What is a director from French borrowing. Russian words of French origin

Russian words were borrowed by French in different historical periods, but the borrowing was uneven: starting from the 15th century. there is a gradual increase in their number, which reaches a maximum in the 20th century.

Until the 19th century Russian-French language contacts were carried out mainly under the influence of extralinguistic factors, which include trade, political and military relations between Russia and France, and in the XIX - XX centuries. regular cultural and scientific contacts between the two states became the leading ones, which largely influenced the thematic preferences of the francophones in the selection of borrowed units.

The influence of the Russian language on French was mainly due to external extralinguistic - trade, political, military, cultural, scientific - relations between the two countries. The French linguistic influence on the Russian usage was largely promoted by the linguistic internal factors- artificial "diglossia" of Russian noble society in the XVIII - XIX centuries. How characteristic language situation of the time.

The analyzed Russianisms represent a rather syncretic group. From the point of view of etymology, native Russian words stand out among Russianisms (izba fr. isba, kvass fr. kvas) and words that are borrowed in Russian, which in these cases acts as an intermediary language (Cossack fr. cosaque, saiga fr. sapga, yurt in French yourte). Borrowings from the Turkic, Germanic, Finno-Ugric, Tungus-Manchurian, Slavic and other languages ​​are distinguished. It is also customary to consider Russian words formed on the basis of Greek, Latin, Western European words (roots) on Russian soil and having received a special semantic content in Russian usage. With a new acquired meaning, these units can return to the source languages ​​(cf.: intelligentsia in French intelligentsia, nihilism in French nihilisme, nihilist in French nihiliste, presidium in French praesidium).

Among the analyzed material there are single-lexical units (borchtch `borscht', samovar `samovar') and non-single-lexical units - tracing papers (des nuits blanches `white nights'), motivators of abbreviations (NDR `NDR' = Notre maison la Russie `Our home is Russia').

From a morphological point of view, Russian vocabulary in French is represented mainly by nouns, which very often serve to nominate realities that are absent in the life of other peoples and have an exotic character.

Basically, these are substantives that reflect the concepts of material and social culture(pirojki `patties', matriochka `matryoshka', datcha `dacha', glasnost `glasnost'); words expressing the concepts of spiritual, religious life are hardly borrowed; rare examples of such units are lexemes icon fr. icfne, iconostasis fr. iconostase (Greekisms by origin, fixed by French lexicographical sources as Russisms), split fr. raskol. Onymic lexemes are also extremely numerous, the main way of representing which in French is transcription, accompanied by "explications, that is, the introduction of additional elements that partially explain or clarify the meaning of reality." For example, "C" est a la demande d "Henri IV que Margeret, de retour en France apris avoir servi, Boris mort, le Samozvanetz (c" est-a-dire l "Usurpateur, le Faux-Dimitri), rédigera ses Mémoires "It was at the request of Henry IV that Margeret, having returned to France from the service of the Pretender (that is, the Usurper, False Dmitry) after the death of Boris, will compose his Memoirs."

Less often as a method of transmitting Russian reality on French tracing is used.

In French sources, there are units of other parts of speech: adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc. Russian adjectives are not numerous, they are formed mainly from Russian generating bases: bolchevique adj. et n. `Bolshevik, Bolshevik', cosaque adj. et n. `Cossack, Cossack', kolkhozien, -ne adj. et n. `collective farm, collective farmer', podzolique adj. `podzolic', soviétique adj. et n. `soviet, soviet man", tsariste adj. et n. `royal, tsarist" and others, as well as from proper names: lйniniste adj. et n. `Leninist, Leninist', stakhanoviste adj. et n. `Stakhanovite, Stakhanovite', etc. When used with the article, these lexemes also act as nouns. The transposition of an adjective into a noun arises due to the coincidence of the morphological indicators of these parts of speech; at the same time, it is facilitated by the commonality of many international suffixes, since “productive suffixes: -al, -aire, -teur, -ier, ien, -ais, -ique, -iste, -el and others equally form both a noun and an adjective ”, for example, the use of the noun moujik in the function of a definition, meaningful and grammatically transmitted as an adjective in the following context: “On ne voit guire de femmes moujikes ...” `You can hardly see peasant wives ...'. this case there is full agreement with the feminine noun in the form plural(femmes), and as a full-fledged adjective, moujik receives the corresponding grammatical indicators of gender and number.

The number of verbs created in French on the basis of Russian words is small - bolcheviser `to Bolshevize', dйbolcheviser `to carry out de-Bolshevization', cosaquer `to attack in a Cossack way', dйkoulakiser `to dispossess kulaks', dйstaliniser `to carry out de-Stalinization', knouter `to beat with a whip', mazouter `refuel with fuel oil; dirty with fuel oil", podzoliser `to podzolize', soviétiser `to sovietize'. The verb collectiviser acquired one more meaning - `to collectivize'.

It is noted that sometimes Russian verbs are used in French texts as "illustrations" of individual author's use (for example, kozakovat" `cossack' and navoevalis" `fighted' in the works of J. Niva), but they are not included in the lexical system of the French language .

A little about phonetics

My favorite rule: the letter h is not pronounced. Never. And write regularly.

Hennessy brandy is widely known. And the word Hennessy is read approximately like "ansi". The stress is always on the last syllable, that's true. The French themselves, however, may disagree about the stress. Many of them believe that there are no stresses in French at all, which surprised me a lot.

Poils and poêle are pronounced the same: "poil". That's it.

Ils portent (they wear) is pronounced "il port".

The famous "merci boku" ("thank you very much") is spelled merci beaucoup.

My name, as written in the passport - Lisakov Sergey - according to French rules you need to read Lizakov Serzhey. To get Lisakov Sergey, you need to write Lissakov Sergueï. True, the French usually cope with the name the first time.

Examples

Croissant - Croissant(pronounced, "croissant"). Literally: growing, from the verb croître - to grow. It is also called the growing month. Most of the legends about the etymology of this word agree that the crescent-shaped rolls (such were the original croissants) depicted the religious symbol of the Turks in their shape.

In astronomy, it is customary to distinguish between a waxing (croissant) and a waning (decroissant) moon, but the French call any crescent of the moon a croissant.

Brass knuckles - Casse-tête. The verb casser is to break, tête is the head. On french word casse-tête is used primarily for puzzles rather than head-breaking devices.

Tete-a-tete - Tête-à-tête. Head to head.

Boris, have you seen my brass knuckles? And then I have a little tete-a-tete planned.

vis-a-vis - vis-à-vis. The one who is in front of you. Applies not only to people. Moreover, most often I heard about counterparts in the context of the view from the window. In ads for renting / selling real estate, it is often specified that the apartment is without vis-à-vis, i.e. the view from the window is open, not the neighboring house. Visibilité - visibility, review.

Makeup artist - from vision: face.

Creme brulee - Creme brûlee. The cream is burnt, the verb brûler is to burn.

Solitaire - Patience: patience.

It takes a lot of patience to play solitaire.

Chimes - Courant: running, from the verb courir - to run. In French, this word is not applied to any clock. How this happened in the Russian language is written in the journal Science and Life, No. 5, 2004.

Fleet - Flotte. From the verb flotter - to swim (in the sense of staying on the water, not sinking). There is even such a thing - flottant (literally - “floating”).

Garage - garage. The verb garer means to park.

