The main currents and directions of the new era of aesthetics. History of Aesthetics: Aesthetics of Modern Times
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aesthetic beauty art
Introduction
1. Aesthetics as a philosophical science
2. Aesthetic ideas of the peoples of the Ancient East
3. Antique aesthetic thought
4. Aesthetics of the Middle Ages
5. Aesthetic teachings of the Renaissance
6. Aesthetics of the new time
7. Aesthetic ideas of German classical philosophy
8. Non-classical concepts of Western European aesthetics
Introduction
The possibility of contact of human destiny with beauty is one of the most amazing opportunities that can reveal the true joy of communicating with the world, the grandeur of existence. However, this chance provided by being often remains unclaimed, missed. And life becomes ordinary gray, monotonous, unattractive. Why is this happening?
The behavior of natural beings is predetermined by the structure of their organism. So, every animal is born into the world already endowed with a set of instincts that ensure adaptability to the environment. The behavior of animals is hard-coded, they have the "meaning" of their own lives.
A person does not have this innate behavioral certainty due to the fact that each individual contains the possibility of unlimited (both positive and negative) development. This explains the inexhaustible variety of types of individual behavior, the unpredictability of each individual. As Montaigne noted, there are fewer similarities between two representatives of the human race than between two animals.
In other words, when an individual is born, he immediately finds himself in an uncertain situation for himself. Despite the richest inclinations, his genes do not tell you how to behave, what to strive for, what to avoid, what to love in this world, what to hate, how to distinguish true beauty from false, etc. Genes are silent about the most important thing, adapting to any behavior. How will a person manage his abilities? Will the light of beauty flash in his mind? Will he be able to resist the pressure of the ugly, base?
It was the force of attraction of the beautiful, and, at the same time, the desire of a person to overcome the destructive influence of the base, that became one of the most important reasons for the emergence of a special science of beauty.
To understand the growing relevance of aesthetic issues, it is necessary to pay attention to whole line features of technogenic development. Modern society is faced with the most dangerous trend in the entire history of mankind: the contradiction between the global nature of scientific and technological takeoff and the limitations of human consciousness, which can lead to a general catastrophe.
By the beginning of the 20th century, colossal spiritual, scientific and technical experience had been accumulated. The ideas of humanism, kindness, justice and beauty were widely recognized. All forms of evil were exposed and a whole spiritual universe was formed, cultivating beauty.
But the world community has not become wiser, more harmonious and more humane. Vice versa. The civilization of the 20th century turned out to be involved in the most massive crimes, replicating base types of existence. Numerous ugly social upheavals, extreme manifestations of senseless cruelty throughout the 20th century destroyed faith in man, an optimistic image of personality. After all, it was during this period that millions of people were destroyed. Seemingly unshakable pillars of centuries-old cultural values were erased from the face of the earth.
One of the most noticeable tendencies of the past century is connected with the exacerbation of the tragic worldview. Even in economically stable countries, the number of suicides is steadily rising, millions of people suffer various forms depression. The experience of personal harmony becomes a fragile, unsteady, rather rare state, to which it is more and more difficult to break through in the stream of universal human chaos.
Reflections on the randomness, uncertainty, chaotic nature of human existence, the growth of skepticism in relation to the search for reliable semantic guidelines and the discovery of true beauty become the dominant motive of culture.
Why is the movement of man in time and space so tragic? Is it possible to overcome growing disturbing symptoms in human life? And, most importantly, on what paths is sustainable harmony found?
The most common mental illness is falling out of the world of beauty. The fact is that quite often a person seeks happiness by mastering the external space, seeking wealth, power, fame, physiological pleasures. And on this path he can reach certain heights. However, they are not able to overcome persistent anxiety, anxiety, because faith in the unlimited power of money, power is too great, and as a result, deep contact with the sacred basis of being - Beauty is lost.
And in this sense, aesthetics as a science about beauty, about the inexhaustible wealth and paradoxical nature of its manifestations in world culture can become the most important factor in the humanization of the individual. And thus, the main task of aesthetics is to reveal the all-encompassing phenomenality of the beautiful, to substantiate the ways of harmonizing a person in order to root him in the world of inescapable beauty and creativity. As F.M. Dostoevsky, "aesthetics is the discovery of beautiful moments in the human soul by the same person for self-improvement."
1. Eaesthetics as a philosophical science
Aesthetics is a system of knowledge about the most general properties and laws of development of beautiful and ugly, sublime and base, tragic and comic phenomena of reality and the features of their reflection in the human mind. Aesthetics is a philosophical science, which is connected with the solution of the main question of philosophy. In aesthetics, it appears as a question about the relation of aesthetic consciousness to reality.
The subject of aesthetics
It was formed in the process of centuries-old development of aesthetic thought, on the basis of a generalization of the practice of people's aesthetic attitude to the products of their activity, to works of art, to nature, to man himself. Many of the questions that aesthetics explores today have occupied mankind for a long time; they were set before themselves by the ancient Greeks, and before the Greeks, the thinkers of Egypt, Babylon, India, and China thought about them.
However, the name of science - aesthetics - was introduced into circulation only in the middle of the 18th century by the German philosopher Baumgarten. Before him, questions of aesthetics were considered within the framework of general philosophical concepts as their organic part. And only this German enlightener singled out aesthetics within the framework of philosophy as an independent discipline that occupies a place next to other philosophical disciplines - logic, ethics, epistemology, and so on. Baumgarten derived the term "aesthetics" from an ancient Greek word which means "concerning the sensible". Accordingly, his aesthetics is the science of sensory perception. The subject of aesthetics, and hence the content of this concept, has been constantly changing since then. Today, the subject of this science are: firstly, the nature of the aesthetic, that is, the most General characteristics, sides inherent in various aesthetic objects of reality; secondly, the nature of the reflection of these phenomena in the human mind, in aesthetic needs, perceptions, ideas, ideals, views and theories; thirdly, the nature of people's aesthetic activity as a process of creating aesthetic values.
The essence and specificity of the aesthetic attitude to the world
The aesthetic relationship is the spiritual connection of the subject with the object, based on a disinterested desire for the latter and accompanied by a feeling of deep spiritual pleasure from communicating with him.
Aesthetic objects arise in the process of socio-historical practice: initially spontaneously, and then in accordance with the emerging aesthetic feelings, needs, ideas, in general, the aesthetic consciousness of people. Guided by it, a person forms the "substance" of nature according to the laws of aesthetic activity. As a result, the objects he created, for example, tools, appear as a unity of the natural and social aspects, a unity that, being an aesthetic value, is able to satisfy not only the material, utilitarian, but also the spiritual needs of people.
At the same time, the same object in one respect may turn out to be aesthetically valuable, for example, beautiful, and in another - aesthetically anti-valuable. For example, a person as an object of aesthetic attitude can have a beautiful voice and an ugly appearance. In addition, the same aesthetic object can be both valuable and anti-valuable in the same respect, but at different times. The fact that an aesthetic object has a relative aesthetic significance is also evidenced by the polar nature of the main aesthetic categories (beautiful and ugly, sublime and base, tragic and comic).
Problem field and methodological base of aesthetics
One of the modern approaches to considering the subject of aesthetics as a science is that the problematic field of aesthetics is not a special sphere of phenomena, but the whole world viewed from a certain angle, all phenomena taken in the light of the task that this science solves. The main questions of this science are the nature of the aesthetic and its diversity in reality and in art, the principles of man's aesthetic attitude to the world, the essence and laws of art. Aesthetics as a science expresses the system of aesthetic views of society, which leave their mark on the whole face of the material and spiritual activity of people.
First of all, this concerns the position that aesthetic phenomena must be considered in their final quality, holistically. After all, it is in a holistic, final quality that the unity of the objective and subjective conditioning of aesthetic phenomena is manifested.
The implementation of this methodological principle begins with the discovery of the genetic roots of aesthetic phenomena. The genetic point of view is the original methodological principle of aesthetics. It explains how aesthetic phenomena (for example, art) are determined by reality, as well as by the originality of the author's personality. The genetic point of view is the main methodological principle of aesthetics, thanks to which the subject-object nature of aesthetic phenomena is taken into account.
Structure of aesthetic theory
The aesthetic relationship of a person to reality is very diverse and versatile, but they are most clearly manifested in art. Art is also the subject of the so-called art history sciences (literary criticism, musicology, history and theory of fine arts, theater studies, etc.). Art history consists of various sciences (history and theory certain types arts). The complex of theories of individual types of art and theoretical knowledge related to art, some aestheticians call the general theory of art and distinguish it from aesthetics proper.
The art history branches of science perform the function of auxiliary scientific disciplines in relation to aesthetics. However, the auxiliary disciplines of aesthetics do not end there. The same auxiliary scientific disciplines in relation to it are, for example, the sociology of art, the psychology of art, epistemology, semantics, and so on. Aesthetics uses the findings of many scientific disciplines, without being identical to them. Therefore, due to its generalizing nature, aesthetics is called a philosophical science.
The specific relationship between aesthetics and art is clearly manifested in art criticism. Aesthetics is the theoretical basis of criticism; helps her to correctly understand the problems of creativity and put forward aspects that are consistent with the meaning of art for a person and society. On the basis of its conclusions and principles, on the basis of established patterns, aesthetics gives criticism the opportunity to create evaluation criteria, evaluate creativity in terms of current requirements related to the development of social and value aspects.
2. Aesthetic ideas of the peoples of the Ancient East
Traditionalism of ancient Eastern cultures
The transition from the primitive communal system to the slave-owning formation led to the formation of a number of powerful civilizations of the East with a high level of material and spiritual culture.
The specifics of the development of ancient Eastern cultures include such a feature as a deep traditionalism. Certain early ideas and ideas sometimes lived in the cultures of the East for many centuries and even millennia. For a long time of the existence of the ancient cultures of the East, development concerned individual nuances of certain ideas, and their basis remained unchanged.
Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians achieved great success in the field of astronomy, mathematics, engineering and construction sciences, medicine, history, geography. The early invention of writing contributed to the emergence of original examples of highly artistic ancient Egyptian literature. The development of art and its honorable place in Egyptian culture created the basis for the appearance of the first aesthetic judgments recorded in written sources. The latter testify that the ancient Egyptians had a highly developed sense of beauty, beauty (nefer). Word "nefer" entered the official title of the pharaohs.
Ancient Egypt is considered the birthplace of the religion of light and the aesthetics of light. The deified sunlight was revered as the highest good and the highest beauty among the ancient Egyptians. Light and beauty have been identified in Egyptian culture since ancient times. The essence of divine beauty was often reduced to radiance.
Another aspect of beauty, inherent in almost all ancient Eastern cultures, is the high aesthetic appreciation of precious metals. Gold, silver, electr, lapis lazuli in the understanding of the Egyptians were the most beautiful of materials. On the basis of the ideas of the ancient Egyptians about beauty and the beautiful, color was formed. canon Egyptians. It included simple colors: white, red, green. But the Egyptians especially appreciated the colors of gold and lapis lazuli. "Gold" often acted as a synonym for "beautiful".
The artistic thinking of the Egyptians from ancient times, as a result of long practice, developed a developed system of canons: the canon of proportions, the color canon, the iconographic canon. Here the canon has become the most important aesthetic principle that determines the creative activity of the artist. The canon played an important role in the work of the ancient Egyptian masters and directed their creative energy. The artistic effect in canonical art was achieved due to the slight variation of forms within the canonical scheme.
The Egyptians valued mathematics and applied its laws to almost all areas of their activity. For the fine arts, they developed a system of harmonic image proportioning. The modulus of this system was a numerical expression "golden section"-- the number 1.618... Since the proportions were of a universal nature, spreading to many areas of science, philosophy and art, and were perceived by the Egyptians themselves as a reflection of the harmonious structure of the universe, they were considered sacred.
Ancient China
Chinese aesthetic thought was first clearly identified among the philosophers of the 6th - 3rd centuries BC. e. Aesthetic concepts and terms, as well as the main provisions of aesthetic theory, were developed in ancient China on the basis of philosophical understanding of the laws of nature and society.
Among the many schools and directions, a special place belonged to Taoism And Confucianism . These two teachings played a leading role in ancient times and had a decisive influence on all subsequent development. Chinese culture. Both Taoism and Confucianism were concerned with the search for a social ideal, but the direction of their search was completely different. The central part of Taoism was the doctrine of the world. Everything else - the doctrine of society and the state, the theory of knowledge, the theory of art (in its ancient form) - proceeded from the doctrine of the world. At the center of Confucian philosophy was a person in his public relations, a person as the basis of unshakable calm and order, an ideal member of society. In other words, in Confucianism, we are always dealing with an ethical and aesthetic ideal, while for Taoism there is nothing more beautiful than the cosmos and nature, and society and man are as beautiful as they can become like the beauty of the objective world. The aesthetic views of Confucius and his followers developed in line with their socio-political theory. The very term "beautiful" (May) in Confucius, it is a synonym for “good”, or it simply means outwardly beautiful. In general, the aesthetic ideal of Confucius is a synthetic unity of the beautiful, the good and the useful.
3. Antique aesthetic thought
Ancient aesthetics is an aesthetic thought that developed in ancient Greece and Rome from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD. Having mythological ideas as its source, ancient aesthetics is born, flourishes and declines within the framework of the slave-owning formation, being one of the most striking expressions of the culture of that time.
The following periods are distinguished in the history of ancient aesthetics: 1) early classics or cosmological aesthetics (VI-V centuries BC); 2) middle classics or anthropological aesthetics (5th century BC); 3) high (mature) classics or eidological aesthetics (V-IV centuries BC); 4) early Hellenism (IV-I centuries BC); 5) late Hellenism (I-VI centuries AD).
Cosmologism as the basis of ancient aesthetics
For aesthetic ideas, as well as for the whole worldview of antiquity, an emphasized cosmologism is characteristic. The cosmos, from the point of view of the ancients, although spatially limited, but distinguished by harmony, proportion and regularity of movement in it, acted as the embodiment of beauty. Art in the early period of ancient thought was not yet separated from craft and did not act as an end-to-end aesthetic object. For the ancient Greek, art was a production and technical activity. Hence the indissoluble unity of the practical and purely aesthetic attitude to objects and phenomena. It is not for nothing that the very word that the Greeks express the concept of art, “techne”, has the same root as “tikto” - “I give birth”, so that “art” is in Greek “generation” or material creation by a thing from itself the same, but new things.
preclassical aesthetic
In its purest and most direct form, ancient aesthetics, embodied in mythology, was formed at the stage of primitive communal formation. The end of the II and the first centuries of the I millennium BC. e. were in Greece a period of epic creativity. Greek epic, which is recorded in poems Homer The Iliad and the Odyssey, just act as the source from which ancient aesthetics began.
For Homer, beauty was a deity and the main artists were the gods. Not only were the gods the cosmic principles underlying the cosmos as a work of art, but so were they for human creativity. Apollo and the Muses inspired singers, and in the work of the Homeric singer leading role it was not the singer himself who played, but the gods, above all Apollo and the Muses.
Beauty was conceived by Homer in the form of the thinnest, transparent, luminous matter, in the form of some kind of flowing, living stream. Beauty acted as a kind of light airy radiance, which can envelop, clothe objects. Endowment, enveloping with beauty is external. But there was also an inner endowment. It is above all the inspiration of the Homeric singers and of Homer himself.
Special aesthetic teachings of antiquity
There were several such doctrines, on the problems of which many ancient authors tried to express themselves.
Kalokagatiya ("Kalos" - beautiful, "agatos" - good, morally perfect) - one of the concepts of ancient aesthetics, denoting the harmony of the external and internal, which is a condition for the beauty of the individual. The term "kalokagatia" was interpreted differently in different periods of the socio-historical development of ancient society, depending on the types of thinking. The Pythagoreans understood it as the external behavior of a person, determined by internal qualities. The ancient aristocratic understanding of “kalokagatia” is inherent in Herodotus, who considered it in connection with priestly traditions, Plato, who associated it with military prowess, “natural” qualities, or with generic features. With the development of the ancient individual economy, the term “kalokagatia” began to be used to denote practical and diligent owners, and in the sphere of political life it was applied (as a noun) to moderate democrats. At the end of the 5th century BC. e. with the advent of sophistry, the term "kalokagatiya" began to be used to characterize learning and education. Plato and Aristotle understood kalokagatiya philosophically - as the harmony of internal and external, and by internal they understood wisdom, the implementation of which in life led a person to kalokagatiya. With the development of individualism and psychologism in the era of Hellenism, kalokagatiya began to be interpreted not as a natural quality, but as a result of moral exercises and training, which led to its moralistic understanding.
Catharsis (purification) - a term that served to designate one of the essential moments of the aesthetic impact of art on a person. The Pythagoreans developed the theory of cleansing the soul from harmful passions by exposing it to specially selected music. Plato did not associate catharsis with the arts, understanding it as the purification of the soul from sensual aspirations, from everything bodily, obscuring and distorting the beauty of ideas. Actually, the aesthetic understanding of catharsis was given by Aristotle, who wrote that under the influence of music and chants, the psyche of the listeners is excited, strong affects (pity, fear, enthusiasm) arise in it, as a result of which the listeners “receive a kind of purification and relief associated with pleasure…” . He also pointed to the cathartic effect of tragedy, defining it as a special kind of "imitation through action, not story, which, through compassion and fear, purifies such affects."
Mimesis (imitation, reproduction) - in ancient aesthetics, the basic principle of the artist's creative activity. Proceeding from the fact that all arts are based on mimesis, thinkers of antiquity interpreted the very essence of this concept in different ways. The Pythagoreans believed that music imitates the "harmony of the heavenly spheres", Democritus was convinced that art in its broadest sense (as a productive human creative activity) comes from the imitation of man by animals (weaving - from imitation of a spider, house-building - a swallow, singing - birds, etc.). Plato believed that imitation is the basis of all creativity. The actual aesthetic theory of mimesis belongs to Aristotle. It includes both an adequate reflection of reality (the depiction of things as “they were and are”), and the activity of creative imagination (their depiction as “they are spoken about and thought about”), and the idealization of reality (their depiction as such, “ what they should be). The purpose of mimesis in art, according to Aristotle, is the acquisition of knowledge and the excitation of a feeling of pleasure from the reproduction, contemplation and cognition of an object.
4. Aesthetics of the Middle Ages
Basic principles
Medieval aesthetics is a term used in two senses, broad and narrow. In the broad sense of the word, medieval aesthetics is the aesthetics of all medieval regions, including the aesthetics of Western Europe, Byzantine aesthetics, Old Russian aesthetics, and others. In a narrow sense, medieval aesthetics is the aesthetics of Western Europe in the 5th-14th centuries. In the latter, two main chronological periods are distinguished - early medieval (5th - 10th centuries) and late medieval (11th - 14th centuries), as well as two main areas - philosophical and theological and art criticism. The first period of medieval aesthetics is characterized by a protective position in relation to the ancient heritage. In the late medieval period, special aesthetic treatises appeared as part of large philosophical and religious codes (the so-called "sums"), the theoretical interest in aesthetic problems, which is especially characteristic of the thinkers of the XII - XIII centuries.
The large chronological period of the Middle Ages in the West correlates with the socio-economic formation of feudalism. The hierarchical structure of society is reflected in the medieval worldview in the form of the idea of the so-called heavenly hierarchy, which finds its completion in God. In turn, nature turns out to be a visible manifestation of the supersensible principle (God). Ideas about hierarchy are symbolic. Separate visible, sensual phenomena are perceived only as symbols of the "invisible, inexpressible God." The world was thought of as a system character hierarchy.
