Why did Constantinople fall in 1453. The fall of Constantinople, and the Byzantine Empire (1453)

Prerequisites

The position of Byzantium by 1453

Position of other states

The most likely allies of Constantine were the Venetians. Their fleet went to sea only after April 17 and was instructed to wait for reinforcements off the island of Tenedos until May 20, and then break through the Dardanelles to Constantinople. Genoa remained neutral. The Hungarians have not yet recovered from their recent defeat. The Moscow authorities were preoccupied with their own problems, besides, between Moscow and Constantinople lay the Nogai and Tatar territories. Wallachia and the Serbian states were in vassal dependence on the Sultan, and the Serbs even allocated auxiliary troops to the Sultan's army. Skanderbeg in Albania was opposed to the Turks, but he also disliked the Byzantines and Venetians.

The position of the Romans

Defense system of Constantinople

Plan of the walls of Constantinople

The city of Constantinople is located on a peninsula that is formed by the Sea of ​​Marmara and the Golden Horn. The city blocks overlooking the sea and the bay were covered by city walls. Special system fortifications from walls and towers covered the city from the land - from the west. The Greeks were relatively calm behind the fortress walls on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara - the sea current here was fast and did not allow the Turks to land troops under the walls. The vulnerable point was the Golden Horn. The Byzantines here developed a kind of defensive system.

A large chain was stretched across the entrance to the bay. It is known that one end of it was attached to the tower of Eugene on the northeastern tip of the peninsula, and the other - to one of the towers of the Pera quarter on the northern coast of the Golden Horn (the quarter was a Genoese colony). On the water, the chain was supported by wooden rafts. The Turkish fleet could not enter the Golden Horn and land troops under the northern walls of the city. The Roman fleet, covered by a chain, could easily make repairs in the Golden Horn.

Walls and a ditch stretched from the west from the Sea of ​​Marmara to the Blachernae quarter bordering the Golden Horn. The ditch was about 60 feet wide, deep and could be filled with water. On the inside of the moat there was a jagged parapet. Between the parapet and the wall was a passage 40 to 50 feet wide, called Perivolos. The first wall was 25 feet high and had defensive towers 50 to 100 yards apart. Behind this wall there was another inner passage, all along its length, 40-60 feet wide, called the Paratychion. Behind it rose a second wall, 40 feet high, with towers of square or octagonal shape, which were arranged so as to cover the gaps between the towers of the first wall.

The terrain in the middle of the fortification system was lowered: here the river Lykos flowed into the city through a pipe. The area of ​​fortifications above the river has always been considered especially vulnerable due to the lowering of the terrain by 100 feet, it was called Mesothichion. In the northern part, the fortress walls joined with the fortifications of the Blachernae quarter, which protruded from the general row; the fortifications were represented by a moat, an ordinary wall and fortifications of the imperial palace, built close to the fortress wall by Emperor Manuel I.

There were also several gates and secret gates throughout the fortification system.

Military forces of the Greeks

Although the walls of the city by that time were very dilapidated and crumbled, the defensive fortifications still represented an impressive force. However, a strong decline in the population of the capital made itself felt in a very detrimental way. Since the city itself occupied a very large area, there were clearly not enough soldiers to repel the assault. In total, there were about 7 thousand fit Roman soldiers, not including the allies. The allies were even smaller, for example, a volunteer from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani Longo, provided about 700 people. A small detachment was put up by a colony of Catalans.

The Greek fleet defending Constantinople consisted of 26 ships. 10 of them belonged to the Romans proper, 5 to the Venetians, 5 to the Genoese, 3 to the Cretans, 1 arrived from the city of Ancona, 1 from Catalonia and 1 from Provence. All these were high-sided paddleless sailboats. The city had several cannons and a significant supply of spears and arrows. There was clearly not enough firearms.

The main forces of the Romans, under the command of Constantine himself, concentrated at the most vulnerable place, at Mesotychion, where the river passes through a pipe under the fortress walls. Giustiniani Longo positioned his detachments to the right of the emperor's troops, but then joined him. Giustiniani's place was taken by another detachment of Genoese soldiers, led by the Bocchiardi brothers. A detachment of the Venetian community, under the command of a certain Minotto, defended the Blachernae quarter. South of Misotichion was another detachment of Genoese volunteers under the command of Cattaneo, a Greek detachment under the command of a relative of the emperor Theophilus Palaiologos, a detachment of the Venetian Contarini and the Greek detachment of Demetrius Kantakuzen.