Blinds - Jalousie[ʒaluzi]: jealousy. One version of why jealousy became a curtain is that the French empire had Muslim colonies in Africa, where, among other things, it was not appropriate for women to look out of windows. The owners of harems seem to be jealous here. Without being noticed, women could look out the windows thanks to the blinds, because in North Africa closing the windows tightly is not comme il faut at all.

Comme il faut - Comme il faut: as it should. Faut really reads like "pho".

The verb "belong" in French is falloir (falloir). Il is either the pronoun "he" or an indication of the impersonality of the sentence, as in this case. As you can see, French verbs conjugate in an interesting way. Probably more difficult than in Russian. But their nouns are not declined, as in English.

Sharomyzhnik - from Cher ami (male), chere amie (female)[ʃeʀami]: dear friend. The origin is given according to Vasmer's etymological dictionary. The soldiers of the Napoleonic army retreating from Russia, many of whom were in a very deplorable state and deserted, addressed these words to the Cossacks and peasants in search of food or mercy. The peasants immediately understood that in front of them was a real charcoal and nothing more. Likewise, those who often used the phrase "Give Christ for Christ's sake" were called Christ-bearers.

In Dostoevsky's novel Demons, one of the main characters, Stepan Trofimovich Verkhovensky, very often uses the expression cher ami (addressing men) or chère amie (addressing women). Both phrases are pronounced the same way.

Pimp - Sauteneur- defender. The verb soutenir means to protect.

wall up - Emmurer. Mur - wall. Walled up, demons!

Gauze - like, from the name of the commune (roughly corresponds to our concept of "urban district") Marly-le-Roi 10 km from Versailles. In French, a fabric similar to gauze is called gaze. The word gaze, according to the French wiki dictionary, comes from the city of Gaza, where it was made. How our fabric began to be called gauze, I did not find. However, the proximity of the place to Versailles gives some guesses. I would be glad if someone shares the whole story about how gauze became gauze.

backstage - Coulisse. The verb coulisser means "to slide along the groove", like closet doors, for example, or like curtains, curtains, backstage.

Dresser - Commode- comfortable. In French, commode can be a noun and mean "chest of drawers", or it can be an adjective and mean "comfortable, pleasant" in relation to a person's character.

Diamond - Brillant, literally - “sparkling”, participle from the verb briller - “sparkle”. In Russian, the word "diamond" is used to denote a mineral, and "brilliant" is a cut diamond.

I don’t know how exactly the word “diamond” appeared in Russian, because the French ( ordinary people, and not specialist jewelers) use diamant for both diamond and brilliant. If necessary, to be more precise, a diamond can be called as diamant brut (brut - "rough"), and a faceted diamond - diamant taillé (taillé - zd.: "faceted"). They do not use the word brillant for diamonds. However, historically, the word brillant originated in the 17th century and meant a way of cutting a stone, which produces 57 facets. This method of cutting is very popular to this day.

One more detail: in terms of spelling and pronunciation, the Russian “brilliant” is more similar to the English “brilliant” than the French “brillant”. IN English language"brilliant" among other things means this very way of cutting a diamond, and diamonds are mainly called "diamond". Perhaps the word came into Russian from English, anywhere from French.

Stuntman - Cascadeur. I associated this word with a helmet, but it should have been with a cascade: cascade - a fall, also a waterfall.

Landing - Descente. The verb descendre is to go down. So during rush hour, the bus might ask if you're landing at the next stop.

Lieutenant - Lieutenant. This word came to Russian, perhaps not directly from French. Lieu - place, tenant - holding (participle from the verb tenir - to hold). Viceroy. It comes from the Latin locum tenens.

Overture - Overture. The verb ouvrir means "to open". Open - ouvert.

Refined - Raffinade. The verb raffiner means "to purify". It turns out that the cubes have nothing to do with it. Surprisingly, I never paid attention to the similarity in the name of refined sugar and refined sunflower oil. And they are simply clean.

Apport! - Accept!. The verb apporter is translated as "to bring". The same is translated and rapporter.

Submit a report.

“Apport!” shouted Nikolai Ivanovich, crumpling and throwing Ilya’s report into the corner.

Deodorant - Deodorant. Odeur - smell. Deodorant - disinfectant. In chemistry, substances that absorb unpleasant odors are called Desodorisant.

Furniture - Meuble(pronounced "furniture").

Cavalier - Chevalier[ʃəvalje] (from cheval- horse; pronounced like "cheval"). Chevalier Jr. title of nobility in France during the time of D'Artagnan, apparently originally: horseman. I met this word in some Russian publications Three Musketeers. Chevalier Dartagnan. That our "cavalry", that cheval with chevalier came from the Latin word caballus - horse. Apparently, just as the chevalier ceased to be directly connected with the horse, so did the cavalier.

It is said that in the language of those who deal with horses, horse is the word for a species of animal. The female is a mare and the male is a stallion. The word "horse" in the mouth of a specialist can mean either a stallion or a gelding (castrated stallion). This city dweller often calls a mare a horse, because the word horse is feminine. In this light, the following scheme would be more correct:

Horses (animal species) - equus, male horse (stallion) - le cheval, female horse (mare) - la jument.

Some associate the origin of the word "trash" with cheval. But this explanation seems more plausible to me.

It is also curious that in Russian the word "cavalier" can mean a courteous and polite person, but in French "cavalier" can mean, on the contrary, a cheeky, unceremonious person. I encountered this in the film "Ne nous fâchons pas".

pince-nez Pince Nez(pronounced "pansne"). Pincer - pinch, grab; nez - nose. Clothespins, for example, are called pince à linge.

Muffler - Cacher Nez. Cacher - hide, nez - nose. Planter - cache-pot , where pot is a pot.

chestnut - Chataigne[ʃatɛnj], that is, brown-haired. And I kept wondering which hair color is darker - chestnut or brown-haired?

Boot - Bottine, boot - bottom.

border - Border: edge, edge, border, frame. A curb is the edge of a sidewalk. Here I am reminded of the wildest assumption about the St. Petersburg curb - my brother decided that this was a “barrier brick”, limiting the bar. And I, in turn, thought that he meant “bare brick”, bare brick.

Sidewalk - Trottoir. The verb trotter means "to walk quickly". And scooter in French - trottinette.

Tire - Tir. The verb tirer means "to shoot". In football they shout tire! instead of "hit!".

March - Marche. Walking. Step march! The minibus goes along the route: route - road, route. Router is here. He's a router. It's funny that the word “route” is made up of two French ones (in fact, but I don’t know by etymology), but the French themselves don’t use such a word: they say itinéraire.

Serpentine - from Serpent(pronounced, "serpan"). The mountain serpentine winds like a snake, and the snake winds like a cracker serpentine.

Parterre - Par terre. Terre - earth, par - a preposition, can be translated as "in, on, for, from", etc. Sweep the floor - Balayer par terre. By the way, the French word bel-étage (beautiful floor) confuses the French. They no longer use such a phrase, but we liked it. By the way, "beautiful", as far as I know, will be beau (bo). Belle is beautiful. It is necessary to clarify what kind of bel this is, and whether it is used now.

Short - Bas, "ba". Double bass, bass - low sounds. The Netherlands (which are the Netherlands, i.e. Low Lands), in French sounds very piquant: Pays-Bas (Paiba) - Country (Earth) Low.