Byzantine aesthetics
In 324-330, Emperor Constantine founded the new capital of the Roman Empire on the site of a small ancient town of Byzantium - Constantinople. Somewhat later, the Roman Empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern. Constantinople became the capital of the latter. Since that time, it is customary to consider the history of Byzantine culture, which existed within the framework of a single state until 1453.
Byzantine aesthetics, having absorbed and reworked in its own way many aesthetic ideas antiquity, posed and tried to solve a number of new, significant for the history of aesthetics problems. Among them, one should point to the development of such categories as the image, symbol, canon, new modifications of the beautiful, the raising of a number of questions related to the specific analysis of art, in particular the analysis of the perception of art and the interpretation of works of art, as well as the shift in emphasis to the psychological side of aesthetic categories. The significant problems of this aesthetics include posing the question of the role of art in the general philosophical and religious system of understanding the world, its epistemological role, and some other problems.
"Absolute beauty" is the goal of the spiritual aspirations of the Byzantines. One of the ways to this goal they saw in the “beautiful” material world, for in him and through him, the "culprit" of everything is known. However, the Byzantines' attitude to "earthly beauty" is ambivalent and not always definite.
On the one hand, Byzantine thinkers had a negative attitude towards sensual beauty, as the causative agent of sinful thoughts and carnal lust. On the other hand, they highly valued the beautiful in the material world and in art, because in their understanding it acted as a “display” and a manifestation of divine absolute beauty at the level of empirical being.
Byzantine thinkers also knew the polar category of the beautiful - the ugly and tried to define it. Lack of beauty, order, disproportionate mixing of dissimilar objects - all these are indicators of the ugly, "because ugliness is inferiority, lack of form and violation of order."
For Byzantine thinkers, "beautiful" (in nature and in art) had no objective value. Only the divine "absolute beauty" possessed it. The beautiful was significant for them each time only in its direct contact with a specific subject of perception. In the first place in the image was its psychological function - to organize in a certain way internal state person. "Beautiful" was only a means of forming a mental illusion of comprehending the super-beautiful, "absolute beauty".
Along with beauty and beauty, Byzantine aesthetics put forward another aesthetic category, sometimes coinciding with them, but generally having an independent meaning - light. Assuming a close relationship between God and light, the Byzantines state it in the relation "light - beauty".
Early Middle Ages
Western European medieval aesthetics was greatly influenced by the Christian thinker Aurelius Augustine . Augustine identified beauty with form, the absence of form with ugliness. He believed that absolutely ugly does not exist, but there are objects that, in comparison with more perfectly organized and symmetrical ones, lack form. The ugly is only a relative imperfection, the lowest degree of beauty.
Augustine taught that a part that is beautiful as part of the whole, being torn away from it, loses its beauty, on the contrary, the ugly becomes beautiful in itself, entering into the beautiful whole. Those who considered the world imperfect, Augustine likened to people who look at one mosaic cube, instead of contemplating the whole composition and enjoying the beauty of stones connected into a single whole. Only a pure soul can comprehend the beauty of the universe. This beauty is a reflection of "divine beauty". God is the highest beauty, the archetype of material and spiritual beauty. The order that reigns in the universe is created by God. This order is manifested in measure, unity and harmony, since God "arranged everything by measure, number and weight."
For almost a millennium, the works of Augustine were one of the main conductors of ancient Platonism and Neoplatonism in Western European medieval aesthetics, they laid the foundations of medieval religious aesthetics, comprehended the ways of using art in the service of the church.
Late Middle Ages
The so-called “Sums” become an example of scholastic philosophizing in the 13th century, where the presentation is carried out in the following order: problem statement, presentation of various opinions, author’s solution, logical proofs, refutation of possible and valid objections. According to this principle, the “Sum of Theology” is also built. Thomas Aquinas , some parts of which are devoted to aesthetics.
Aquinas defined beauty as that which gives pleasure by its appearance. Beauty requires three conditions:
1) wholeness or perfection,
2) due proportion or consonance
3) clarity, due to which objects that have a brilliant color are called beautiful. Clarity exists in the very nature of beauty. At the same time, “clarity” means not so much physical radiance as clarity of perception, and thus approaches the clarity of the mind.
Beauty and good are not really distinguished, since God, in his view, is both absolute beauty and absolute good, but only in concept. A blessing is something that satisfies a desire or need. Therefore, it is connected with the concept of goal, since desire is a kind of movement towards an object.
Beauty requires something more. It is such a good, the very perception of which gives satisfaction. Or, in other words, desire finds satisfaction in the very contemplation or comprehension of a beautiful thing. Aesthetic pleasure is closely related to cognition. That is why, first of all, those sensations that are most cognitive, namely visual and auditory, are related to aesthetic perception. Sight and hearing are closely connected with the mind and therefore capable of perceiving beauty.
“Light” was an important category of all medieval aesthetics. Light symbolism was actively developed. The "Metaphysics of Light" was the basis on which the doctrine of beauty rested in the Middle Ages. Claritas in medieval treatises means light, radiance, clarity and is included in almost all definitions of beauty. Beauty for Augustine is the radiance of truth. For Aquinas, the light of the beautiful means "the radiance of the form of a thing, whether it be a work of art or nature ... in such a way that it appears to him in all the fullness and richness of its perfection and order."
The attention of medieval thinkers to the inner world of man is especially clearly and fully manifested in their development of the problems of musical aesthetics. At the same time, it is important that the problems of musical aesthetics themselves are a kind of “removed” model of universal concepts of general philosophical significance.
Medieval thinkers dealt a lot with the perception of beauty and art, expressing a number of judgments that are interesting for the history of aesthetics.
5. Aesthetic teachings of the Renaissance
The transitional nature of the era, its humanistic orientation and ideological innovations
In the Renaissance, there are: Proto-Renaissance (ducento and trecento, 12-13 - 13-14 centuries), Early Renaissance (quattrocento, 14-15 centuries), High Renaissance (cinquecento, 15-16 centuries).
The aesthetics of the Renaissance is associated with the grandiose revolution that is taking place in all areas of public life: in the economy, ideology, culture, science and philosophy. By this time, the flourishing of urban culture, the great geographical discoveries, which immensely expanded the horizons of man, the transition from craft to manufactory.
The development of productive forces, the disintegration of feudal class relations that fettered production, lead to the liberation of the individual, create the conditions for its free and universal development.
Favorable conditions for the comprehensive and universal development of the individual are created not only due to the disintegration of the feudal mode of production, but also due to the insufficient development of capitalism, which was still at the dawn of its formation. This dual, transitional character of the culture of the Renaissance in relation to the feudal and capitalist modes of production must be taken into account when considering the aesthetic ideas of this era. The Renaissance is not a state, but a process, and, moreover, a process of a transitional nature. All this is reflected in the nature of the worldview.
In the Renaissance, there is a process of radical breaking of the medieval system of views on the world and the formation of a new, humanistic ideology. In a broad sense, humanism is a historically changing system of views that recognizes the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social institutions, and the principles of equality, justice, humanity as a desired norm of relations between people. In a narrow sense, it is a cultural movement of the Renaissance. All forms of Italian humanism refer not so much to the history of Renaissance aesthetics as to the socio-political atmosphere of aesthetics.
Basic principles of Renaissance aesthetics
First of all, the novelty in this era is the promotion of the primacy of beauty, and, moreover, sensual beauty. God created the world, but how beautiful this world is, how much beauty there is in human life and in the human body, in the living expression of the human face and in the harmony of the human body!
At first, the artist, as it were, also does the work of God and according to the will of God himself. But, in addition to the fact that the artist must be obedient and humble, he must be educated and educated, he must understand a lot in all sciences, including philosophy. The very first teacher of the artist should be mathematics, aimed at the careful measurement of the naked human body. If antiquity divided the human figure into six or seven parts, then Alberti, in order to achieve accuracy in painting and sculpture, divided it into 600, and Dürer subsequently into 1800 parts.
The medieval icon painter had little interest in the real proportions of the human body, since for him it was only a carrier of the spirit. For him, the harmony of the body consisted in an ascetic outline, in a planar reflection of the supercorporeal world on it. But for the revivalist Giorgione, “Venus” is a full-fledged female naked body, which, although it is a creation of God, you somehow already forget about God, looking at him. In the foreground here is the knowledge of real anatomy. Therefore, the Renaissance artist is not only an expert in all sciences, but primarily in mathematics and anatomy.
The Renaissance theory, like the ancient one, preaches the imitation of nature. However, in the foreground here is not so much nature as the artist. In his work, the artist wants to reveal the beauty that lies in the recesses of nature itself. Therefore, the artist believes that art is even higher than nature. Theorists of Renaissance aesthetics, for example, have a comparison: an artist must create the way God created the world, and even more perfect than that. Now they not only say about the artist that he must be an expert in all sciences, but also highlight his work, in which they even try to find a criterion of beauty.
The aesthetic thinking of the Renaissance for the first time trusted human vision as such, without ancient cosmology and without medieval theology. In the Renaissance, a person for the first time began to think that the real and subjectively-sensually visible picture of the world is his real picture, that this is not fiction, not an illusion, not an error of vision and not speculative empiricism, but what we see with our own eyes, - this is what it really is.
And, above all, we really see how, as the object we see moves away from us, it takes on completely different forms and, in particular, shrinks in size. Two lines that seem to be completely parallel near us, as they move away from us, come closer and closer, and on the horizon, that is, at a sufficiently large distance from us, they simply approach each other until they completely merge at one single point. From the standpoint of common sense, it would seem that this is absurd. If the lines are parallel here, then they are parallel everywhere. But here is such a great confidence of the Renaissance aesthetics in the reality of this merging of parallel lines at a distance far enough from us that a whole science later appeared from this kind of real human sensations - perspective geometry.
