equipped with towers and well-fortified gates.
The main building material for the buildings of Mesopotamia was raw brick, much less often burnt brick. A constructive feature of monumental architecture was going from the 4th millennium BC. the use of artificially erected platforms, which is explained, perhaps, by the need to isolate the building from the dampness of the soil, moistened by spills, and at the same time, probably, by the desire to make the building visible from all sides. Another characteristic, based on an equally ancient tradition, was the broken line of the wall, formed by ledges. Windows, when they were made, were placed at the top of the wall and looked like narrow gaps. Buildings were also illuminated through a doorway and a hole in the roof. The coverings were mostly flat, but the vault was also known. Residential buildings discovered by excavations in the south of Sumer had an open courtyard around which covered premises were grouped. This layout, in line with climatic conditions country, formed the basis of the palace buildings of the southern Mesopotamia. In the northern part of Sumer, houses were found that had a central room with a ceiling instead of an open courtyard. Residential buildings were sometimes two-story, with blank walls facing the street, as is often the case even today in eastern cities.
About the ancient temple architecture of the Sumerian cities of the 3rd millennium BC. give an idea of the ruins of the temple at El Obeid (2600 BC); dedicated to the goddess of fertility Nin-Khursag. According to the reconstruction (however, not indisputable), the temple stood on a high platform (32x25 m in area), built of densely packed clay. The walls of the platform and the sanctuary, in accordance with the ancient Sumerian tradition, were divided by vertical ledges, but, in addition, the retaining walls of the platform were smeared with black bitumen at the bottom and whitewashed at the top, and thus also divided horizontally. A rhythm of vertical and horizontal sections was created, which was repeated on the walls of the sanctuary, but in a slightly different interpretation. Here, the vertical articulation of the wall was cut horizontally by ribbons of friezes.
For the first time, round sculpture and relief were used in the decoration of the building. The statues of lions on the sides of the entrance (the oldest gate sculpture) were made, like all other sculptural decorations of El Obeid, from wood covered with beaten copper sheets over a layer of bitumen. Inlaid eyes and protruding tongues made of colored stones gave these sculptures a bright colorful appearance.
Along the wall, in niches between ledges, there were very expressive brass figurines of walking bulls. Above, the surface of the wall was decorated with three friezes, located at some distance from one another: a high-relief one with images of lying gobies made of copper, and two with a flat mosaic relief, laid out of white mother-of-pearl on black slate plates. Thus, a color scheme was created that echoed the color of the platforms. On one of the friezes, scenes of economic life, possibly of cult significance, were quite clearly depicted, on the other, sacred birds and animals marching in a line.
The inlay technique was also applied to the columns on the façade. Some of them were decorated with colored stones, mother-of-pearl and shells, others with metal plates attached to a wooden base with nails with colored hats.
With undoubted skill, a copper high relief placed above the entrance to the sanctuary was executed, turning in places into a round sculpture; it depicts a lion-headed eagle clawing deer. This composition, repeated with small variations on a number of monuments of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. (on the silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a quite clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of characteristic features Anterior Asian relief.
The Sumerians created a ziggurat - a peculiar type of religious buildings, which for thousands of years occupied a prominent place in the architecture of the cities of Western Asia. The ziggurat was erected at the temple of the main local deity and represented a high stepped tower built of raw brick; on top of the ziggurat there was a small structure that crowned the building - the so-called "dwelling of the god."
Better than others, the ziggurat in Uret, rebuilt many times, was erected in the 22nd - 21st centuries BC. (reconstruction). It consisted of three massive towers, built one above the other and forming wide, possibly landscaped terraces, connected by stairs. The lower part had a rectangular base 65x43 m, the walls reached 13 m in height. The total height of the building at one time reached 21 m (which is equal to a five-story building of our days). Interior space in a ziggurat was usually non-existent or kept to a minimum, to one small room. The towers of the ziggurat of Ur were of different colors: the lower one was black, smeared with bitumen, the middle one was red (the natural color of burnt brick), the upper one was white. On the upper terrace, where the "dwelling of the god" was located, religious mysteries took place; it, perhaps, also served as an observatory for the priests-stargazers. Monumentality, which was achieved by massiveness, simplicity of forms and volumes, as well as clarity of proportions, created the impression of grandeur and power and was hallmark ziggurat architecture. With its monumentality, the ziggurat resembles the pyramids of Egypt.
Plastic art of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC characterized by the predominance of small sculpture, mainly for religious purposes; its execution is still quite primitive.
Despite the rather significant diversity that the monuments of sculpture of various local centers of Ancient Sumer represent, two main groups can be distinguished - one associated with the south, the other with the north of the country.
The extreme south of Mesopotamia (the cities of Ur, Lagash, etc.) is characterized by the almost complete indivisibility of the stone block and a very summary interpretation of details. Squat figures with an almost absent neck, with a beak-shaped nose and big eyes. The proportions of the body are not respected. The sculptural monuments of the northern part of the southern Mesopotamia (the cities of Ashnunak, Khafaj, etc.) are distinguished by more elongated proportions, greater elaboration of details, and the desire for naturalistically accurate reproduction. external features models, albeit with greatly exaggerated eye sockets and oversized noses.