By the way, about the spice: Piquant- thorn, thorn, hence, apparently, hot sauce. Mountain peak.

Despatch - Depeche. Verb dépêcher - to hurry, hurry. Send a dispatch to the bistro.

Fern - Fougère(pronounced, "wine glass"). Here's one for you! It is possible that in the city, named "Fougere" in honor of the fern that grows abundantly around, they began to produce tall glasses, which received the name in honor of the city. Not sure, half made up this story.

Fruit puree - (pronounced, "compote"). Upon learning this, I immediately remembered the inscription on yogurt that surprised me at the time: Yoghurt with compote. Finally, the secret is out!

But what do the French call compote? When I tried to explain to one Frenchman that this thing is obtained after boiling fruit, he shrugged his shoulders and said: “Soupe” (pronounced “soup”, also used for soup).



In French, there is a word that reads like compote - it's compoté. But it means "stewed". Thick peach stew. Chic! Charm! Voila!

Newspaper - Journal[ʒurnal], journal. Jour - day. Daily reading. But "magazine" is more often magazine . Bonjour!- Good afternoon. Bon is good.

lampshade - Abat jour. The verb abattre means "to cut", jour means "day", in this case daylight. Light limitation.

Duty - de jour. Orderly.

floor lamp - Torchere. Torche - torch. ch is pronounced "sh" in French.

Display, monitor, screen - Affichage. Displays information. The French verb afficher (to announce, hang out, show) comes from the Latin affigere, which means the same. The latter is composed of the prefix ad (on) and the verb figere (to stick, put, place). Fiche - peg, pin.

buffet - La fourchette, literally - "fork".

Double-edged pun. French people say ça va? , which can literally be translated as "is it coming?" (as far as I know, this is how this expression appeared: the doctor often asked some monarch about natural functions). Sounds ça va like our "owl".

"Owl" in French will be chouette [ʃuɛt]. But the word chouette has another meaning: cool, cool, cool, cute. It turns out that such a dialogue is possible (on the verge of preserving the meaning):

- Cha va? - Chouette!

Moreover, in both remarks, an owl is mentioned in one way or another. I often act out such a dialogue with Guillaume (whose name, by the way, is spelled like this: Guillaume).

deja vu - Deja vu. Already seen. The verb "to see" in the infinitive is voir.

Purse - porte monnaie: I carry money. The verb porter is to wear. It is noteworthy that the word “portfolio”, which comes from porte feuille (I carry a sheet), is pronounced “portfolio” by the French and also means a wallet, not a bag.

Sabo - Sabot- hoof. The same word is called wooden shoes. From here came the verb saboter, which has several meanings, among other things, it means "to make noise with the help of a clog." Legend has it that the word "sabotage" came from the fact that workers threw such clogs into mechanisms to disable them, but this is only a legend.

Cutlet, entrecote, Ivory Coast. Côte- edge, coast, edge. Cotelette - rib; Initially, cutlets were called meat on the bone. On the contrary, entrecote - entrecôte - is the meat between the ribs; entre means between - intermission (entracte) means "between acts". Côte d "Ivoire - ivory coast. And the azure coast in France is called Côte d'Azur.

Deckchair - Chaise longue[ʃɛzlong]: The chair is long.

First - Premiere. Premier League, Prime Minister. Premiere étage - first floor.

A cut - Coupure. Bills, apparently - cut paper.

Print - Imprimer[ɛ̃prime]. Impression - impression . When I learned this, I immediately realized that the words "impression" and "print" are very similar for a reason.

Terminal - Terminal. The verb terminer is to end, to limit. Terminator. So, by the way, is called the border of light and dark parts Moon.

Wardrobe - Garde-robe. Garder - store, robe - dress. The dressing room in the theater is usually called vestiaire from the word veste - jacket. Garde-robe in French can mean:

• a place to change or store clothes
• collection of clothes that someone owns

And in the Middle Ages, the word garde-robe was even called the toilet.

Shawl - Chale[ʃal]. Chaleur - warm, hot.

Piercing - Piercing. Percer - penetrate, crash. The pier crashes into the sea. Pierce and piercing never occurred to me to connect.

Souvenir - Souvenir. Literally: remember.

Gap - Breche. Hole.

Fast - Bistro(bistro). Probably, almost everyone has heard about this term, which allegedly came into the French language from Russian in 1814, when Russian soldiers and officers, having taken Paris with their allies, hurried the slow French.

In fact, they say that the first establishments called "Bistro" in Paris appeared 70 years after the occupation of Paris by Russian troops. I must say that this version is nevertheless very popular among the French, several people told me about it. Actually, they came up with it - in Paris, Montmartre, at the Mère Catherine restaurant, there is a sign with the following text:

Courage - Courage- courage, courage, bravery, courage.

Spring - Ressort. Spring.

Land mine - . And here is what Google gives for the query fougasse:



In French, the word "fougasse" is more commonly used to refer to Provencal bread with a soft crust of thick crumb, made from wheat flour, yeast and olive oil, sometimes with added sugar or garnished with onions, black olives, anchovies, bacon.

Fasmer's etymological dictionary says that since the time of Peter I, the word "fugad" from fr. fugade - mine. These words come from the Latin focus - fire (if you focus the sun's rays with a magnifying glass, you can kindle a fire), but I did not find whether the rolls and shells are somehow connected.

Star - Etoile. The well-known l'Étoile chain of stores is the "star". With the article le, which is shortened to l when preceded by a vowel.

Haute couture - haute couture. The phrase "haute couture" probably came from the French haute couture - high fashion (couture literally means "sewing"). The word haute is indeed read as "from", but means "high". And here it turned into a pretext, a rather interesting metamorphosis.

And also: tank, fitter, motor, shower, installation, massage, drainage, entourage, espionage, conductor, mezzanine, hood, corrugation, protégé, sapper, landscape, silhouette, pirouette, pantaloons, underpants, fiction, repertoire, tank, maneuver , masterpiece, brothel, attic, advance, veil, duchess, nightmare, fillet, dictation, mode, depot, assorted, bonnet, couloir, rendezvous, role, et cetera. By the way, the union "and" will be et not only in Latin, but also in French.

P.S. Shock: the Russian union "a" has no analogues in French and English.

Borrowed words ( French:les emprunts) are widespread in vocabulary any language. This unconscious process is one of the ways in which vocabulary is enriched along with word formation and the semantic evolution of words.

Borrowings in French began to appear only after French began to look less and less like Latin, acquiring the main features of the Romance language. Therefore, you should not consider Celtic words as borrowings (for example: barque- Russian: boat, chemin- Russian: road, way, grève- Russian: strike) and of German origin (for example: fauteui l - Russian: armchair, gare- Russian: station, jardin- Russian: garden), which came into the vocabulary in the era of the formation of an independent French language. It would be more accurate to call borrowed only those words that come from languages ​​that are fundamentally different from French.

Thus, borrowing is an element of a foreign language transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements of one language to another. Moreover, not only whole words are borrowed, but also their meanings, as well as morphological and syntactic elements. Yes, French verb realiser(Russian: realize) acquired the additional meaning of “understand, realize”, characteristic of English verb to realize. Noun cré nature(Russian: creature) borrowed the meaning of "protege, favorite" of the Italian word protege. A suffixes - esque And – issime passed into French through some nouns borrowed from Italian. Also, thanks to borrowings from Latin, the suffix – isme.