Basic aesthetic philosophical teachings and art theory
In early humanism, the influence of Epicureanism was especially strongly felt, which served as a form of polemic against medieval asceticism and a means of rehabilitating sensual bodily beauty, which medieval thinkers questioned.
The Renaissance interpreted Epicurean philosophy in its own way, which can be seen in the work of the writer Valla and his treatise On Pleasure. Valla's sermon of pleasure has a contemplative, self-sufficient meaning. In his treatise, Valla teaches only about such pleasure or pleasure, which is not burdened by anything, does not threaten anything bad, which is disinterested and carefree, which is deeply human and at the same time divine.
Renaissance Neoplatonism represents a completely new type of Neoplatonism, which opposed medieval scholasticism and "scholasticized" Aristotelianism. The first stages in the development of Neoplatonic aesthetics were associated with the name of Nicholas of Cusa.
Kuzansky develops his concept of the beautiful in the treatise On Beauty. With him, beauty appears not simply as a shadow or a faint imprint of the divine prototype, as was characteristic of the aesthetics of the Middle Ages. In every form of the real, the sensual, an infinite single beauty shines through, which is adequate to all its particular manifestations. Kuzansky rejects any idea of hierarchical levels of beauty, of higher and lower beauty, absolute and relative, sensual and divine. All types and forms of beauty are absolutely equal. Beauty in Kuzansky is a universal property of being. Kuzansky aesthetizes all being, any, including prosaic, everyday reality. In everything that has form, shape, there is beauty. Therefore, the ugly is not contained in being itself, it arises only from those who perceive this being. "Disgrace - from those who accept it ...", - the thinker claims. Therefore, being does not contain ugliness. In the world there is only beauty as a universal property of nature and being in general.
Second major period in the development of the aesthetic thought of Renaissance Neoplatonism was the Platonic Academy in Florence, headed by Ficino . All love, according to Ficino, is a desire. Beauty is nothing but "desire for beauty" or "desire to enjoy beauty". There is divine beauty, spiritual beauty and bodily beauty. Divine beauty is a kind of ray that penetrates into the angelic or cosmic mind, then into the cosmic soul or the soul of the whole world, then into the sublunar or earthly realm of nature, and finally into the formless and lifeless realm of matter.
In Ficino's aesthetics, the category of the ugly receives a new interpretation. If Nicholas of Cusa has no place for ugliness in the world itself, then in the aesthetics of the Neoplatonists, ugliness is already independent. aesthetic value. It is connected with the resistance of matter, which opposes the spiritualizing activity of ideal, divine beauty. In accordance with this, the concept of artistic creativity is also changing. The artist must not only hide the shortcomings of nature, but also correct them, as if re-creating nature.
A huge contribution to the development of the aesthetic thought of the Renaissance was made by an Italian artist, architect, scientist, art theorist and philosopher. Alberti . At the center of Alberti's aesthetics is the doctrine of beauty. Beauty, in his opinion, lies in harmony. There are three elements that make up beauty, specifically the beauty of an architectural structure. These are number, constraint and placement. But beauty is not a simple arithmetic sum of them. Without harmony, the higher harmony of the parts falls apart.
It is characteristic how Alberti interprets the concept of "ugly". Beauty is an absolute work of art for him. The ugly acts only as a certain kind of mistake. Hence the demand that art should not correct, but hide ugly and ugly objects.
great italian artist da Vinci in his life, scientific and artistic work, he embodied the humanistic ideal of a “comprehensively developed personality”. The range of his practical and theoretical interests was truly universal. It included painting, sculpture, architecture, pyrotechnics, military and civil engineering, mathematics and science, medicine, and music.
Just like Alberti, he sees in painting not only "the transfer of the visible creations of nature", but also "witty fiction." At the same time, he takes a fundamentally different look at the purpose and essence of fine art, primarily painting. The main issue of his theory, the resolution of which predetermined all other theoretical premises of Leonardo, was the definition of the essence of painting as a way of knowing the world. "Painting is a science and the legitimate daughter of nature" and "should be placed above any other activity, for it contains all forms, both existing and not existing in nature."
Painting is presented by Leonardo as that universal method of cognizing reality, which covers all objects of the real world, moreover, the art of painting creates visible images that are understandable and accessible to the understanding of everyone without exception. In this case, it is the personality of the artist, enriched with deep knowledge of the laws of the universe, that will be the mirror in which the real world is reflected, refracting through the prism of creative individuality.
The personal-material aesthetics of the Renaissance, very clearly expressed in the work of Leonardo, reaches its most intense forms in Michelangelo . Revealing the failure of the aesthetic revival program that placed the individual at the center of the whole world, the figures of the High Renaissance different ways express this loss of the main support in their work. If in Leonardo the figures depicted by him are ready to dissolve in their environment, if they are, as it were, enveloped in some kind of light haze, then Michelangelo is characterized by a completely opposite feature. Each figure in his compositions is something closed in itself, so the figures are sometimes so unrelated to each other that the integrity of the composition is destroyed.
Carried away to the very end of his life by an ever-increasing wave of exalted religiosity, Michelangelo comes to the denial of everything that he worshiped in his youth, and above all, to the denial of a flowering naked body, expressing superhuman power and energy. He ceases to serve the Renaissance idols. In his mind, they are defeated, just as the main idol of the Renaissance turns out to be defeated - faith in the unlimited creative power of man, through art becoming equal to God. The entire life path he passed from now on seems to Michelangelo to be a complete delusion.
The crisis of the aesthetic ideals of the Renaissance and the aesthetic principles of mannerism
One of the very clear signs of the growing decline of the Renaissance is the artistic and theoretical-aesthetic trend that is called Mannerism. The word "manner" originally meant a special style, that is, different from the ordinary, then - a conditional style, that is, different from the natural. A common feature of the fine arts of Mannerism was the desire to free themselves from the ideal of the art of the mature Renaissance.
This trend manifested itself in the fact that both the aesthetic ideas and the artistic practice of the Italian Quattrocento were questioned. The theme of art of that period was opposed to the image of a changed, transformed reality. Unusual, amazing themes, dead nature, inorganic objects were valued. The cult of rules and the principles of proportion were questioned.
Changes in artistic practice brought about modifications and changes in the emphasis on aesthetic theories. First of all, this concerns the tasks of art and its classification. The main issue becomes the problem of art, not the problem of beauty. "artificiality" becomes the highest aesthetic ideal. If the aesthetics of the High Renaissance was looking for precise, scientifically verified rules, with the help of which the artist could achieve a true transfer of nature, then the theorists of mannerism oppose the unconditional significance of any rules, especially mathematical ones. The problem of the relationship between nature and artistic genius is interpreted in a different way in the aesthetics of mannerism. For artists of the 15th century, this problem was solved in favor of nature. The artist creates his works, following nature, choosing and extracting beauty from the whole variety of phenomena. The aesthetics of Mannerism gives unconditional preference to the genius of the artist. The artist must not only imitate nature, but also correct it, strive to surpass it.
The aesthetics of Mannerism, developing some ideas of Renaissance aesthetics, denying others and replacing them with new ones, reflected the alarming and contradictory situation of its time. Harmonic clarity and balance of the mature Renaissance, she contrasted the dynamics, tension and sophistication of artistic thought and, accordingly, its reflection in aesthetic theories, paving the way for one of the main artistic trends of the 17th century - baroque.
6 . Aesthetics of the new time
Rationalist foundations of culture. It is impossible to draw a perfectly precise boundary between the cultures of the 16th and 17th centuries. Already in the 16th century, new ideas about the world began to take shape in the teachings of Italian natural philosophers. But the real turning point in the science of the universe takes place at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, when Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei and Kepler, developing the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, come to the conclusion about the plurality of worlds, about the infinity of the universe, in which the earth is not the center, but a small particle when the invention of the telescope and the microscope revealed to man the existence of the infinitely distant and the infinitely small.
In the 17th century, the understanding of man, his place in the world, the relationship between the individual and society changed. The personality of the Renaissance man is characterized by absolute unity and integrity, it is devoid of complexity and development. The personality - of the Renaissance - asserts itself in accordance with nature, which is a good force. The energy of a person, as well as fortune, determine his life path. However, this "idyllic" humanism was no longer suitable for the new era, when man ceased to recognize himself as the center of the universe, when he felt the complexity and contradictions of life, when he had to wage a fierce struggle against feudal Catholic reaction.
The personality of the 17th century is not intrinsically valuable, like the personality of the Renaissance, it always depends on the environment, on nature, and on the mass of people, to whom it wants to show itself, to impress and convince it. This tendency, on the one hand, to strike the imagination of the masses, and on the other hand, to convince them, is one of the main features of the art of the 17th century.
The art of the 17th century, like the art of the Renaissance, is characterized by the cult of the hero. But this is a hero who is characterized not by actions, but by feelings, experiences. This is evidenced not only by art, but also by the philosophy of the 17th century. Descartes creates the doctrine of passions, while Spinoza considers human desires "as if they were lines, planes and bodies."
This new perception of the world and man could take on a twofold direction in the 17th century, depending on how it was used. In this complex, contradictory, multifaceted world of nature and the human psyche, its chaotic, irrational, dynamic and emotional side, its illusory nature, its sensual qualities could be emphasized. This path led to the Baroque style.
But the emphasis could also be placed on clear, distinct ideas that see through truth and order in this chaos, on thought struggling with its conflicts, on reason overcoming passions. This path led to classicism.
Baroque and classicism, having received their classical design in Italy and France, respectively, spread to one degree or another throughout all European countries and were the dominant trends in the artistic culture of the 17th century.