Sumerian sculpture is expressive in its own way. Especially clearly she conveys the humiliated servility or tender piety, so characteristic mainly of the statues of worshipers, which the noble Sumerians dedicated to their gods. There were certain poses and gestures that had been established since ancient times, which can be constantly seen both in reliefs and in round sculpture.
Metal-plastic and other types of artistic crafts were distinguished by great perfection in Ancient Sumer. This is evidenced by the well-preserved grave goods of the so-called "royal tombs" of the 27th - 26th centuries. BC, discovered in Ur. The finds in the tombs speak of class differentiation in Ur at that time and of a developed cult of the dead associated with the custom of human sacrifices, which were widespread here. Luxurious utensils of the tombs are skillfully made of precious metals (gold and silver) and various stones (alabaster, lapis lazuli, obsidian, etc.). Among the finds of the "royal tombs" stand out a golden helmet of the finest workmanship from the tomb of the ruler Meskalamdug, reproducing a wig with the smallest details intricate hairstyle. Very good is a golden dagger with a sheath of fine filigree work from the same tomb and other items that amaze with a variety of shapes and elegance of decoration. The art of goldsmiths in the depiction of animals reaches a special height, as can be judged by the beautifully executed head of a bull, which apparently adorned the soundboard of a harp. Generalized, but very true, the artist conveyed a powerful, full of life bull's head; the swollen, as if fluttering nostrils of the animal are well emphasized. The head is inlaid: the eyes, beard and hair on the crown are made of lapis lazuli, the whites of the eyes are made of shells. The image, apparently, is associated with the cult of animals and with the image of the god Nannar, who was represented, judging by the descriptions of cuneiform texts, in the form of a "strong bull with an azure beard."
Samples of mosaic art were also found in the tombs of Ur, among which the best is the so-called “standard” (as archaeologists called it): two oblong rectangular plates, fixed in an inclined position like a steep gable roof, made of wood covered with a layer of asphalt with pieces of lapis azure (background) and shells (figures). This mosaic of lapis lazuli, shells and carnelian forms a colorful ornament. Divided into tiers according to the tradition already established by that time in Sumerian relief compositions, these plates convey pictures of battles and battles, tell of the triumph of the troops of the city of Ur, of captured slaves and tribute, of the triumph of the victors. The theme of this "standard", designed to glorify military activities rulers, reflects the military nature of the state.
The best example of the sculptural relief of Sumer is the stele of Eannatum, called the "Kite Steles". The monument was made in honor of the victory of Eannatum, the ruler of the city of Lagash (25th century BC) over the neighboring city of Umma. The stele was preserved in fragments, but they make it possible to determine the basic principles of the ancient Sumerian monumental relief. The image is divided by horizontal lines into belts, along which the composition is built. Separate, often different episodes unfold in these zones and create a visual narrative of events. Usually the heads of all those depicted are on the same level. An exception are the images of the king and god, whose figures were always made on a much larger scale. With this technique, the difference in the social status of the depicted was emphasized and the leading figure of the composition stood out. Human figures are all exactly the same, they are static, their turn on the plane is conditional: the head and legs are turned in profile, while the eyes and shoulders are given in front. It is possible that such an interpretation is explained (as in Egyptian images) by the desire to show the human figure in such a way that it is perceived especially clearly. On the front side of the Stele of the Kites there is a large figure of the supreme god of the city of Lagash, holding a net in which the enemies of Eannatum are caught. On the back of the stele, Eannatum is depicted at the head of his formidable army, marching over the corpses of defeated enemies. On one of the fragments of the stele, flying kites carry off the severed heads of enemy soldiers. The inscription on the stele reveals the content of the images, describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.
Of great value for the history of art of the peoples of Western Asia are monuments of glyptics, that is, carved stones - seals and amulets. They often fill in the gaps caused by the lack of monuments of monumental art, and allow a more complete picture of the artistic development of the art of Mesopotamia.
Images on seals-cylinders of Western Asia are often distinguished by great craftsmanship. (The usual form of the seals of Western Asia is cylindrical, on the rounded surface of which the artists easily placed multi-figured compositions). Made from various types of stones, softer for the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. and more solid (chalcedony, carnelian, hematite, etc.) for the end of the 3rd, as well as 2nd and 1st millennia BC. extremely primitive instruments, these small works of art are sometimes genuine masterpieces.
Seal-cylinders dating back to the time of Sumer are very diverse. Favorite plots are mythological, most often associated with the very popular epic in Western Asia about Gilgamesh - a hero of invincible strength and unsurpassed courage. There are seals with images on the themes of the myth of the flood, the flight of the hero Etana on an eagle to the sky for the "grass of birth", etc. The seals-cylinders of Sumer are characterized by a conditional, schematic transfer of figures of people and animals, ornamental composition and the desire to fill the entire surface of the cylinder with an image . As in monumental reliefs, the artists adhere strictly to the arrangement of figures, in which all heads are placed on the same level, which is why animals are often represented standing on their hind legs. The motif of Gilgamesh's struggle with predatory animals that harmed livestock, often found on cylinders, reflects the vital interests of the ancient pastoralists of Mesopotamia. The theme of the hero's struggle with animals was very common in the glyptics of Asia Minor and in subsequent times.
Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) - an area in the middle and lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Western or Western Asia). One of the oldest centers of civilization.
Mesopotamia is the area only between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and Mesopotamia includes the territories adjacent to the rivers.
Both rivers are to Mesopotamia what the fertile Nile is to Egypt. From March to September, they overflow, carrying powerful streams of water from the mountains, and moisten the earth, dotted with artificial irrigation channels. The fabulously fertile lands of Mesopotamia already in 4 thousand BC. were inhabited by various tribes.
Most of the inhabitants of the south were Sumerians, and the north were Akkadians. The Sumerian tribes came from the southern part Central Europe. They were not natives. The southern part of Mesopotamia was very swampy.
Mesopotamia was inhabited by various peoples and was not protected from invasions by impenetrable sands, like Egypt. Here are the city-states. The peoples who were at war with each other created several cultures, but still there are common features.
Bronze Age in the Middle East
Ziggurat in Ur - monument Sumerian architecture bronze age.In the Middle East, the following dates correspond to 3 periods (the dates are very approximate):
1. Early Bronze Age (3500-2000 BC)
2. Middle Bronze Age (2000-1600 BC)
3. Late Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC)
Every main period can be divided into shorter sub-categories: as an example, RBV I, RBV II, SBV IIa, etc.
The Bronze Age in the Middle East began in Anatolia (modern Turkey), the mountains of the Anatolian Highlands had rich deposits of copper and tin. Copper was also mined in Cyprus, ancient Egypt, Israel, Iran and around the Persian Gulf. Copper was commonly mixed with arsenic, yet the region's growing demand for tin led to the creation of trade routes from Anatolia. Also, by sea routes, copper was imported to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The early Bronze Age is characterized by urbanization and the emergence of city-states, as well as the emergence of writing (Uruk, fourth millennium BC). In the Middle Bronze Age, there was a significant balance of power in the region, (Amorites, Hittites, Hurrians, Hyksos and possibly Israelites).
The Late Bronze Age is characterized by competition between the powerful states of the region and their vassals (Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Hittites, Mitannians). Extensive contacts were established with the Aegean civilization (Achaeans), in which copper played an important role. The Bronze Age in the Middle East ended with a historical phenomenon, which among professionals is commonly called the bronze collapse. This phenomenon affected the entire Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East.
Iron appeared in the Middle East, and also in Anatolia already in the Late Bronze Age. The entry into force of the Iron Age was marked more by political motives than by a breakthrough in the field of metallurgy.
periodization
1. Art of Sumer. 5 thousand - 2400 BC2. Sumero-Akkadian art. 2400 - 1997 BC.
3. Art of Ancient Babylon (Old Babylonian period). Beginning 2 thousand - before the beginning. 1 thousand BC
4. Art of Assyria. early 1 thousand - con. 7th c. BC. (605 BC - destroyed by Media and Babylonia). Period of highest power: 2nd half. 8 - 1 floor. 7th c. BC.
5. Art of New Babylon. Con. 7th c. - 6th c. BC. In 539 BC conquered by the Persians.
Religion
Due to the constant transfer of power from city to city, there was no dream of extending the blessings of life in the dead world. The fierce struggle without mercy for the vanquished gave rise to the worldview that death is inevitable and terrible. Art reflects thoughts not about the afterlife, but about the present - the struggle for power, life, depending on the will of higher powers.
Writing is cuneiform. The oldest Sumerian epic is about the brave Gilgamesh.
Art of Sumer
5 thousand - 2400 BCSumerian cities: Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Kish, etc.
All ancient civilizations began with ceramic cultures. Why ceramic? Dishes were needed.
In 5 thousand BC. already had pets.
Ceramics. The cruciform shape is formed by 4 naked female figures with flowing hair - a swastika (existed from 6 thousand BC). Symbolizes: the sun, stars, infinity, forming a Maltese cross.
Chess fields are mountains.
In the middle of the 4th millennium BC, during the rise of the city of Uruk, a frame was invented for raw bricks, which were not fired, but dried in the sun. The construction of rectangular temples began. The main rooms were surrounded by utility rooms.
Features of the architecture of Mesopotamia are largely explained natural conditions. There was no forest and stone in this area, so raw brick became the main building material. Even temples and palaces were built from mud. Sometimes the buildings were faced with baked bricks, finished with imported stone and wood. to huts and outbuildings reed was commonly used.
Ser. 4 thousand BC (Gilgamesh time)
It was whitewashed with lime - hence the name.
The temple was the main city building. It was erected in the center of the city on a platform rammed from clay, to which ramps led from two sides.
Flat protrusions-blades kept from shedding and decorated the surface of the walls.
The sanctuary - the god's house - was moved to the edge of the platform and had an inner open courtyard.
Inside, the temple was richly decorated with mother-of-pearl, a mosaic of multi-colored (red, black, white) nails driven into the mud.
At the turn of 4 - 3 thousand BC. the priesthood is allocated to a separate caste, the right to be a priest is inherited. In 3 thousand BC. the division of classes intensifies.
Alabaster. H - 19 cm. Head of the granaries of the city of Mari. Always pray for grace.