One of the varieties of borrowings is tracing paper, or tracing paper. This is a transfer not only of meaning, but also of the internal form of a word or phrase in a foreign language. Yes, noun surhomme(Russian: superman) came from the German Û bermensch. Expression bass- blue(Russian: blue stocking) goes back to English blue- stocking, A grate- ciel(Russian: skyscraper) to American English sky- scraper.

The study of borrowings indicates the connection of the language with the history of the people who speak it. Modern French has a large number of words borrowed from foreign languages ​​in different eras. Borrowings caused historical conditions, the nature of the relationship between the French people and other nations. As a rule, a rich source of borrowings is the language of a people with unshakable authority on the world stage and influencing the economic and cultural development planets. However, this alone is not enough. In general, borrowings are more often made from languages ​​of the same family, and especially from a branch.

The origin of borrowings is sometimes very difficult to trace. Depending on whether the word passed directly from one language, or whether this language initially adopted it from another language, direct and indirect borrowings are distinguished. In French, indirect borrowings are often represented by exotic concepts that are not characteristic of French culture. Yes, noun pirogue(Russian: pieroga) passed from the Caribbean language, which borrowed it from Spanish ( piragua). A Haitian word barbecue(Russian: barbecue) became part of French from English, which adopted it from Spanish ( barbacoa).

There are also words that, having been borrowed from French by other languages, returned to French use, while changing quite a bit. Yes, noun bacon(bacon) borrowed from English, goes back to Old French bacon(Russian: "salted pork"). In modern French, the word has adopted an English pronunciation. Verb corner(Russian: blow a horn), also borrowed from English, comes from Old French cornier(Russian: horn).

Let us consider in more detail some sources of borrowings in French. A separate place among them belongs to the Romance languages, especially Italian. His influence can be clearly seen in the XVI century.

Many military terms were borrowed during the war with Italy (1494-1497), for example: attaquer< attaccare ( Russian: to attack, to attack), bastion< bastione ( Russian: bastion, fortress) , parapet< parapetto( Russian: parapet), soldat< soldato ( Russian: soldier, warrior).

There are also numerous borrowings of words from the household sphere: apartment< appartamento (Russian: apartment), strapontin< strapuntino (Russian: folding seat), carrosse< carrozza(Russian carriage), parasol< parasole (Russian: umbrella from the sun), bottom< botta(Russian: blow).

The influence of Italian art was also reflected in the French vocabulary: musical terms were borrowed: sé ré hope < serenata(Russian: serenade) , ariette < arietta(Russian: arietta) ; architectural terms: faç ade < facciata(Russian: facade, front side of the building) , balcony < balcony(Russian: balcony) , belvé dè re < belvé dè re(Russian: Belvedere) ; and terms visual arts: pastel < pastello(Russian: pastel) , aquarelle < ac- quarella(Russian: watercolor) .

During the XVIII-XIX centuries, a significant number of English words. This is due to the increased interest in the parliamentary regime that was established in England after the revolution of 1649, as well as the influence of English philosophy and literature.

Thus, English enriched the French language with political terms: commité < committee(Russian: committee) , ordre du jour < order ofthe day(Russian: agenda) . Newer borrowings are: boycotter < to boycott(Russian: boycott) , interview(Russian: interview) , meeting(Russian: meeting, rally) .

In the 19th century, as a result of industrial growth in England and the development of trade relations between the two countries, the French included the following words English origin: rail(Russian: rail) , tender(Russian: tender) , cargo(Russian: cargo ship) , pipe- line(Russian: pipeline). The increased interest in everything connected with England turned into a real Anglomania. This was the reason for the emergence of a large number of borrowings related to the sphere Everyday life: bifteck < beefsteak(Russian: steak, beefsteak) , rosbif < roast beef(Russian: roast beef) , pos­ ter (une letter) < to post(Russian: send) , cottage(Russian: cottage) , square­ re(Russian: square) , pull- over(Russian: sweater) , shopping(Russian: shopping, shopping) .

German also made a significant contribution to the French language. His influence increased in the 17th century, and was especially felt during the Thirty Years' War in Europe (1618-1648).

From German language military terms were borrowed: sabre < Sabel(Russian: saber), reî tre < Reiter(Russian: cavalryman) , blockhouse < Blockhaus(Russian: log house) ; music and dance terms: harmonica < Harmonica(Russian: harmonica) , accordé on < Akkordion(Russian: accordion) , valse < walzer(Russian: waltz) . Words related to various areas Everyday life: rosse < Ross(Russian: zlyuka), blafard < Bleichvar(Russian: pale, dull) , chena­ pan < Schnapphahn(Russian: scoundrel) , loustic < lustig(Russian: cheerful) .

From the languages ​​of the countries of the East, the French language borrowed terms that appeared due to the achievements of these peoples. From the Arabic language were adopted medical terms: alco­ ol < al- kohl(Russian: alcohol) , syrup < charâ b(Russian: syrup) ; mathematical: algè bre < ald- jabr(Russian: algebra) , zé ro < sifr(Russian: zero) ; astronomical: zé nothing < samt(Russian: zenith) , azimuth < as- samt(Russian: azimuth) ; as well as chemical alchimie < al- kî miyâ (Russian: alchemy) , alcali < al- qâ ly(Russian: alkali) . Words reflecting life and traditions were also borrowed Arab countries, namely: é mir< amî r(Russian: emir) , caï d< qâ id(Russian: leader), harem < haram(Russian: harem) , calife < Khalifa(Russian: caliph, caliph) .

The appearance of the first borrowings from the Russian language occurred in the 18th century. These words entered French through Russian literature and denoted phenomena that reflect Russian realities: moujik <- мужик , ruble < рубль , samovar < самовар, té lé ga < телега , touloupe < тулуп , toundra < тундра, vodka < водка. A large number of words came into the French language after the October Revolution (1917): sovkhoze < совхоз , komsomol < комсомол , Bolchevik < большевик, spoutnik < спутник. At the same time, French suffixes were added to Russian words: kolkho­ zien <колхозник , stakhanoviste < стахановец.

However, one of the most common ways of borrowing from Russian is tracing: autocritique < самокритика , plan quinquennal < пятилетка , journal mural, Maison de repos < дом престарелых , jardin d" enfants < детский сад , Sans- parti, minimum technique < технический минимум.

Bibliography:

1. Lopatnikova N.N., Lexicology of modern French (in French). - 5th ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher School, 2006. - 335 p.

2. Tarkhova V.A. Reader on the lexicology of the French language (in French). - M.: Enlightenment, 1972. - 240 p.

3. Chekalina E.M., Ushakova T.M. Lexicology of the French language. Tutorial. - Publishing house of St. Petersburg. university 1998. - 236 p.

4. Yartseva VN Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. - 685 p.

Kuzik Anna

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

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Scientific society of students "POISK"

MOU "Alekseevskaya secondary school"

Done by: 10th grade student

Kuzik Anna

leader: teacher

French

Kutsobina Galina Ivanovna

2009

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations. …………………………………………………………………………. 4

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary. ……………………………………...6

Chapter III. French borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language. …………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin. …………… 13

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… 18

Literature …………………………………………………………………………20

You don't need to disown foreign words, you don't need to abuse them either.

L. N. Tolstoy

Introduction

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. .

The object of our research is the ways of reflecting French realities in the Russian language.