Aesthetic principles of the Baroque
The Baroque style originates in Italy, in a country fragmented into small states, in a country that experienced counter-reformation and a strong feudal reaction, where wealthy citizens turned into a landed aristocracy, in a country where the theory and practice of Mannerism flourished, and where, at the same time, in all its brightness the richest traditions of the artistic culture of the Renaissance have been preserved. From Mannerism, the Baroque took its subjectivity, from the Renaissance - its fascination with reality, but both in a new stylistic refraction. And although the remnants of Mannerism continue to affect the first and even the second decade of the 17th century, in essence, the overcoming of Mannerism in Italy can be considered completed by 1600.
One of the problems characteristic of baroque aesthetics is the problem of persuasion, which originates in rhetoric. Rhetoric does not distinguish truth from plausibility; as means of persuasion, they seem to be equivalent - and hence the illusory, fantastic, subjectivism of baroque art, combined with the classification of the "art" technique of producing an effect that creates a subjective, misleading impression of plausibility, follows.
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The newest time also includes the day of the artistic era: avant-garde and realism. originality of these epochs lies in the fact that they do not develop sequentially, but historically in parallel.
avant-garde art groups n uy ( premodernism, modernism, neomodernism, postmodernism) develop in parallel with the realistic group (critical realism of the 19th century, socialist realism, rural prose, neorealism, magical realism, psychological realism, intellectual realism). In this parallel development of epochs appears general acceleration of the movement of history.
One of the main provisions of the artistic concept of avant-garde trends: chaos, disorder "Law modern life human society. Art becomes chaosology, studying the laws of world disorder.
All avant-garde trends curtail the conscious and increase the unconscious beginning both in the creative and in the reception process. These areas pay great attention to mass art and the problems of the formation of the consciousness of the individual.
Features that unite avant-garde art movements: a new look at the position and purpose of man in the universe, the rejection of previously established rules and norms, from traditions and
dexterity, experiments in the field of form and style, the search for new artistic means and tricks.
Premodernism - the first (initial) period of artistic development of the avant-garde era; a group of artistic trends in the culture of the second half of the 19th century, opening up a whole stage (the stage of lost illusions) of the latest artistic development.
Naturalism is an artistic direction, the invariant of the artistic conception of which was the assertion of a man of the flesh in the material-material world; a person, even taken only as a highly organized biological individual, deserves attention in every manifestation; for all its imperfections, the world is stable, and all the details about it are of general interest. In the artistic concept of naturalism, desires and possibilities, ideals and reality are balanced, a certain complacency of society is felt, its satisfaction with its position and unwillingness to change anything in the world.
Naturalism claims that the entire visible world is part of nature and can be explained by its laws, and not by supernatural or paranormal causes. Naturalism was born out of the absolutization of realism and under the influence of Darwinian biological theories, scientific methods of studying society and the deterministic ideas of Taine and other positivists.
Impressionism - artistic direction (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries), the invariant of the artistic concept of which was the assertion of a refined, lyrically responsive, impressionable personality, admiring the beauty of the world. Impressionism opened a new type of perception of reality. Unlike realism, which is focused on the transmission of the typical, impressionism is focused on the special, individual and their subjective vision by the artist.
Impressionism is a mastery of color, chiaroscuro, the ability to convey the diversity, multicolor life, the joy of being, to capture fleeting moments of illumination and the general state of the surrounding changing world, to convey the open air - the play of light and shadows around a person and things, the air environment, natural lighting, giving an aesthetic appearance the object being depicted.
Impressionism manifested itself in painting (C. Monet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, A. Sisley, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin, A. Matisse, Utrillo, K. Korovin) and in music (C. Debussy and M Ravel, A. Scriabin), and in literature (partly G. Maupassant, K. Hamsun, G. Kellermann, Hofmannsthal, A. Schnitzler, O. Wilde, A. Simone).
Eclecticism- an artistic direction (which manifested itself mainly in architecture), which involves, when creating works, any combination of any forms of the past, any national traditions, frank decorativeism, interchangeability and equivalence of elements in a work, violation of the hierarchy in the artistic system and weakening the system and integrity.
Eclecticism is characterized by: 1) an overabundance of decorations; 2) equal importance of various elements, all style forms; 3) loss of distinction between a massive and unique building in an urban ensemble or a work of literature and other works literary process; 4) lack of unity: the facade breaks away from the body of the building, the detail - from the whole, the style of the facade - from the style of the interior, the styles of the various spaces of the interior - from each other; 5) optional symmetrical-axial composition (departure from the rule of an odd number of windows on the façade), uniformity of the façade; 6) the principle of "non-finito" (incompletion of the work, openness of the composition); 7) strengthening
associative thinking of the author (artist, writing la, architect) and viewer; 8) liberation from the ancient tradition and reliance on the cultures of different eras and different peoples; craving for the exotic; 9) multi-style; 10) unregulated personality (unlike classicism), subjectivism, free manifestation of personal elements; 11) democratism: the tendency to create a universal, non-class type of urban housing.
Functionally, eclecticism in literature, architecture and other arts is aimed at serving the "third estate". The key building of the Baroque is a church or a palace, the key building of classicism is a state building, the key building of eclecticism is an apartment building (“for everyone”). Eclectic decorativism is a market factor that has arisen in order to attract a wide clientele to an apartment building where apartments are rented out. Profitable house - a mass type of housing.
Modernism- an artistic era that unites artistic movements whose artistic concept reflects the acceleration of history and the strengthening of its pressure on a person (symbolism, rayonism, fauvism, primitivism, cubism, acmeism, futurism); the period of the most complete embodiment of avant-garde. During the period of modernism, the development and change of artistic trends occurred rapidly.
Modernist art movements are built by deconstructing the typological structure classical work- some of its elements become objects of artistic experiments. IN classical art these elements are balanced. Modernism upset this balance by strengthening some elements and weakening others.
Symbolism- the artistic direction of the era of modernism, which affirms the artistic concept: the dream of the poet is chivalry and a beautiful lady. Dreams of
chivalry, worship of a beautiful lady fill poetry symbolism.
Symbolism arose in France. His masters were Baudelaire, Mallarmé, Verlaine and Rimbaud.
Acmeism is an artistic direction of Russian literature of the early 20th century, which arose in " silver age”, which existed mainly in poetry and claimed: the poet- a sorcerer and proud ruler of the world, unraveling its mysteries and overcoming its chaos.
To acmeism belonged: N. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, M. Lozinsky, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbug, G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich and others Futurism- the artistic direction of the era of modernism, asserting an aggressively militant personality in the urbanly organized chaos of the world.
Defining artistic factor of futurism - dynamics. The Futurists implemented the principle of unlimited experimentation and achieved innovative solutions in literature, painting, music, and theater.
Primitivism- an artistic direction that simplifies man and the world, striving to see the world through children's eyes, joyfully and simply, outside the "adult» difficulties. This desire gives rise to strong and weak sides primitivism.
Primitivism is an atavistic nostalgia for the past, longing for a pre-civilized way of life.
Primitivism seeks to capture the main outlines complex world looking for joyful and understandable colors and lines in it. Primitivism is a counteraction to reality: the world becomes more complex, and the artist simplifies it. However, the artist then simplifies the world in order to cope with its complexity.
Cubism - a geometrized variety of primitivism that simplifies reality, perceiving it with childish or "savage" eyes.
the former character of primitivization: the vision of the world through the forms of geometrically regular figures.
Cubism in painting and sculpture was developed by the Italian artists D. Severini, U. Boccione, K. Kappa; German - E.L. Kirchner, G. Richter; American - J. Pollock, I. Rey, M. Weber, Mexican Diego Rivera, Argentine E. Pettoruti, etc.
In cubism, architectural constructions are felt; the masses are mechanically mated with each other, and each mass retains its independence. Cubism opened a fundamentally new direction in figurative art. The conditional works of Cubism (Braque, Gris, Picasso, Léger) retain their connection with the model. The portraits correspond to the originals and are recognizable (one American critic in a Parisian cafe recognized a man known to him only from a portrait by Picasso, composed of geometric figures).
Cubists do not depict reality, but create a “different reality” and convey not the appearance of an object, but its design, architectonics, structure, essence. They do not reproduce a "narrative fact", but visually embody their knowledge of the depicted subject.
Abstractionism- artistic direction of art of the 20th century, the artistic concept of which affirms the need for the individual to escape from the banal and illusory reality.
The works of abstract art are detached from the forms of life itself and embody the subjective color impressions and fantasies of the artist.
There are two currents in abstractionism. First current lyrical-emotional, psychological abstractionism - a symphony of colors, harmonization of shapeless color combinations. This trend was born from the impressionistic diversity of impressions about the world, embodied in the canvases of Henri Matisse.
The creator of the first work of psychological abstractionism was V. Kandinsky, who painted the painting "Mountain".
The second current geometric (logical, intellectual) abstractionism ("neoplasticism") is non-figurative cubism. In the birth of this current essential role played by P. Cezanne and the cubists, who created a new type of artistic space by combining various geometric shapes, colored planes, straight and broken lines.
Suprematism(the author of the term and the corresponding artistic phenomenon Kazimir Malevich) - for abstractionism, sharpening and deepening its features. Malevich opened the “Suprematism” trend in 1913 with the painting “Black Square”. Later, Malevich formulated his aesthetic principles: art is enduring due to its timeless value; pure plastic sensibility - "the dignity of works of art." The aesthetics and poetics of Suprematism affirm universal (Suprematist) pictorial formulas and compositions - ideal constructions of geometrically regular elements.
Rayonism is one of the near-abstractionist trends that affirmed the difficulty and joy of human existence and the uncertainty of the world, in which all objects illuminated by different light sources turn out to be dissected by the rays of this light and lose their clear figurativeness.
Luchism originated in 1908 - 1910 gg. in the work of Russian artists Mikhail Larionov and his wife Natalia Goncharova.