It seems like childhood and primitivism, but it fulfills all social and religious tasks. The transmission system of ethnic features: a large forehead, narrow lips. Closed hands - a request for propitiation.
Eye inlay. Shoulders, beard, skirt - different textures of materials.
Limestone, apsidian eyes. God the Father, the all-seeing eye.
Luxurious vegetation is a sign of fertility (the ability to produce all living things).
, his wife. Statues were placed in temples on a step along the walls.
Mastery of decorative and applied things
Harp from the royal tomb at Ur. 2600 BC
Harp resonator from the royal tomb at Ur. Gold and lapis lazuli. The mighty bull's head is magnificent.
Animals are endowed with human traits. A donkey plays the harp, a dancing bear… monumentality + jewelery subtlety.
Sumero-Akkadian art
2400 - 1997 BC.OK. 2400 BC Akkadian king Sargon the Ancient united Sumer, all of Mesopotamia and Elam. the center of the first major state Mesopotamia (Anterior Asia) became the city of Akkad, located in the northern part of South Mesopotamia.
The board becomes autocratic, the temple lands turn into royal ones.
Head of Sargon the Ancient (Akkadian). 23rd century BC.
Rough domineering personality.
Epic in stone. Rhythmic ascent to the mountain of royal soldiers.
Linear narration.
compositional clarity.
The pride of triumph over the enemy.
There are only stars above the giant figure of the king.
City of Lagash (Sumerian lands)
In the 22nd century BC. the ruler of the city and the priest of Gudea develops rapid construction.Due to the fragility of raw brick, the buildings have not been preserved.
More than a dozen stone sculptures were found in the city temple. They are carved from diorite almost life size.
For the first time in the history of Mesopotamia, they were created monumental, up to two meters, carefully polished.
Statics and frontal staging of figures, their general massiveness. The Sumerians knew how to be stingy, but expressive means convey the greatness and dignity of man.
City of Ur
As in other cities, the center of Ur was a temple - a ziggurat.A ziggurat is a tall tower surrounded by projecting terraces and giving the impression of several towers decreasing in volume.
The alternation was emphasized by coloring:
- The lower terrace was painted with black bitumen,
- the second one is lined with burnt red brick,
- the third was whitewashed.
The ledges of the ziggurat were later made. The landscaping of the terraces gave brightness and picturesqueness. The upper tower, to which a high staircase led, was sometimes crowned with a gilded dome.
The temple is the home of the deity who owns the city. He was supposed to live at the top. Therefore, in ziggurats they made from 3 to 7 tracks.
In addition to rituals, the priests made astronomical observations from the ziggurat.
The majestic ziggurat in Ur, rising above the buildings, expressed the idea of the power of the gods and the deified king.
Art of Ancient Babylon
(Old Babylonian period)Beginning 2 thousand - before the beginning. 1 thousand BC
The period of the highest flourishing of the Old Babylonian civilization was under King Hamurappi (18th century BC).
And in the place where the rivers converged most of all, on the left bank of the Euphrates stood the city of Babylon.
Under King Hammurabi (1792 - 1750 BC), the city united all areas of Sumer and Akkad under its leadership. The glory of Babylon and its king thundered throughout the world.
The greatest merit of Hammurabi was the creation of a code of laws - the constitution.
. A high relief decorated a pillar on which the laws were written.
Monumentality and picturesqueness. The sun god Shamash presents the king with symbols of power (a wand and a magic ring).
Art of Assyria
early 1 thousand - con. 7th c. BC.The Assyrians transformed the religion, culture and art of Babylonia, significantly coarsening them, but also endowing them with a new pathos of power, as the Romans did with the Greeks. They spread their power from the Sinai Peninsula to Armenia. Even Egypt itself was conquered a short time them.
In art - the pathos of strength, the glorification of the power, victory and conquest of the Assyrian rulers.
Period of highest power: 2nd half. 8 - 1 floor. 7th c. BC.
. 2nd floor 8th c. BC. Alabaster.
Majestic and fantastic. Rising at the entrance to the palace. Bulls in tiaras with arrogant human faces, beard curls are completely twisted, 5 heavy, trampling hooves all under them. Protected the royal palaces. On the side - a frightening heaviness of movement, in front - formidable peace.
The Assyrian state is characterized not by cult, but by secular grandiose palace architecture and secular scenes in interior paintings and reliefs.
Relief from the palace of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. Ser. 7th c. BC.
Art of New Babylon
Con. 7th c. - 6th c. BC. In 539 BCIn 605 BC Assyria was conquered and destroyed by Media and Babylonia. Tower of Babel. Reconstruction. The Tower of Babel, famous in the Bible, was a seven-tiered ziggurat 90 meters high. It was built under King Nimrod. Assyrian architect Aradahdeshu.
The sanctuary was dedicated to the main god Marduk. It was most likely crowned with gilded horns. The shrine gleamed with blue-violet glazed bricks.
According to the descriptions of Herodotus, a statue of a deity made of gold weighing approx. 2.5 tons 
Dutch artist renaissance 16th century Pieter Brueghel the Elder. tower of babel. 1563
During the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar, famous Gardens Queen Semiramis. Archaeologists have found a system of wells. Slaves supplied water to the terraces, turning a huge wheel. During the time of King Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon was an impregnable stronghold. The walls of the city with countless towers are so large that two chariots pulled by four horses could freely pass through them.