Realia are words and phrases that name objects that are characteristic of the life (everyday life, culture, social and historical development) of one people and alien to another, which are carriers of national and historical color, and, as a rule, do not have exact matches (equivalents) in other languages.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that the study of realia words is one of the problems of modern linguistic science. The term "realia" appeared in linguistics only at the end of the 50s, and until now, researchers have not come to a consensus about which words refer to realities.

In the course of the study, the purpose of which is to collect and analyze French words in works of fiction, the following tasks are solved:

1.Trace the history of the appearance of words denoting French realities in Russian.

2. Determine ways of borrowing French words.

To solve the tasks in the work, the following methods are used:

Method of observation, i.e. extracting certain facts of interest from the text and including them in the desired category.

Encyclopedic method, i.e. the study of the meaning of a word in close connection with the objects and phenomena that they designate.

Comparative typological method, i.e. the study of the similarities and differences of languages, the vocabulary of these languages.

The material for the study was French words that entered the Russian language, identified by analyzing works of literature of the 19th century, as well as data from dictionaries of modern French.

Chapter I. History of the French language on the example of Russian-French relations.

French is a beautiful melody played with words. Previously, France was called the "capital of the world", and the French language throughout the planet was imbued with respect and treated with special trepidation, and in the 18th century it was considered practically international. Today, France does not occupy such a strong position, but still remains a place where foreigners dream of relaxing, working and studying. French as a classic is always relevant and will be fashionable out of time.

According to the VKS-Globus public center, today 36% of Russian citizens study French for communication and travel. Work is the main stimulus for learning French for 24%, study - for 23% of students. International certificate and self-education received 7% and 6% respectively. Students planning to move to a French-speaking country account for 4%.

Students account for the largest percentage of French learners at 27%, followed by schoolchildren at 13%. To move up the career ladder, knowledge of French is more often required for middle managers (6%) and senior managers (4%). Lawyers, bankers, journalists, accountants, teachers, scientists make up half of all professions that require knowledge of the French language.

Russia and France have been bound by close mutually beneficial ties of cooperation for more than one century. The beginning of Russian-French relations was laid by the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna, who, at a middle-aged age (25 years old) in 1051, married King Henry I of France. She became the first and only Russian woman to become a French queen.

The first correspondence between the French and Russian thrones dates back to 1518, when the confrontation with Poland forced Vasily Ioannovich to turn to the French monarch Francis I for help. However, at that time, the linguistic carrier of the correspondence was by no means French, but Russian and German.

The reign of Boris Godunov opened up European countries for Russian students, among whom was France (where they received their education), and for the French - the possibilities of the Russian State. Jacques Margeret was one of the first French subjects who managed to get a job in Russia. Stay in the country was reflected in the book "The State of the Russian Empire and the Grand Duchy of Moscow."

French fashion trends storm the wardrobes of the then fashionistas in 1605. What is the French dress of Maria Mnishek, tied in a belt, with which she shocked not a single Muscovite!

The first exchange of embassies between the Russian Empire and France took place in 1615.

The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich is a new milestone in the history of Russian-French relations. In 1668, the first visit of the Russian embassy headed by Prince P.I. Potemkin. Russian ambassadors were impressed by local tapestry factories, galleries and parks, and especially theaters. Already in 1672, the first court theater appeared in Russia, which began its activity with the plays of Molière.

A new round of enthusiasm for France and its culture takes place under Peter I. An observer from Russia appears in the capital of France, who helped the Russians to get a job or study in France.

During this period, France becomes the standard of education, culture, morals. The Russian nobility admires the ability of the French to hold masquerades, balls, and receptions.

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, outstanding artists, architects, and sculptors began to be invited from France. It was believed that among foreigners in Russia, the French were the vast majority. The time of the cult of everything that could be connected with France begins. Russians from young to old were fluent in French, dressed in French clothes, lived surrounded by French interiors, read books in French, and used the services of tutors from France. It was not uncommon for people to speak French better than their native Russian.

Catherine II, who replaced Elizabeth Petrovna, tried unsuccessfully to fight the dominance of fashion for French words, for which she even introduced a system of fines. However, by the 19th century, French had become almost native to most of the nobles who spoke, wrote and even thought in it. This is confirmed by the imperishable works of Russian classics, in which one can often find paragraphs in French. Higher Russian society greedily absorbed everything new that appeared in France. Ballet, fashion, cooking, art, theater - in each of these areas, the French style dominated, which instantly began to be considered distinctively Russian.

In our time, it is difficult to imagine Russia of that era without touching flies, powdered hairpieces and wigs, umbrellas and fans, as well as business cards, without which not a single business, and even romantic date could do. And each of these features was introduced by French culture. At the same time, France becomes the European legislator in the production of cosmetics and perfumes. The recipe for French perfume was kept in the strictest confidence, which contributed to the cultivation of fashionable passions among Europeans. France also received the palm of leadership thanks to the production of cosmetics, including decorative ones - powder, blush, etc. And the famous Madame Pompadour, who introduced the fashion for the so-called "talking bouquets", conquered the whole of Europe with a new trend. These were golden times for France.

Chapter II. Formation of Russian vocabulary.

The lexical composition of the Russian language was influenced by borrowed words from other languages.

BORROWING - a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-fledged morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing can be direct or indirect.

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. So, the French word chance means "good luck" (Tu a de la chance! - "You're lucky!"), While the Russian word "chance" means only "the possibility of luck." The Russian word "excitement" comes from the French hazard "case"; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d "hazard -" gambling ", literally -" a game of chance ". It also happens that a borrowed word returns in its new meaning back to the language from which it came. Such, apparently , the history of the word "bistro", which came into the Russian language from French, where it arose after the war of 1812, when parts of the Russian troops ended up on French territory - probably as a transmission of the replica "Quickly!"

Generally speaking, a language that finds itself in the face of a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing in it (this can be either a new “subject” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities: 1) to borrow this word itself: in this way borrowings in a narrow sense appear in the language, for example, the Russian “fair” is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, "choir" - other Greek. , "quorum" from lat. quorum, "idyll" from it. Idylle, "poetry" from the French. poésie, "high" from Arabic. kejf, "design" from English. design, etc.; 2) to create a new word from their morphemes following the pattern of a foreign one: thus, word-building tracing papers appear in the language: for example, the Russian word “linguistics” is modeled after the German Sprachwissenschaft, “oxygen” is modeled after the Latin oxygenium, “subject” is modeled after objectum, etc.; 3) to use an already existing word to express the desired meaning, giving it a new meaning following the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic tracing); for example, the Russian verb “to touch” acquired the figurative meaning “to excite feelings” under the influence of the French “toucher”, which has both meanings (direct and figurative); The Russian words influence and inspiration acquired their modern "abstract" meaning under the influence of the French language "influence" and "inspiration". Words and meanings created according to the second and third models are called borrowings in a broad sense.

In scientific terminology, tending to unambiguity, the first and second mechanisms are more often used. The second and third mechanisms constitute the most important sources of enrichment of the literary language. Thus, the vocabulary of a generally significant nature includes borrowings of all three types. The main stream of borrowings in the narrow sense (i.e., foreign words) comes through the colloquial speech of professional spheres and jargons of various social groups.