Many historians consider the fall of Constantinople to be a key moment in European history, separating the Middle Ages from the Renaissance, explaining this by the collapse of the old religious order, as well as the use of new military technologies such as gunpowder and artillery during the battle. Many universities in Western Europe were replenished with Greek scientists who fled from Byzantium, which played a significant role in the subsequent reception of Roman law.

The fall of Constantinople also cut off the main trade route from Europe to Asia, forcing Europeans to seek a new sea route and possibly leading to the discovery of the Americas and the start of the Age of Discovery.

But most Europeans believed that the death of Byzantium was the beginning of the end of the world, since only Byzantium was the successor to the Roman Empire. With the death of Byzantium, terrible events could begin in Europe: plagues, fires, earthquakes, droughts, floods and, of course, attacks by foreigners from the East. Only by the end of the 17th century, Turkey's pressure on Europe weakened, and towards the end of the 18th century, Turkey began to lose its lands.

Wikipedia Wikipedia

The events of 1453 left an indelible impression in the memory of contemporaries. The fall of Byzantium was breaking news for the peoples of Europe. For some, this caused sadness, for others - gloating. But they were not indifferent.

Whatever the reasons for the fall of Byzantium, this event had enormous consequences for many European and Asian countries. However, the reasons should be discussed in more detail.

Development of Byzantium after restoration

In 1261 there was a restoration. However, the state no longer claimed its former power. The ruler was Michael the Eighth Palaiologos. The possessions of his empire were limited to the following territories:

• northwestern part of Asia Minor;
• Thrace;
• Macedonia;
• part of the Morea;
• several islands in the Aegean.

After the sack and destruction of Constantinople, its significance as shopping center. All power was in the hands of the Venetians and Genoese. They were engaged in trade in the Aegean and Black Seas.

The restored Byzantium became a collection of provinces, which also broke up into separate districts. They lost economic and political ties with each other.

So, the feudal lords of Asia Minor began to arbitrarily conclude agreements with the Turkish emirs, the aristocrats fought for power with the ruling dynasty of the Palaiologos. It is not surprising that one of the reasons for the fall of Byzantium was feudal strife. They disorganized political life states weakened it.

The situation in the economic sphere was not the best. IN later years there was a regression. It was expressed in a return to subsistence farming and labor rent. The population became impoverished and could not pay the former taxes. The bureaucracy remained the same.

If asked to name the reasons for the fall of Byzantium, one should also recall the aggravation of social relations within the country.

Wave of urban movements

Such factors as the decline of industry, the collapse of trade relations and navigation led to the aggravation of social relations. All this led to the impoverishment of the urban strata of the population. Many residents had no means of subsistence.

The reasons for the fall of Byzantium lie in the wave of violent urban movements that swept in the forties of the fourteenth century. They were especially bright in Adrianapolis, Heraclea, Thessalonica. The events in Thessalonica led to the temporary declaration of an independent republic. It was created according to the type of the Venetian states.

The reasons for the fall of Byzantium also lie in the reluctance of the major powers of Western Europe to support Constantinople. Emperor Manuel II addressed the governments of the Italian states, the kings of France and England personally, but help him in best case only promised.

Postponing doom

The Turks won victory after victory. In 1371 they proved themselves on the Maritsa River, in 1389 - in 1396 - near Nikopol. Not a single European state wanted to stand in the way of the strongest army.

In the 6th grade, the reason for the fall of Byzantium is the power of the Turkish army, which sent its forces against Constantinople. Indeed, Sultan Bayezid the First did not even try to hide his plans to capture Byzantium. Nevertheless, Manuel II had hope for the salvation of his state. He learned about it while in Paris. Hope was connected with the "Angora catastrophe". You should learn more about this.

The Turks faced a force that could resist them. We are talking about the invasion of Timur (in some sources, Tamerlane). He created a huge empire. In 1402, the army under his leadership moved to Asia Minor. The Turkish army was not inferior in size to the enemy army. Decisive was the betrayal of some emirs, who went over to the side of Timur.

At Angora, a battle took place, which ended in the complete defeat of the Turkish army. Sultan Bayezid fled from the battlefield, but was captured. He was kept in an iron cage until his death. Nevertheless, the Turkish state survived. Timur did not have a fleet and did not send his forces to Europe. In 1405 the ruler died, and his great empire began to disintegrate. But it is worth returning to Turkey.