The walls of the road in front of the Ishtar Gate were lined with blue glazed bricks and decorated with a relief frieze.
Decorated with symbolic images of the god Marduk - dragons.
A procession of lions, bulls and dragons was depicted.
On the whole, the art of New Babylon did not create something new and original, but repeated with greater splendor, sometimes even excessive, the models created by ancient Babylonia and Assyria.
Achiemenid dynasty
Persian or Iranian Empire
539 - 330 BC. 
First of all, it is palace and court art.
Palace ensembles in Pasargadae, Persepolis, Susa.
The first sculptural images of the Sumerians were found during the archaeological excavations of Jemdet-Nasr on the territory of modern Iraq. These are small figurines depicting strange outlandish creatures with elongated heads and huge eyes.
Researchers have not yet decided on the purpose of these figurines, it is unlikely that they depicted real people. Most scientists associate them with cult rites of reproduction and fertility. Small sculptures of animals belong to the same time, very colorfully and expressively depicting nature.
The true heyday of Sumerian sculpture begins after the defeat of the Akkadian kingdom. Many well-preserved monumental images of the ruler of Lagash, Gudea, have survived to our times, made mainly of their diorite.
This is a sculptural image of a seated man, whose hands are folded in prayer. On his lap lies the architectural plan of the building. The meaning of the sculptural composition is explained by the inscriptions running along the bottom of the statue. Gudea, fulfilling the will of the god Lagash Ningirsu, reconstructs main temple cities. The inscriptions also explain that Gudea became famous for numerous deeds designed to increase the wealth and power of the Lagash gods. For this, he was awarded eternal remembrance and care, for which these statues are installed in all the temples of Sumer in places of commemoration of the dead. In the sculpture of that period, two leading directions can be distinguished - the so-called "Sumerian" and "Akkadian" sculpture.
Sumerian images are stylized and formal. Their main task is to convey the inner essence of the composition. The transmission of the inner idea is more important than the display of the form, it is developed only to the extent necessary to make the inner content of the sculptural image understandable. The Sumerian masters did not try to achieve the similarity of the sculptural image with the original. From the very beginning, Akkadian art has been based on the development of form, the ability to embody any plot in stone.
The difference between these two approaches is clearly seen in the statues of the ruler of Lagash, Gudea, that have survived to this day. One type of statue is a squat shortened figure, the proportions of which are poorly observed, and the second type is a figure that is thinner and more graceful, the details of the image are carved more carefully.
Some researchers of Sumerian creativity express a different hypothesis about the reasons for the existence of two types of sculptures. In their opinion, the Akkadians had great skill in working with stones, therefore they more accurately draw the proportions of the body, while the Sumerian image is schematic and conditional due to the inability to process imported stone and accurately display the object.
The sculpture of Sumer, like other forms of art, developed, changed and improved gradually. What was quite naturally influenced by political, economic, natural changes; wars, changing power, the nature of government, religious aspirations (preferences), property stratification of society and other social problems. Sumerians culture sculpture figurine
There is no doubt that for the first time in the everyday life of the ancient Sumerians, sculpture appeared in the form of small plastic forms - figurines. cult value. The oldest of those found date back to the Ubaid period - 4000-3500 BC. BC. These are clay figurines of female and male deities of fertility. The characteristic features of these figurines is the undivided, generalized molding of the lower part - the legs. At the same time - a clear allocation of volumes and dissection of the upper part of the figurines - their heads, shoulders, arms. All of them are distinguished by slender proportions, clearly reproduced basic forms of bodies, as well as signs of sex; fantastic frog-like or snake-like heads.
In the subsequent periods of Uruk (3500-3000 BC) and Jemdet-Nasr (3000-2850 BC), the first monumental religious and public buildings were created. But the sculpture is almost completely absent in their design. By the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. refers to the only and unique in artistically an example of a wall temple sculpture - a marble female head from Uruk. Hewn from behind, she was attached to the wall and, presumably, represented the goddess of fertility, love and depravity, Inanna. The eyes of the goddess, expressive and wide open, were inlaid, which would later be often used by the Sumerians as a symbol of the omniscience available to the deities.
The invention of the drill made it possible to process stone faster and easier. In this regard, a large number of small sculptural images of animals, such as sheep, rams, and calves, were created. Their purpose is a magical effect on the productive forces of nature.
After the unification of the countries of the Northern and Southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Akkad), new trends are found in art.
The leading role is occupied by the architecture of palace buildings. And now, for the first time, round sculpture and relief began to be used in decorating buildings.
A typical and striking example of a temple building of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. is a temple in El Obeid, a suburb of Ur, dedicated to the goddess of fertility Nin-Khursag.
Two gate sculptures of guardian lions were included in the design of the entrance to the temple. The sculptures are made of wood and covered with beaten copper sheets. Their eyes and protruding tongues are inlaid with bright colored stones. Along the wall were expressive figures of walking bulls, smaller than two central ones. Above the doorway was a masterfully executed high relief, fragmentarily turning into an almost round sculpture. It depicts a fantastic lion-headed eagle and two deer. This composition, repeated with small variations on a number of monuments of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (on the silver vase of the ruler Entemena, votive plates made of stone and bitumen, etc.), was apparently the emblem of the god Nin-Girsu. A feature of the relief is a quite clear, symmetrical heraldic composition, which later became one of the characteristic features of the Near Asian relief.