Often words coexist in a language that are identical in their internal form, but one of them is a direct borrowing, and the other is a tracing paper; at the same time, they usually do not completely coincide, and sometimes differ very significantly in meaning, for example: subject and subject, opposition and opposition, composition and addition, position and position, positive and positive, president and chairman, biography and biography, etc. Such doubletness is very typical for Russian, to a lesser extent for German, and is not typical for French and English.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread, a mug, an umbrella, a store, a cat, a horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music, station, car, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potatoes, a saucepan, a plate, tea, sugar, etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language, as, for example, in the German words “chance”, “restorant” borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner" with a nasal vowel). In the borrowed from the same French Russian word “jury”, a sound absent in Russian is also pronounced - soft j. In the word resume, before the final spelling "e", a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft. More recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word "cafe"; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, scarf, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before the spelling "e" with soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words theme, decree, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): computer, dean, mayonnaise, tent, etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language. Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word “shampoo”, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable gender category, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like “rubbish” or “wormwood”; accordingly, the instrumental form was both “shampoo” and “shampoo” (subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism of assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word coffee prescribed by the norm, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as “field” or “woe”.

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in eras of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when speech is about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. There are always conservative forces in the linguistic community that prevent the penetration of foreign words “clogging” it into the language, as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration of jargon, professionalism, etc. into the literary language). ). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that gave rise to them, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language. For example, the authority of A.I. Solzhenitsyn, who is opposed to the use of foreign words and proposes to replace them with words of Russian origin, may turn out to be great enough to have some influence on the fate of certain foreign words. Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. So, in France, in order to fight, first of all, with anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the use of foreign words in texts created in French and intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.).

Chapter III. Frenchborrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language.

There is not a single language on our planet that does not have borrowings. The share of borrowed vocabulary can range from 10% to 80-90%.

In different historical periods (common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper), words from other languages ​​penetrated into the original Russian language. The main reason was that the Russian people constantly entered into cultural, economic, political ties with other peoples.

A significant part of borrowings in the Russian language are gallicisms.

Gallicisms (from lat. gallicus - Gallic) - words and expressions borrowed from French or formed according to the model of French words and expressions.

In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to settle densely in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction necessary for the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). French - the language of the great enlighteners: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe.

Gallicisms reflected the characteristic features of the French language: pronons (prononcer), grass (grasseyer).

An interesting feature is the following assimilation of Gallicisms:

He was not comme il faut (comme il faut).

Let me engage you (engager) to dance.

Courtesy (courtois) behavior must not be violated.

In the XVIII - early XIX century, words truly saturated with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletère), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment ), curtsey (révérence), favorite (favorite).

Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of life and activity of people. Vocabulary related to clothing has been replenished with especially French borrowings: accessory (accessoire), bijouterie (bijouterie), veil (voile), frill (jabot), manto (manteau), negligee (peignoir) and food: meringue (baiser), puree (purée ), mayonnaise (mayonnaise). An interesting detail is that words such as gourmand (gourmand) and delicacy (délicatesse) are of French origin. For example, this could be a gourmet menu:

Asparagus

Lobster with garnish (homard), (garnir)

Grilled meat under bechamel (griller), (bèchamel)

And for dessert - biscuit (biscuit) and jelly (gelèe), meringue (meringue) and souffle (soufflè), as well as liqueur (liqueur) and cruchon (cruchon).

I would like to pay special attention to gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordion (accordéon), ensemble (ensemble), vocal (vocal), clarinet (clarinette), nocturne (nocturne), overture (ouverture). There are a lot of gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), make-up (grimer), debut (dèbut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissa, w (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette), impressionism (impressionnisme).

In the 19th - early 20th centuries, more and more new Gallicisms appeared in the Russian language. Many of them were connected with public life, with the economy, with politics. Examples of such words: capitalism (capitalisme), bourgeoisie (bourgeoisie), budget (budget), press (presse), diplomat (diplomate), attaché (attachè), democrat (dèmocrate), shareholder (actionnaire), bureaucracy (bureaucratisme). These words are known to everyone and are often used in everyday life. Gallicisms are such words as indexation (indexation), alliance (alliance), assets (avoir), clique (cligue). Quite often, the following borrowings from French are found in speech: authoritarian (autorgtaire), shareholder (actionnaire), run (balloter), debate (dèbattre), importer (importeur), exaggerate (mousser).

There are times in the history of a society when a foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words are borrowed from it especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed both in the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more “beautiful” and prestigious is typical of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small shop,” but in Russian soil, the word boutique has come to mean “expensive fashion store.” Interestingly, in the French language itself, it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) now ceased to suit sellers who more spacious and capacious stores were needed. In Russian, this word "increased in rank" began to denote a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object.

There are quite a lot of similar borrowings in modern Russian. Here are some of them: perfume (parfum), nouveau riche (nouveau riche), purse (porte-monnaie), wardrobe trunk (coffre), travel bag (nécessaire), voyage (voyage), concierge (concièrge), volunteer (volontaire), camouflage ( camouflage), grand iris (Grand Prix), carte blanche (carte blanche).

Interestingly, it is from the French language that the words that characterize the high society are borrowed: elite (élite), bohemia (bohème), beau monde (beaumonde).

As in the XVIII-XIX centuries, today there is an interesting assimilation of Gallicisms in Russian speech:

Rest in plein air

In the evening they made a promenade (promenade)

Have you decided to go to a rendezvous? (rendez-vous)

At the resort we jouir

Speaking of borrowings from the French language, one cannot fail to mention the "winged" words and phraseological units. They can be conditionally divided into three groups: historical, literary and secular. The historical group includes "winged" words once uttered by a famous political or historical figure: a king, commander, politician and others. Historical and political events left their mark on the French vocabulary. Some of them switched to Russian:

Accuracy (accuracy) is the courtesy of kings. (L "exactitude est la politesse des rois) This expression is attributed to the French king Louis XVIII.

All is lost except honor. The expression belongs to the French king Francis I. Defeated by the troops of Charles V and captured at Pavia, he

sent a letter to his mother containing only this phrase.

The expression "State within a State" arose during the era of the religious wars in France.

"Golden youth". So they call the rich bourgeois-noble youth, winding money, burning through life. Initially, it was the nickname of the Parisian counter-revolutionary youth, grouped after IX Thermidor.

"Art for Art's sake". The slogan proclaimed in France by the supporters of the so-called "pure", "free" art. The idea of ​​this direction was first expressed by the French idealist philosopher Victor Cousin.

"Old Guard". This expression goes back to the name of the elite units of Napoleon's troops. The French Guard was in 1807 divided into "old" and "young"; The "old guard", which consisted of the best soldiers and officers, hardened in battles, who played a large role in the Napoleonic wars, was surrounded by an aura of "invincibility".

The literary group includes phraseological units that were once mentioned in a particular work of art:

"Balzac Age". The expression arose after the release of Honore Balzac's novel The Thirty-Year-Old Woman.

"Pulling chestnuts out of the fire." This expression came into Russian speech from the fable of the French fabulist Jean La Fontaine "The Monkey and the Cat".

The last group - secular, includes expressions that were used by the people or were said by a person who was close to ordinary people:

He is at ease (N "est pas dans son assiette). If we translate this phraseological unit literally, then it should sound something like this: "to be in an unenviable position." What does the plate have to do with it? The French word assiette is translated as "position" and how "plate".