During neomodernism, all avant-garde art movements come from from such an understanding of reality: a person cannot withstand the pressure of the world and becomes a neo-human. During this period, the development
There are avant-garde art movements that affirm joyless, pessimistic artistic concepts of the world and personality. Among them Dadaism, constructivism, surrealism, existentialism, neo-abstractionism, etc.
Dadaism is an artistic movement that affirms an artistic concept; world- senseless madness, revising reason and faith.
The principles of Dadaism were; break with the traditions of world culture, including the traditions of the language; escape from culture and reality, the idea of the world as a chaos of madness, into which a defenseless person is thrown; pessimism, unbelief, denial of values, a feeling of general loss and meaninglessness of being, the destruction of ideals and the purpose of life. Dadaism is an expression of the crisis of the classical values of culture, the search for a new language and new values.
Surrealism is an art movement that focuses on a confused person in a mysterious and unknowable world. The concept of personality in surrealism could be summarized in the formula of agnosticism: “I am a man, but the boundaries of my personality and the world have blurred. I don't know where my "I" begins and where it ends, where is the world and what is it?
Surrealism as an artistic direction was developed by: Paul Eluard, Robert Desnos, Max Ernst, Roger Vitran, Antonin Artaud, Rene Char, Salvador Dali, Raymond Quenot, Jacques Prevert.
Surrealism arose from Dadaism, originally as literary direction, which later found its expression in painting, as well as in cinema, theater and partly in music.
For surrealism, man and the world, space and time are fluid and relative. They lose their boundaries. Aesthetic relativism is proclaimed: everything flows, everything is
it seems to be mixed up; it blurs; nothing is certain. Surrealism affirms the relativity of the world and his values. There are no boundaries between happiness and unhappiness, individual and society. Chaos of the world causes chaos of artistic thinking- this is the principle of the aesthetics of surrealism.
The artistic concept of surrealism affirms the mystery and unknowability of the world, in which time and history disappear, and a person lives in the subconscious and is helpless in the face of difficulties.
Expressionism- an artistic direction that asserts: alienated, a person lives in a hostile world. As the hero of the time, expressionism put forward a restless, overwhelmed by emotions personality, [not able to bring harmony to a world torn by passions. -
Expressionism as an artistic direction arose on the basis of relationships with various areas of scientific activity: with Freud's psychoanalysis, Husserl's phenomenology, neo-Kantian epistemology, the philosophy of the Vienna Circle and Gestalt psychology.
Expressionism manifested itself in different types of art: M. Chagall, O. Kokotka, E. Munch - in painting; A. Rimbaud, A. Yu. Strindberg, R. M. Rilke, E. Toller, F. Kafka - in literature; I. Stravinsky, B. Bartok, A. Schoenberg - in music.
Expressionism on the basis of the culture of the XX century. revives romanticism. expressionism inherent fear of the world and contradiction between external dynamism and the idea of the immutable essence of the world (disbelief in the possibility of its improvement). According to artistic concepts of expressionism, the essential forces of personality are alienated in opposing man and hostile public institutions: everything is useless. Ek expressionism is an expression of the pain of a humanist artist,
caused to him by the imperfection of the world. Expressionist concept of personality: Human- an emotional, “natural” being, alien to the industrial and rational, urban world in which he is forced to live.
Constructivism- artistic direction (20s of the XX century), the conceptual invariant of which is the idea- man's existence takes place in an environment of industrial forces alienated from him; and the hero of time- rationalist of industrial society.
The neo-positivist principles of cubism, having been born in painting, were extended in a transformed form to literature and other arts and consolidated in a new direction, converging with the ideas of technicism - constructivism. The latter considered the products of the industry as independent, alienated from the individual and opposing her values. Constructivism appeared at the dawn scientific and technological revolution and idealized the ideas of technicism; he valued machines and their products over the individual. Even in the most talented and humanistic works of constructivism, the alienating factors of technological progress are taken for granted. Constructivism is full of pathos of industrial progress, economic expediency; it is technocratic.
The aesthetics of constructivism developed between extremes (sometimes falling into one of them) - utilitarianism, requiring the destruction of aesthetics, and aestheticism. In the visual arts and in architecture, the creative principles of constructivism are as close as possible to engineering and include: mathematical calculation, laconicism of artistic means, schematism of composition, logicization.
In literature, constructivism as an artistic direction developed (1923 - 1930) in the work of the group
LCC (Constructivist Literary Center): I.L. Selvinsky, B.N. Agapov, V.M. Inber, H.A. Aduev, E.Kh. Bagritsky, B.I. Gabrilovich, K.L. Zelinsky (group theorist) and others. Constructivism also influenced the theater (the directorial work of Vsevolod Meyerhold, who developed the principles of biomechanics, theatrical engineering, and introduced elements of a circus spectacle into the stage action. The ideas of constructivism embraced various types of art, but had the greatest influence on architecture This especially affected the work of Le Corbusier, I. Leonidov, VA Shchuko and VG Gelfreich.
Existentialism- the concept of human existence, his place and role in this world, relationship to God. The essence of existentialism- the primacy of existence over essence (man himself forms his existence and, choosing what to do and what not to do, brings the essence into existence). Existentialism affirms a lonely selfish self-valuable personality in the world of the absurd. For existentialism, the individual is above history.
In its artistic concept, existentialism (J.P. Sartre, A. Camus) claims that the very foundations of human existence are absurd, if only because man is mortal; the story goes from bad to worse and back to bad again. There is no upward movement, there is only squirrel wheel history in which the life of mankind revolves senselessly.
The fundamental loneliness, affirmed by the artistic concept of existentialism, has the opposite logical consequence: life is not absurd where a person continues himself in humanity. But if a person is a loner, if he is the only value in the world, then he is socially devalued, he has no future, and then death is absolute. It crosses out a person, and life becomes meaningless.
Neo-abstractionism(second wave abstractionism) - spontaneous-impulsive self-expression; a fundamental rejection of figurativeness, of depicting reality, in the name of pure expressiveness; stream of consciousness captured in color.
Neo-abstractionism was created by a new generation of abstractionists: J. Paul Lak, De Kuhn and Yig, A. Manisirer and others. They mastered the surreal technique and the principles of "mental automatism". Paul Lak emphasizes in the creative act not the work, but the very process of its creation. This process becomes an end in itself and here the origins of “painting-action” are formed.
The principles of neo-abstractionism were substantiated by M. Brion, G. Reid, Sh.-P. Brew, M. Raton. The Italian theorist D. Severini urged to forget reality, since it does not affect the plastic expression. Another theorist, M. Zefor, considers the merit of abstract painting to be that it does not carry anything from the normal environment of human life. Photography took away the figurativeness of painting, leaving the latter only expressive possibilities for revealing the subjective world of the artist.
The weak link in the theory of abstractionism and neo-abstractionism is the absence of clear value criteria for distinguishing creativity from speculation, seriousness from a joke, talent from mediocrity, skill from trickery.
Artistic solutions of abstractionism and neo-abstractionism (harmonization of color and form, creation of "balance" of planes of different sizes due to the intensity of their color) are used in architecture, design, decorative arts, theater, cinema, and television.
Postmodernism as an artistic era carries an artistic paradigm that claims that a person cannot withstand the pressure of the world and becomes a posthuman. All artistic directions of this
period permeated with this paradigm, manifesting and refracting it through their invariant concepts of the world and personality: pop art, sonopucmuka, aleatorics, musical pointillism, hyperrealism, happenings, etc.
Pop Art- new figurative art. Pop art opposed the abstractionist rejection of reality with the rough world of material things, to which an artistic and aesthetic status is attributed.
Pop art theorists argue that in a certain context, each object loses its original meaning and becomes a work of art. Therefore, the task of the artist is understood not as the creation of an artistic object, but as giving artistic qualities to an ordinary object by organizing a certain context for its perception. Aestheticization of the material world becomes the principle of pop art. Artists strive to achieve catchiness, visibility, and intelligibility of their creations, using the poetics of labels and advertising for this. Pop art is a composition of everyday objects, sometimes combined with a model or sculpture.
Crumpled cars, faded photographs, scraps of newspapers and posters pasted on boxes, a stuffed chicken under a glass jar, a tattered shoe painted with white oil paint, electric motors, old tires or gas stoves - these are the art exhibits of pop art.
Among the artists of pop art can be identified: E. Warhol, D, Chamberlain, J. Dine and others.
Pop art as an art direction has a number of varieties (trends): op art (artistic organized optical effects, geometrized combinations of lines and spots), env-apm(compositions, artistic organization of the environment surrounding the viewer), email(objects moving with the help of electric motors
and constructions, this trend of pop art stood out as an independent artistic direction - kinetism).
Pop art put forward the concept of the consumer's identity of the "mass consumption" society. The ideal personality of pop art is a human consumer, for whom the aestheticized still lifes of commodity compositions should replace spiritual culture. Words replaced by goods, literature replaced by things, beauty replaced by usefulness, greed for material, commodity consumption, replacing spiritual needs, are characteristic of pop art. This direction is fundamentally oriented towards a mass, non-creative person, deprived of independent thinking and borrowing "his" thoughts from advertising and mass media, a person manipulated by television and other media. This personality is programmed by pop art to fulfill the given roles of the acquirer and consumer, dutifully demolishing the alienating influence of modern civilization. Pop Art Personality - Mass Culture Zombie.
Hyperrealism is an artistic movement whose artistic conception is invariant: a depersonalized living system in a cruel and rough world.
Hyperrealism - creates picturesque supernaturalistic works that convey the smallest details of the depicted object. The plots of hyperrealism are deliberately banal, the images are emphatically "objective". This direction returns artists to the usual forms and means of fine art, in particular to the painting canvas, rejected by pop art. Hyperrealism makes the dead, man-made, "second" nature of the urban environment the main themes of its paintings: gas stations, cars, shop windows, residential buildings, telephone booths, which are presented as alienated from humans.