In addition to the heraldic composition based on the principle of rhythmic identity of the right and left halves, the line-by-line composition was also established, based on the gradual unfolding of the narrative, with the distribution of images by belts.
Relief images of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC are highly decorative. Due to the lack of still unified canonized norms, images, faces and figures of people are generally typified. The author gives them ethnic features common to the Sumerians, very decoratively works out hair and beards and, thus, human figures, not being true-to-life portraits, are only symbols. The figures of people are static, flat. The head and legs are turned in profile, and the eyes and shoulders are given in front.
In the plot content, several favorites can be distinguished: the laying of temples, victory over enemies, a feast after victory or laying.
The best example of Sumerian sculptural relief is the limestone stele of Eannatum, the so-called "Kite Stele". The stele commemorates the victory of Eannatum, ruler of the city of Lagash, over the neighboring city of Umma.
The image is applied line by line. The figures of the warriors are identical, they are static and all of the same size. The figure of the king and the god, personifying victory, is much larger than the figures of warriors, which emphasizes the social difference between the figures and brings the leading figures of the composition to the fore. On the front side of the stele there is a large figure of the god Ningirsu holding a net with enemies caught in it. The reverse depicts Eannatum on a chariot entering battle. A total of nine warrior heads rise above the shields. But the much larger number of hands that are visible from behind the shields give the impression of a large army. In another of the bands, Eannatum, who leads the army, walks over the corpses of defeated enemies and kites carry off their severed heads. The images are accompanied by narrative inscriptions describing the victory of the Lagash army and reporting that the defeated inhabitants of Umma pledged to pay tribute to the gods of Lagash.
Plastic art of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC characterized by a predominance of fine sculpture. Their size is 35-40 cm. Made from different breeds stone, bronze, wood and had a cult purpose in most cases. Certain norms for the depiction of figures of worshipers were developed: postures, gestures, which were used both in reliefs and in round sculpture. The Sumerians were especially convincing in conveying humiliated servility or tender piety. Frontally located figures are static. They are reported standing, very rarely with one leg extended forward, or seated. Arms bent at the elbows, palm to palm closed at the chest with a pleading gesture. In wide-open, straight-looking eyes and lips touched by a smile - a prayer. Prayer posture and facial expressions of the petitioner - that's the main thing that needed to be expressed in the execution of this sculpture.
There was no requirement to embody the individual characteristics of the original, therefore, not infrequently, the name of the person asking, as well as the name of the deity to whom it was dedicated, was carved on the figurine.
As in the reliefs, in the round sculpture, the characteristic ethnic features of the Sumerian were given to the appearance of a person: a large nose, thin lips, a small chin, and a large sloping forehead. With such unity in the manner of depiction, there were differences. Two main groups are clearly traced - the first is connected with the north of the country, the second - with the south.
The sculptural monuments of the northern part are characterized by detailed elaboration of details, the desire for a more naturalistically accurate transfer of forms, elongated, slender body proportions, exaggeratedly large eyes and exorbitantly large noses. In the south, squat figures with an almost absent neck, with a beak-shaped nose and large eyes predominate. A practically undivided stone block and a very cumulative interpretation of details. The sculptures have shortened proportions of figures, round, spherical heads.
In the group of sculptures from the Northern Mesopotamia, stone statues of the god Ab-U and the goddess from the city of Ashnunnak are the most typical. They are built frontally and are designed only for their perception in the temple from the front side and in three quarters. In their hands joined in a pleading gesture at the chest, they hold vessels. Especially huge are their inlaid black eyes and extremely large dark circles of pupils, which most expressively speak of the Sumerians' magical idea of the supernatural essence of the gods - their comprehensive vision of the world.
Among the figures from the Southern Mesopotamia, a statue of a basalt head of the granaries of the city of Uruk named Kurlil (found in Ubaid) and, discovered in Lagash, a limestone statue of a praying woman, are characteristic. Both sculptures are frontal. Their volumes are little divided. But in stylistic terms, emphasizing only the most basic in the silhouette, gives them monumentality, solemnity, despite their small size.
In the period 24 - 22 centuries. BC. Akkad is in the lead. It was a time of great conquests and a general economic and socio-political upsurge of the entire country. Time of wise, strong, strong-willed leaders. The time of their exaltation and identification with the gods. It is no coincidence that it was during the Akkadian period that the Sumerian folk epic about the hero Gilgamesh, the man-god, who, thanks to his personal qualities and energy, accomplished unprecedented feats, took shape.
The art of this period was dominated by the main stylistic trend of the Akkadian culture - the desire for a more accurate transmission. human proportions, characteristic features faces, body features.
These tendencies can be traced in the brass head commonly believed to be that of King Sargon the Ancient (found in Nineveh, 23rd century BC). Very realistically executed sculpture is not devoid of decorations.