I would like to note one curious detail - the similarity and difference between the idioms of the Russian and French languages. These idioms have the same meaning, for example:

A ram on five legs. Un mouton a cinq pattes.

White crow. Corneille Blanche.

To be made of gold. Etre cousu d "or.

Get out of bed on the wrong side. Se lever du pied gauche.

Chickens do not peck money. Les poules ne picorent pas l "argent.

Chapter IV. French language in the works of A. S. Pushkin.

Studying in the ninth grade the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", we noticed that the poet uses a lot of words and expressions from the French language. This interested and aroused the desire to study the reasons and motives for the author's use of foreign words in his work. We started with the history of that time and the influence of Europe on Russia.

The influence of the French language on Pushkin's language is considered primarily as the influence of French vocabulary and phraseology. Several chapters of V.V. Vinogradov's book "Pushkin's Language" are devoted to this, where the poet's attitude to Europeanism, the role of French in the formation of his language are clarified, in connection with which the researcher characterizes Pushkin's position in relation to the Karamzin reform and such a phenomenon as "secular language ladies".

When studying the evolution of Pushkin's views on the phraseological means of the poetic language of the 17th - early 19th centuries. Much attention is paid to the influence of traditional French poetic phraseology on the language of Pushkin's poetry. Thus, the problems put forward by Academician Vinogradov are relevant today.

At the beginning of the XIX century. the question of borrowing - not borrowing foreign language elements, using - not using them was a topical, topical issue that needed to be addressed daily - in private and official correspondence, oral communication, in all areas of verbal creativity. Therefore, the study of foreign inclusions by its various aspects is connected with the study of both the language and Pushkin's style.

Pushkin's poetic gift was determined very early.

From memoirs about Pushkin's poetic exercises before his lyceum years, we learn that Alexander Sergeevich was brought up in a literary environment. The poet's sister, Olga Sergeevna, says: "In such a circle, Alexander Sergeevich's childhood impressions developed, and it is not surprising that a 9-year-old boy wanted to try himself in the art of imitation and become an author. His first attempts were, of course, in French, although they also taught him Russian literacy ."

Confirmation is also found in the memoirs of the poet’s brother Lev Sergeevich Pushkin, written around the same time: “In general, his upbringing did not contain much Russian: he heard only French; his tutor was a Frenchman, however, a man not stupid and educated; his father’s library consisted from some French writings. The child spent sleepless nights and secretly devoured books one after another in his father's study. Pushkin was gifted with an extraordinary memory and at the age of eleven he already knew all French literature by heart. "

The first teacher of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was the French emigrant Count Montfort, an educated man, musician and painter; then Ruslo, who wrote well French poetry, then Shendel and others: they, as was customary then, were given complete freedom over the children. Of course, the children spoke and studied only in French.

Education by French tutors, constantly in French, as well as reading Western literature played a role in the fact that Pushkin is almost the only case in the history of literature when the greatest poet of his country,

French literature was only a part of European literature and could not replace the whole, and he aspired to this whole, it alone could satisfy him.

The question naturally arises as to how French education affected the poetic work of young Pushkin, especially since the cultural hegemony of France throughout Europe, established in the 18th century, was still strong in the years of Pushkin's youth. The dominance of classicism coincided with the time of the special authority of French literature of two centuries, since it was in the works of French writers that they saw the highest examples of classical literature.

Upon entering the Lyceum, Pushkin impressed even his comrades, who, like him, grew up in a French secular environment, with a wide knowledge of French literature and a perfect knowledge of the French language. It is not for nothing that Pushkin appears in the "national songs" under the name "Frenchman".

During his apprenticeship, French literature could not but be reflected in Pushkin's early work.

It is well known that Pushkin considered it natural and logical to use foreign words in the event that these words denoted objects or abstract concepts for which there were no equivalents in the Russian language. In a playful form, his position is expressed on the pages of "Eugene Onegin":

But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest,

All these words are not in Russian,

And I see, I blame you,

What is it my poor syllable

I could dazzle much less

In foreign words,

Even though I looked in the old days

In the Academic Dictionary.

It is natural that in Pushkin's language there are no bookish or poetic French phraseological units. Book phraseological units are expressions that are characteristic of literary writing. Meanwhile, in his works, prose fiction, journalistic and epistolary Pushkin, in his own words, develops designations "for the most ordinary concepts." Poetic French phraseology also could not find its place in Pushkin's work on prose literary language, from which he demanded laconism, simplicity and clarity.

The nominative functions of a foreign word are diverse. Pushkin introduces French words into the Russian context for different purposes. Let us dwell in more detail on specific cases of the use of French inclusions.

1. Pushkin introduces a French word or expression that has no equivalent in Russian to denote a phenomenon or object.

Affectation "No one cried, tears would be - une Affectation.

Pushkin uses the French word in its second meaning, recorded in the dictionary: "Imitation? faux-semblant. Affectation de douleur? affectation de vertu".

Forgery, trick, trick. Image of grief, virtue

Such a laconic designation of pretense, cunning in behavior and the manifestation of feelings was absent in the Russian language. Pushkin uses a widely used word to clarify his thought.

Gracieuse "Ah! if I could lure you to Mikhailovskoye! ... You will see that if you compare Onegin with Don Juan, then only in one respect: who is nicer and prettier / Gracieuse /, Tatiana or Yulia?" .

2. The introduction of a new meaning that is missing from the Russian word: mystère - the first meaning coincides with the Russian word "sacrament", but in the context it refers to a phenomenon in European history - a medieval religious play. The Russian word "sacrament" does not have a similar meaning.

3. Rethinking the Russian word, using it in a new meaning, close to the French synonym; with the help of the word individualité, a new concept for the Russian language is introduced. The Russian equivalent is created by rethinking the word "originality".

Reflecting on the fate of the word "coquette", which has long been learned by the Russian language, comparing it with the French word prude, Pushkin writes the word "coquette" in French: "Coquette, prude. The word coquette has become Russified, but prude has not been translated and has not yet come into use" .

Interestingly, despite the statement of the fact that the word prude did not enter the Russian language, Pushkin himself forms from this adjectival verb "prudnichat" and the noun "prude", the meaning of which is defined as

Be overly strict in matters of decency, decency. "The government is not a lady, not a Princesse Moustache: it does not behoove to show off."

The attitude to French culture and language reveals a lot in the guise of one of the central heroines of Pushkin's work, Tatyana Larina. Let us consider in more detail the role of the French language and, more specifically, the role of French elements in creating the psychological and speech characteristics of the heroine of Pushkin's programmatic work.

Tatyana Larina does not utter a single French phrase in the text of the novel. But the element of the French language permeates her life. Moreover, it exists for Tatyana in a dual guise. On the one hand, these are the best examples of European literature, serving as a textbook for life:

She liked novels early,

They replaced everything for her;

She fell in love with deceptions

Both Richardson and Rousseau.

(VI.44).

Then Onegin's library will join here, complicating her worldview, expanding its boundaries, and - in a certain sense - completing her education. On the other hand, is it everyday colloquial speech, samples of which we meet on the pages of the album of a provincial young lady?

On the first page you will find:

Qu "ecrivez - vous sur ces tablettes?

and signature: t.a.v. Annette.

This inclusion does not have a specific author. It is given as a common cliche, as a socio-historical characteristic of the environment in which the heroine grew up. Triquet's couplet adjoins a similar example of county creativity. Its text is not given, but correlates with the melody and words of the children's song:

Triquet brought a couplet to Tatiana

Reveillez - vous, belle endormie.