Hyperrealism shows the consequences of excessive urbanization, the destruction of the ecology of the environment, proves that the metropolis creates an inhuman environment. The main theme of hyperrealism is the impersonal mechanized life of the modern city.
Theoretical basis hyperrealism - the philosophical ideas of the Frankfurt school, which affirms the need to move away from ideologized forms of figurative thinking.
Artworks photorealism are based on a highly enlarged photograph and are often identified with hyperrealism. However, both in terms of the technology of creating an image and, most importantly, in terms of the invariant of the artistic conception of the world and personality, these are, although close, but different artistic directions. Hyperrealists imitated photos with pictorial means on canvas, photorealists imitate paintings by processing (with paints, collage) photographs.
Photorealism affirms the priority of documentary and artistic conception: a reliable, ordinary person in a reliable, ordinary world.
The purpose of photorealism is the image of modern everyday life. Streets, passers-by, shop windows, cars, traffic lights, houses, household items are reproduced in the works of photorealism authentically, objectively and super similarly.
The main features of photorealism: 1) figurativeness, opposing the traditions of abstractionism; 2) attraction to plot; 3) the desire to avoid "realistic clichés" and documentary; 4) reliance on the artistic achievements of photographic technology.
Sonoristics- direction in music: the play of timbres, expressing the "I" of the author. For its representatives, it is not the pitch that is important, but the timbre. They are looking for new musical colors, unconventional sound: they play on a cane, on
saw, chopsticks on the strings of the piano, slap on the deck, on remote control, sound is produced by wiping the mouthpiece with a handkerchief.
In pure sonorous music, melody, harmony and rhythm do not play a special role, only timbre sounding matters. The need to fix it brought to life special graphic forms of recording timbre in the form of thin, bold, wavy, cone-shaped lines. Sometimes the range in which the performer needs to play is also indicated.
The founder of sonora music was the Polish composer K. Penderecki, and his initiative was continued by K. Serocki, S. Bussotti and others.
Musical pointillism- direction in the front sight * a feature of which is the rupture of the musical fabric, its dispersion in registers, the complexity of rhythm and time signatures, the abundance of pauses.
Musical pointillism refuses to create an intelligible artistic reality(from a reality that could be understood based on the world musical and artistic tradition and using traditional musical semiotic codes). Pointillism orients the individual towards emigration to the world of his soul and affirms the fragmentation of the surrounding world.
Aleatorica- artistic direction of literature and music, based on the philosophical notion that chance reigns in life, and affirming the artistic concept: man- player in the world of random situations.
Representatives of aleatorics: K. Stockhausen, P. Boulez, S. Bussotti, J. Cage, A. Pusser, K. Serotsky and others. Chance invades literary or musical works mechanically: by throwing chips (dice), playing chess, shuffling pages or varying fragments, as well as using
improvisation: the musical text is written in “signs-symbols” and then freely interpreted.
happening- this is one of the types of modern artistic culture in the West. A. Keprou was the author of the first productions of the happening "Courtyard", "Creations". Happening performances involve mysterious, sometimes illogical actions of the performers and are characterized by an abundance of props made from things that were in use and even taken from a landfill. Happening participants put on bright, exaggeratedly ridiculous costumes, emphasizing the inanimateness of the performers, their resemblance either to boxes or buckets. Some performances consist, for example, of painful release from under a tarpaulin. At the same time, the individual behavior of the actors is improvisational. Sometimes actors turn to the audience with a request to help them. This inclusion of the viewer in the action corresponds to the spirit of the happening.
The concept of the world and personality put forward by the happening can be formulated as follows: the world- a chain of random events, a person must subjectively feel complete freedom, but in fact obey a single action, be manipulated.
Happening uses light painting: the light continually changes color and strength, is directed directly at the actor or shines through screens made of different materials. Often it is accompanied by sound effects (human voices, music, tinkling, crackling, grinding). The sound is sometimes very strong, unexpected, designed for a shock effect. The presentation includes transparencies and film frames. Laura also uses aromatic substances. The performer receives a task from the director, but the duration of the participants' actions is not determined. Everyone can leave the game whenever they want.
Happening is arranged in different places: in parking lots, in courtyards surrounded by high-rise buildings, in the underground. ramparts, attics. The happening space, according to the principles of this action, should not limit the imagination of the artist and the viewer.
The happening theorist M. Kerby refers this type of spectacle to the field of theater, although he notes that happening differs from theater in the absence of the traditional structure of the performance: plot, characters and conflict. Other researchers associate the nature of the happening with painting and sculpture, and not with the theater.
With its origins, happening goes back to the artistic searches of the early 20th century, to the attempts of some painters and sculptors to shift the focus from a painting or sculpture to the very process of their creation. In other words, happening also takes its origins in “action painting”: in the “droplet splashing” of J. Pollock, in De Kooning's "slashing" strokes, in costumed pictorial performances by J. Mathieu.
self-destructive art- this is one of the strange phenomena of postmodernism. Paintings painted with paint fading in front of the audience. The book "Nothing", published in the USA in 1975 and reprinted in England. It has 192 pages, and none of them has a single line. The author claims that he expressed the thought: I have nothing to tell you. All of these are examples of self-destructive art. It also has its expression in music: the performance of a piece on a crumbling piano or on a decaying violin, and so on.
Conceptualism- is an art direction Western art, which, in its artistic conception, affirms a person who is detached from the direct (immediate) meaning of culture and who is surrounded by aestheticized products of intellectual activity.
The works of conceptualism are unpredictably different in their texture and appearance: photos, photocopies from texts, telegrams, reproductions, graphics, columns of numbers, schemes. Conceptualism does not use the intellectual product of human activity for its intended purpose: the recipient should not read and interpret the meaning of the text, but perceive it as a purely aesthetic product, interesting in its appearance.
Representatives of conceptualism; American artists T. Atkinson, D. Bainbridge, M. Baldwin, X. Harrell, Joseph Kossuth, Lawrence Weiner, Robert Berry, Douglas Huebler and others.
Critical realism of the 19th century,- artistic direction” that puts forward the concept: the world and man are imperfect; exit- non-resistance to evil by violence and self-improvement.
M socialist realism- an artistic direction that affirms an artistic concept: a person is socially active and is included in the creation of history by violent means"
peasant realism- an artistic direction that asserts that the peasant is the main bearer of morality and the support of national life.
Peasant realism (village prose) - the literary direction of Russian prose (60s - 80s); central theme - modern village, the main character is a peasant - the only true representative of the people and the bearer of ideals.
neorealism- the artistic direction of realism of the 20th century, which manifested itself in post-war Italian cinema and partly in literature. Features: neorealism showed close interest in a man from the people, in life ordinary people: acute attention to detail, observation and fixation of elements that entered life after the Second World War. Produc-
Neorealism's teachings affirm the ideas of humanism, the importance of simple life values, kindness and justice in human relations, the equality of people and their dignity, regardless of their property status.
Magic realism- the artistic direction of realism, which affirms the concept: a person lives in a reality that combines modernity and history, the supernatural and the natural, the paranormal and the ordinary.
Peculiarity magical realism- fantastic episodes develop according to the laws of everyday logic as an everyday reality.
psychological realism- artistic movement of the 20th century, putting forward the concept: the individual is responsible; the spiritual world should be filled with a culture that promotes the brotherhood of people and overcomes their egocentrism and loneliness.
intellectual realism- This is the artistic direction of realism, in the works of which a drama of ideas unfolds and the characters in the faces “act out” the thoughts of the author, express various aspects of his artistic conception. Intellectual realism presupposes a conceptual and philosophical mindset of the artist. If psychological realism seeks to convey the plasticity of the movement of thoughts, reveals the dialectics of the human soul, the interaction of the world and consciousness, then intellectual realism seeks to artistically and convincingly solve actual problems, to analyze the state of the world.
Similar information.
Plan
Introduction
Question 1. Aesthetics of the New Age and modern aesthetics
Question 2. The specifics of Protestantism, as one of the directions of Christianity
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
The subject of study in control work is the subject of ethics, aesthetics and religious studies.
The object of study is the individual aspects of the discipline.
The relevance of the study is caused, first of all, by the fact that each religion is a worldview and social thought, clothed in the form of a cult. Especially interesting for research are cases when religion does not remain unchanged, but is supplemented by life and changes in it. At the same time, each period of human development, in accordance with its moral, ethical and philosophical views, forms its own ethics and aesthetics of human behavior and activity in society. The processes of religious development are often directly related to ethical standards society and aesthetic embodiments. Sometimes ethics and aesthetics are at odds with the religious cult, ahead of and introducing new philosophical ideas.
The purpose of the work on the basis of the studied methodological and educational literature characterize the object of study in the control work.
To achieve this goal, it is planned to solve the following main tasks:
Consider the features of the aesthetics of the New Age and modern aesthetics;
Describe the process of the emergence of Protestantism and the principles of this religion, present the main features of the cult of this faith;
Summarize the results of research in the work.
Question 1. Aesthetics of the New Age and modern aesthetics
The ideological basis of the New Age was humanism, and then natural philosophy.
Humanism- from lat. human - recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities. Approval of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations. IN philosophical sense- secular freethinking, opposing scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church. In this era, a kind of deification of man took place - the "microcosm", a god-equal being that creates and creates itself. These views are anthropocentrism. This is a philosophical term that took root in the second half of the 19th century to refer to idealistic teachings that see in man the central and highest goal of the universe. But its foundations were laid in the Renaissance.
Pantheism- from Greek. theos, which means god. These are religious and philosophical teachings that identify God and the world whole. Pantheistic tendencies manifested themselves in the heretical mysticism of the Middle Ages. Pantheism is characteristic of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance and the materialistic system of Spinoza, who identified the concept of "god" and "nature".