A stylized beard, hair, and a headdress give the image an openwork and lightness. But the expressive individual features of a strong-willed, courageous person; clear plasticity, a clear silhouette give the sculpture solemnity and monumentality.
The same characteristics are also characteristic of the reliefs of the Akkadian period, but the traditions of Sumerian art are also actively used by masters.
So in the relief on the stele of King Naram-Sin, dedicated to his victory over the mountain tribe of Lullubei (from Susa, about 2300 BC), the figure of the king is depicted twice as large as his soldiers, and two magical astral signs above his head symbolize the patronage of the gods Akkadian king. Plastic softness, great relief, the volume of the figures depicted, the detailed study of the muscles of the soldiers - all these are stylistic features, characteristic new era. But the main innovation in the reliefs of the Akkadian era was the new principles of composition, the refusal to divide the composition into narrative belts.
Around 2200 the Gutian mountain tribe invaded Akkad, as a result of which the northern lands of Mesopotamia were devastated and conquered. The southern cities of Sumer suffered less than others from the conquests. One of them, the city of Lagash, whose ruler was Gudea, occupies a special place in the study of historical monuments of that period. From cuneiform texts we learn that during the reign of Gudea, extensive construction of buildings of religious and, probably, social significance, restoration of ancient monuments was carried out. However, very few monuments of architecture have survived to this day. But oh high level The artistic mastery of Gudea's time is best evidenced by the surviving monumental sculpture. Communication with other peoples, acquaintance with their culture and traditions, brought a lot of new things to the Sumerian art of that time.
ABOUT stylistic features and the innovations introduced into the sculpture of Gudea's time can be judged by the dedicatory statues of Gudea himself, his relatives and close associates. Sculptures carved from diorite are rather large, almost life-size sculptures, remarkable in terms of technique and level of execution. Most of them were intended for temples. This explains their frontality, static and monumentality.
These characteristics, of course, can only be attributed to true Sumerian traditions. From Akkadian art comes the portraiture of facial features, soft modeling of fabric, and the transfer of muscles. Some of Gudea's sculptures are squat and shortened, others are slender and more proportionate. The volumes of the sculptures are given in summary and generalized terms. Stone blocks are absolutely not dissected. At the same time, Gudea's shoulders and arms are perfectly modeled, prominent cheekbones, thick eyebrows, and a dimpled chin are emphasized in the interpretation of the face. The statics and frontality of the staging gives the sculptures an impressive monumentality. Characteristic is the desire to show not only the portrait resemblance, but also the age of the ruler: the statues of the young Gudea have been preserved.
a fine example portrait image is a statuette of greenish soapstone of a noble woman of that time (Louvre Museum). Careful elaboration of the details of clothing, the fringe that adorns her embossed herringbone eyebrows, wavy strands of hair falling on her forehead from under the headband are typical of the masters of Gudea's time.
The manner of encircling the eye with very thick eyelids is due in part to the tradition of ancient Sumerian art of inserting an eyeball of another material into a very deep socket to prevent it from falling out; partly, however, it was just artistic device, since a shadow fell on the eye from a thick upper eyelid, giving it greater expressiveness.
The reliefs of Gudea's time are stylistically similar to round sculptures. The figures of the gods and the ruler are solemnly and majestically depicted. Strands of hair, beards, folds of clothes are depicted decoratively and openwork. In general, the images are plastic, embossed, and slender, in which the living Akkadian heritage is strongly felt.
In 2132 BC. dominion over Mesopotamia passes to the city of Uru, where the III dynasty rules at that time. Ur acts as a new unifier of the country, forming a powerful Sumero-Akkadian state, claiming world domination. The deified king concentrated the supreme power in his hands. A nationwide cult of the "king-god" was established. Despotism intensified, a hierarchy developed.
Obligatory canons have been developed in art. A strictly defined pantheon of deities has been established. The purpose of any of the arts is the glorification of the divine power of the king. In the future, there is a narrowing of the subject and handicraft following ready samples. In standard compositions, the same motif is repeated - the worship of a deity.
In the reliefs of the time of the III dynasty of Ur, the traditions of Akkadian and Sumerian art organically merged. But they are implemented in especially strict, perfectly restrained, already canonized, repetitive compositions and forms.
A characteristic example is the stele of King Ur-Nammu, dedicated to the construction of a ziggurat in Ur. On the surviving fragments of this rectangular limestone slab, compositions arranged line by line are carved in low relief. The narrative unfolds sequentially from the bottom up, leading to more and more important scenes. At the very bottom, masons are depicted climbing stairs with baskets full of bricks. King Ur-Nammu himself, accompanied by a priest, marches to the solemn laying of the "house of the deity" - the ziggurat: on his shoulder is the builder's hoe - a symbol of his humiliated, zealous service to the gods. On the upper belts, the king is handed over four times to those standing before the supreme god and goddess. He offers libations on the altars. The deities are holding out to him symbols of power - a rod and a ring, and perhaps the attributes of a "builder for the glory of the gods" - a coiled rope and a measure of length. The solar disk and the crescent of the moon, as if additionally consecrating the deed of the king, pleasing to the gods, are carved on the uppermost, semicircular part of the stele.