(VI, 109)

This quote is familiar to the Pushkin reader from childhood. The characterization of Triquet's work, "boldly" substituting the ingenuous belle Tatiana instead of the conventionally literary belle Nina, demonstrates the widespread and vulgarization of the conventional poetic French phraseology.

The description of the turning points in Tatyana's life - the duel and death of Lensky, the departure of Yevgeny, the acquaintance with the Onegin library and the departure of the Larins to Moscow - is devoid of foreign language elements.

Russian educated society in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was bilingual. The development of interlingual relations in that era went in different ways. In extralinguistic terms, it manifested itself in the intensification of the training of noble youth in foreign languages, ancient and living, the development of translated literature, and the distribution of printed materials in many foreign languages. One of the intra-linguistic results of these contacts has been an increase in borrowings from different languages.2

French since the beginning of the 18th century. belonged to the most common, and by the end of the century, successfully competed with German, he came out on top in terms of prevalence in Russian society, influence on the formation of the Russian literary language. Considering the consequences of the Europeanization of Russian life in the XVIII century.

V.V. Vinogradov distinguishes two phenomena: 1. the widespread use of the French language in society; 2. formation of colloquial and everyday and literary styles of the Russian language with a bright imprint of the French language culture. The objective reason for such a linguistic situation, according to Vinogradov, is the need to adapt Russian literary speech to the expression of Western European concepts.

Russia entered the European political arena. This led to the rapid development of science and culture. “It is not so much about private borrowing of words and concepts,” wrote V.V. Vinogradov, assessing the state of the Russian literary language in the second half of the 17th century, “but about the general convergence of the semantic system of the Russian literary language with the semantic structure of Western European languages”4.

In mixing Russian with French, the researcher distinguishes the following phenomena:

1. When assimilating Western European concepts, when translating them into Russian, the semantic adaptation of Russian words to the corresponding French took place. This led to the merging of the meanings of the Russian word with the sphere of French meanings.

2. Correspondences and similarities to foreign words were compiled by tracing "Europeanism". Russian morphemes were a literal translation of the morphological elements of a foreign word. There was, as it were, an exact survey of morpheme after morpheme.

3. Together with lexical tracing papers, phraseological tracing papers arose.

The processes that took place in the 17th century were completed in the first quarter of the 19th century: “French becomes the official language of the court and aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. The struggle for the national foundations of the Russian literary language inevitably put forward the task of creating “secular” styles of the Russian literary language ".

Conclusion

Analyzing the state of the Russian literary language in the Pushkin era, most researchers inevitably touch upon the question of the situation in the literary language of the first half of the 19th century. foreign elements and attitude towards them. And here the French elements are in first place in terms of frequency of use.

So, L.A. Bulakhovsky, in his fundamental work on the literary language of this period, notes the important role of the French language in an educated Russian society: the opportunity to get acquainted with foreign literature, etiquette communication in a secular society, etc.

L.A. Bulakhovsky emphasizes the use of such "ready-made material" as easy-to-communicate formulas and phrases that the French language is rich in, especially in the epistolary genre: into French, to use some concepts only in its shell are reflected especially in the epistolary and memoir syllable of this time, in the constant interspersing into the Russian text of individual French words and expressions. "7 The researcher draws a clear boundary between such "blotches", on the one hand, and vocabulary borrowings from the French language with tracing papers, on the other. The habit of using individual words and expressions in French is noted by V.V. Vinogradov.8

Of course, it is impossible to cover all the richness of borrowings from French in Russian vocabulary in such a small work. I would like to emphasize that borrowings enrich the Russian language, but we must strive to use them wisely.

No culture, no language develops in isolation, and any national culture and language is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples, and the interaction between cultures, economic, political and everyday contacts are the common basis for all borrowing processes. . Until recently, the Russian language played the role of a mediator and distributor of Sovietisms and international words and contributed to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language of the peoples of many countries of the world. But at the same time, many words appeared in many languages ​​of the world (and, in particular, in French), denoting the features of Russian culture, life, and history.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment

the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with

activation of the process of lexical borrowing is usually enhanced and

opposition to him. So Peter I demanded that his contemporaries write

"as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words.

M.V. Lomonosov in his “theory of three calms”, highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages.

To what extent this will change the face of the Russian language, enrich it or

"spoiled", time will tell. It will determine the fate of one or another

borrowings that will eventually be approved or rejected

linguistic taste of the era. The Russian language is not the first time faced with

the need to perceive useful information in the form of foreign words from international experience.

List of used literature

1. Vinogradov V.V. "Language of Pushkin" M. 1979
2. Gak K.A. Ganshina K.A. New French-Russian Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997
3. Ilyina O.V. "Semantic assimilation of foreign language lexical innovations by the Russian language". Novosibirsk, 1998
4. Linnik T.G. "Problems of language borrowing". Kyiv, 1989
5. Lotman Yu.M. "A.S. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" M. 1983.
6. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume II "Eugene Onegin" M. Fiction, 1986
7. Pushkin A.S. Essay in three volumes. Volume I. M. Fiction, 1985.
8. Raevskaya O.V. New French-Russian and Russian-French Dictionary. M. "Russian language" 1997

Gallicisms in Russian

French culture had a considerable influence on Russia. It also affected the linguistic sphere. Since the 18th century, many French words have entered the Russian dictionary. Linguists call them gallicisms - from the Latin word gallicus - "Gallic".

There are several areas in which French loanwords are most common. For example, most of the socio-political terminology: regime, bourgeois, parliament, etc. Gallicisms are also often found in the military sphere. This is a battalion, and a pistol, and artillery, and a lieutenant, and a garrison, etc.

France has always been famous for its high level of art. Therefore, it is not surprising that the terminology has taken root in the Russian language unchanged, retaining its “native” pronunciation. The usual poster, play, rehearsal, director, actor, ballet and many other words belong to Gallicisms.

The largest number of words are borrowed from French in everyday areas. These include decor items, furniture, food, jewelry, clothing. These words are used almost daily. For example, a bracelet, broth, marmalade, vest, coat, toilet, etc. Even the familiar "patty" is gallicism.

Some words have been borrowed in their original meaning. However, there are also those whose subtext has changed. For example, the French affaire (“scam”) means “deal” and does not have a negative connotation.

Features of words borrowed from French

Gallicisms have several phonetic features that make them easy to recognize. The first is the ending of invariable words with vowels -o, -e, -i. For example, manto, mashed potatoes, jelly, curlers.

The second feature of the Gallicisms that entered the Russian language is the letter combination "wa". It can be observed in the words bourgeoisie, veil, boudoir, gouache, accessory. In some words, this combination has been transformed into "yua", for example, "peignoir".

Please note that in borrowed words, the stress is predominantly placed on the last syllable. However, due to the endings pronounced in Russian, in some words it has shifted

The third feature is the words with the syllables "byu", "vu", "nu", "ryu", "fu". The most commonly used in everyday speech are: dressing table, budget, bureaucracy, trick, perfume, etc. You can easily recognize gallicisms thanks to the fourth feature: the endings -ant, -age, -er, -ans. Thus, it becomes clear that France is the birthplace of the beautiful words familiar to the Russian ear, séance, aerobatics, debutant, barrier, graduate student, etc.