Such an attitude towards a person marked the emergence of new forms of self-consciousness and Renaissance individualism. Emphasis was placed on ethical issues, the doctrine of the free will of the individual, directed towards the good and the common good. There was a kind of rehabilitation of man and his mind. It rejected the medieval theological attitude to man as to a sinful vessel, doomed to suffering in life. Joy and pleasure were declared the purpose of earthly existence. The possibility of harmonious existence of man and the surrounding world was proclaimed. Humanists contributed to the development of the ideal of a perfect, comprehensively developed personality, whose virtues were determined not by nobility by birth, but by deeds, intelligence, talents, and services to society. In Humanism, from the very beginning, natural-philosophical tendencies were concluded, which received special development in the 16th century. the main problem, which occupied natural philosophers - the ratio of God and nature. Considering it, they sought to overcome the dualism of medieval thinking, they understood the world as an organic connection between matter and spirit. Recognizing the materiality and infinity of the world, they endowed matter with the ability to reproduce itself, and at the same time life, creating doctrine of living space. Thus, in the philosophical systems of the Renaissance, a pantheistic picture of the world was formed. The idea of the universal animation of the universe called into question the existence of the supernatural, otherworldly, since everything miraculous was declared natural, natural, potentially cognizable: as soon as it was discovered and explained, how it ceased to be miraculous. Such judgments ran counter to church dogma. Medieval scholasticism, based on book knowledge and authorities, was opposed by humanism and natural philosophy to rationalism, an experimental method of knowing the world, based on sensory perception and experiment. At the same time, the animation of the cosmos led to the idea of a mysterious connection between man and nature, the recognition of the occult sciences. Science was understood as natural magic, astronomy was intertwined with astrology, and so on. In general, the understanding of nature as an internal master, acting independently, living according to its own laws, meant a break with the established medieval ideas about the creator god and led to the emergence of a new natural religion. This ideological upheaval was based on the rise of productive forces, material production, science and technology. All this led to the progressive development of Europe.
The most important distinguishing feature of the Renaissance worldview is its focus on art. If the focus of antiquity was natural-cosmic life, in the Middle Ages it was God and the idea of salvation associated with him, then in the Renaissance, the focus is on man. Therefore, the philosophical thinking of this period can be characterized as anthropocentric.
In the Renaissance, the individual acquires much greater independence, he increasingly represents not this or that union, but himself. From here grows a new self-consciousness of a person and his new social position: pride and self-affirmation, consciousness of one's own strength and talent become the distinctive qualities of a person.
Versatility is the ideal of a renaissance man. The theory of architecture, painting and sculpture, mathematics, mechanics, cartography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy - this is the circle of studies, for example, of the Florentine artist and humanist Alberti.
Let us turn to the reasoning of one of the humanists of the 15th century, Giovanni Pico (1463-1494), in his famous Oration on the Dignity of Man. Having created man and "placed him at the center of the world," God, according to this philosopher, addressed him with these words: "We do not give you, O Adam, either a certain place, or your own image, or a special obligation, so that both the place and You had a duty of your own free will, according to your will and your decision.
Pico has the idea of a man to whom God has given free will and who himself must decide his fate, determine his place in the world. Man here is not just a natural being, but the creator of himself.
In the Renaissance, any activity - be it the activity of an artist, sculptor, architect or engineer, navigator or poet - is perceived differently than in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Among the ancient Greeks, contemplation was placed above activity (in Greek, contemplation is theory). In the Middle Ages, work was seen as a kind of atonement for sins. However, the highest form of activity is recognized here as that which leads to the salvation of the soul, and in many respects it is akin to contemplation: it is prayer, a liturgical ritual. And only in the Renaissance, creative activity acquires a kind of sacred character. With its help, a person not only satisfies his perticular-terrestrial needs; he creates new world, creates beauty, creates the highest thing in the world, himself. And it is no coincidence that it was in the Renaissance that the line that previously existed between science, practical-technical activity, and artistic fantasy was blurred for the first time. The engineer and artist is now not only a "craftsman", "technician", now he is a creator. From now on, the artist imitates not just the creations of God, but the very divine creativity. In the world of science, we find such an approach in Kepler, Galileo, Navanieri.
A person seeks to free himself from his transcendental root, seeking a foothold not only in the cosmos, from which he has, as it were, grown during this time, but in himself, in a new light - a body through which from now on he sees corporeality in a different way in general. Paradoxical as it may seem, it was precisely the medieval doctrine of the resurrection of man in the flesh that led to that "rehabilitation" of man with all his material corporality, which is so characteristic of the Renaissance.
The cult of beauty characteristic of the Renaissance is associated with anthropocentrism, and it is not by chance that painting, which is depicted primarily beautiful human face And human body become the dominant form of art in this era. The great artists - Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, the worldview of the Renaissance receives its highest expression.
In the Renaissance, as never before, the value of the individual increased. Neither in antiquity nor in the Middle Ages was there such a burning interest in the human being in all its diversity of manifestations. Above all, in this era, the originality and uniqueness of each individual is placed.
Rich development of personality in XV-XVI centuries often accompanied by extremes of individualism: the inherent value of individuality means the absolutization of the aesthetic approach to man.
Question 2. The specifics of Protestantism, as one of the directions of Christianity
Protestantism is one of the three main directions of Christianity, along with Catholicism and Orthodoxy, which is a collection of numerous independent churches and sects related in origin to the Reformation, a broad anti-Catholic movement of the 16th century. in Europe. The movement began in Germany in 1517, when M. Luther published his "95 theses", and it ended in the second half of the 16th century. official recognition of Protestantism. During the Middle Ages, many attempts were made to reform the Catholic Church. However, the term "reformation" first appeared in the 16th century; it was introduced by reformers to express the idea of the need for the church to return to its biblical origins. In turn, the Roman Catholic Church viewed the Reformation as a rebellion, a revolution. The concept of "Protestant" arose as a common name for all supporters of the Reformation.
The development of aesthetic science in the countries of Western Europe and the USA in the first half of our century expressed this contradictory period in many of its concepts and theories, primarily of a non-realistic nature, for many of which the term "modernism" was established.
Modernism (from the French modern - the latest, modern) is a general symbol for the art trends of the 20th century, which are characterized by the rejection of traditional methods of artistic representation of the world.
Modernism as art system was prepared by two processes of its development: decadence (i.e., flight, rejection of real life, the cult of beauty as the only value, rejection of social problems) and the avant-garde (whose manifestos called for breaking with the legacy of the past and creating something new, contrary to traditional artistic attitudes).
All the main trends and currents of modernism - cubism, expressionism, futurism, constructivism, imaginism, surrealism, abstractionism, pop art, hyperrealism, etc., either rejected or completely transformed the entire system of artistic means and techniques. Specifically, in various types art, this was expressed: in a change in spatial images and the rejection of artistic and figurative patterns in the visual arts; in the revision of melodic, rhythmic and harmonic organization in music; in the emergence of a “stream of consciousness”, an internal monologue, associative montage in literature, etc. The ideas of irrationalist voluntarism of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche, the doctrine of intuition by A. Bergson and N. Lossky, psychoanalysis 3 had a great influence on the practice of modernism. Freud and C. G. Jung, the existentialism of M. Heidegger, J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus, the theory of social philosophy of the Frankfurt School T. Adorno and G. Marcuse.
The general emotional mood of the works of modernist artists can be expressed in the following phrase: the chaos of modern life, its disintegration contribute to the disorder and loneliness of a person, his conflicts are insoluble and hopeless, and the circumstances in which he is placed are insurmountable.
After the Second World War, most of the modernist trends in art lost their former avant-garde positions. In post-war Europe and America, “mass” and “elite” cultures begin to actively manifest themselves, with various aesthetic trends and trends corresponding to them, and also declare themselves aesthetic schools non-Marxist character. In general, the post-war stage in the development of foreign aesthetics can be defined as postmodern.
Postmodernism is a concept denoting a new, the last to date, super-stage in the chain of trends of culture naturally changing each other over the course of history. Postmodernism as a paradigm of modern culture is a general direction of development European culture formed in the 70s. 20th century
The emergence of postmodern trends in culture is associated with the awareness of the limitations of social progress and the fear of society that its results threaten the destruction of the very time and space of culture. Postmodernism, as it were, should establish the limits of human intervention in the development of nature, society and culture. Therefore, postmodernism is characterized by the search for a universal artistic language, the convergence and merging of various artistic movements, moreover, the “anarchism” of styles, their endless variety, eclecticism, collage, the realm of subjective montage.
The characteristic features of postmodernism are:
The orientation of postmodern culture and the "mass" and the "elite" of society;
Significant influence of art on non-art spheres of human activity (on politics, religion, computer science, etc.);
Style pluralism;
Wide citation in their creations of works of art of previous eras;
irony over artistic traditions past cultures;
Using the technique of the game when creating works of art.
In postmodern artistic creation, there is a conscious reorientation from creativity to compilation and quotation. For postmodernism, creativity is not equal to creation. If the system "artist - work of art" works in pre-postmodern cultures, then in postmodernism the emphasis is shifted to the relationship "work of art - viewer", which indicates a fundamental change in the artist's self-consciousness. He ceases to be a "creator", since the meaning of the work is born directly in the act of its perception. A postmodern work of art must be seen, exhibited, it cannot exist without a viewer. We can say that in postmodernism there is a transition from a "work of art" to an "artistic construction".
Postmodernism as a theory received significant justification in the works of J. Baudrillard "The System of Things" (1969), J. F. Lyotard "Postmodern Knowledge" (1979) and "Dispute" (1984), P. Sloterdijk "Magic Tree" (1985) and others
In this section, only the most important aesthetic trends and schools of non-Marxist orientation, as well as the key problems of aesthetic science of the 20th century, will be analyzed.