The unhurried narration, the majestic static poses and movements, as well as the heraldic placement of the characters are evidence of the preservation of Sumerian traditions. Akkadian art brought here the harmony of figures and three-dimensional, pictorial modeling of the forms of bodies and clothes.
Royal Tombs at Ur.
Near the city of Ur in the 19th century, archaeologists unearthed the so-called. "royal graves", dating back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. This is the time of the 1st dynasty of the kings of Ur.
It's underground mine tombs had 1-3 rooms made of stone or brick. The burial ritual required human sacrifices, the number of which ranged from 3 to 74 people.
1) The tomb of the king by name Meskalamdut "the good genius of the country." He himself lay in a wooden coffin. His name was carved on a golden lamp, on dishes made of gold and silver, stone and ceramics. A golden helmet was found, shaped like a complex hairstyle.
2) Tomb of Queen Shub-Ad: She was accompanied by 10 richly dressed women with harps in their hands. The queen's skeleton was studded with jewels, and on her head were wreaths of golden leaves and flowers. A cape was thrown over the skeleton, woven from beads of red, blue and gold. On her shoulder was a seal of lapis lazuli engraved with Shub-Ad, mistress." A lot of things made of gold, lapis lazuli.
3) In another tomb, skeletons of 6 bulls harnessed to wagons with silver rings in their nostrils, 9 skeletons of women in red robes, in golden headdresses, warriors in helmets and with copper military armor were found. In total, more than 60 human victims were buried here, accompanying the deceased to the grave. Lots of gold and silver items. But the biggest find harp, decorated with gold, inlaid with blue lapis lazuli and a shell. The bull is a symbol of the god of the moon, depicted realistically. Terrible appearance. Under the chin is a plaque depicting a hero fighting two bulls. This is Gilgamesh. The image of Gilgamesh is found everywhere in the art of Mesopotamia. .Many fantastic animals are depicted on this plaque.
That. the burials of the kings of Mesopotamia testify to the nature of beliefs, to an afterlife that requires special rites.
The architecture of the Two Rivers.
Architectural monuments - palaces, residential buildings, small temples made of raw brick are poorly preserved due to the damp climate.
Residential houses were built from reeds. Temples and palaces are made of raw brick. Because of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, houses and temples were built on high ground. There was a staircase leading up to it. Cities, palaces of kings and temples were surrounded by fortress walls.
Examples architectural structures- the ruins of the temples of the White Temple and the Red Temple. They are characterized decorative. The columns were decorated with ornaments - the so-called. "nails" of red, black and white from baked clay.
Temples were dedicated to the gods.
The most typical temple is the ziggurat. The most famous ziggurat is the Tower of Babel.
Ziggurat at Ur
Dedicated to the Moon God Nannare. Built in the 22nd century BC.
Ziggurat- a three-stage temple made of raw bricks. Outside and ceilings are plastered with clay. Length and width 65x43 m. Height 20 m. Initially, it may have been 60 m. Three steps-terraces were painted in three colors - like three worlds. The lower highest part is black (coated with bitumen). 2nd terrace - transitional middle world, burnt red brick. The third terrace is white. (whitewashed) - this is the upper world. Above at the top is the dwelling of God in blue. This is the heavenly world. The walls were covered with a layer of blue glazed brick. The middle staircase with 100 steps led to the dwelling of the god. On the sides, two flights of stairs converging on the upper platform is a symbol of the union of the Moon god Nannara and the Sun Goddess Ningal. They performed rituals dedicated to the gods in the temple.
Sculpture of Sumer and Akkad.
Sculpture of Sumer.
The earliest sculpture belongs to the 29th-24th centuries BC. era of early dynastic Sumer.
Sculptors created images of gods, rulers (kings) and adorers, i.e. figures of people praying before a deity, as well as sculptures of bulls, lions and other animals.
Conventionality, monumentality and decorativeness are characteristic.
For example, small sculptures of rulers Kurlilya and Ebih Ilya. Appearance performed conditionally, although real people are depicted. The ethnic features of the Sumerian are transferred - a large nose, thin lips, a high forehead. There is no portrait resemblance. The proportions are shortened, the postures are calm. Expression of prayer.
Depicted frontally (front view), were designed for the wall.
Curlil had his name carved on his back.
The sculpture of Ebih Ilya is carved from white and blue stone.
The eyes were inlaid, passed the hairstyle, beard.
Sculpture of Late Sumer (22-20 centuries BC).
Under the ruler of Gudea, the city of Lagash rises. There is intensive construction going on.
Sculpture of Gudea from diorite. The height is slightly more than 1 m. - shortened proportions. The face is portrait. On the head is a hat made of sheep's wool, a cloak is thrown over the shoulders.
Sculpture of adorants. for temples, the size of 35-40 cm was made of limestone, sandstone, bronze, and possibly wood. Depicted praying on their knees before the deity. In wide-open eyes and a smile, a prayer is conveyed.
Reliefs on steles made of limestone plot compositions on the topics of victory over enemies, the laying of a temple, etc. Example: The kite stele from Lagash commemorates the victory of King Ennatum in a war. The stele is 75 cm high.
Ennatum is depicted as a victorious leader. His army marches, trampling the bodies of enemies underfoot. On the front side - Ningirsu, the supreme god of Lagash. Holds a net with defeated enemies.
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