The loss at Angora and the death of the Sultan led to a long struggle between Bayezid's sons for power. The Turkish state briefly abandoned plans to capture Byzantium. But in the twenties of the fifteenth century, the Turks got stronger. Sultan Murad II came to power, and the army was replenished with artillery.

Despite several attempts, he failed to take Constantinople, but in 1430 he captured Thessalonica. All its inhabitants became slaves.

Union of Florence

The reasons for the fall of Byzantium are directly related to the plans of the Turkish state. It surrounded the perishing empire in a dense ring. The possessions of the once powerful Byzantium were limited to the capital and the surrounding area.

The Byzantine government was constantly looking for help among the states of Catholic Europe. The emperors even agreed to subordinate the Greek Church to the power of the pope. This idea appealed to Rome. In 1439, the Council of Florence was held, at which it was decided to unite the eastern and western churches under papal authority.

The union was not supported by the Greek population. In history, the statement of the head of the Greek fleet, Luke Notara, has been preserved. He stated that he would prefer to see the Turkish turban in Constantinople, rather than All sections of the Greek population well remembered the attitude of the Western European feudal lords who ruled them during the Crusades and the existence of the Latin Empire.

A large amount of information contains the answer to the question "how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium"? Everyone can count them on their own by reading the entire material of the article.

New Crusade

European countries understood the danger that awaits them from the Turkish state. For this and a number of other reasons, they organized the Crusade. It took place in 1444. It was attended by Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, Germans, a separate part of the French knights.

The campaign was unsuccessful for the Europeans. They were defeated near Varna by powerful Turkish troops. After that, the fate of Constantinople was sealed.

Now it is worth highlighting the military reasons for the fall of Byzantium and listing them.

power imbalance

The ruler of Byzantium in the last days of its existence was Constantine the Eleventh. He had a rather weak military force at his disposal. Researchers believe that they consisted of ten thousand warriors. Most of them were mercenaries from the Genoese lands.

The ruler of the Turkish state was Sultan Mehmed II. In 1451 he succeeded Murad II. The Sultan had an army of two hundred thousand soldiers. About fifteen thousand were well-trained Janissaries.

No matter how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium may be named, the inequality of the parties is the main one.

Nevertheless, the city was not going to give up. The Turks had to show considerable ingenuity in order to achieve their goal and take possession of the last stronghold of the Eastern Roman Empire.

What is known about the rulers of the warring parties?

The last Constantine

The last ruler of Byzantium was born in 1405. His father was Manuel II, and his mother was the daughter of the Serbian prince Elena Dragash. Since the maternal family was quite noble, the son had the right to take the surname Dragash. And so he did. Konstantin's childhood passed in the capital.

IN mature years he was in charge of the province of Morea. For two years he ruled Constantinople during the absence of his elder brother. Contemporaries described him as a quick-tempered man who nevertheless possessed common sense. He knew how to convince others. He was quite an educated person, interested in military affairs.

Became emperor in 1449, after the death of John VIII. He was supported in the capital, but he was not crowned by the patriarch. Throughout his reign, the emperor prepared the capital for a possible siege. He also did not stop looking for allies in the fight against the Turks and made attempts to reconcile the Christians after the signing of the union. Thus it becomes clear how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium. In the 6th grade, the students are also explained what caused the tragic events.

The reason for the new war with Turkey was the demand of Constantine to increase the monetary contribution from Mehmed II for the fact that the Ottoman prince Urhan lives in the Byzantine capital. He could claim the Turkish throne, therefore he was a danger to Mehmed II. The Sultan did not comply with the requirements of Constantinople, and even refused to pay the fee, declaring war.

Constantine was unable to get help from Western European states. The military assistance of the pope turned out to be belated.

Before capturing the Byzantine capital, the sultan gave the emperor the opportunity to surrender, saving his life and maintaining power in Mistra. But Konstantin did not go for it. There is a legend that when the city fell, he tore off his insignia and rushed into battle along with ordinary warriors. The last one died in the battle. There is no exact information about what happened to the remains of the deceased. There are only a lot of assumptions on this issue.

Conqueror of Constantinople

The Ottoman Sultan was born in 1432. The father was Murad II, the mother was the Greek concubine Hyuma Hatun. After six years he for a long time lived in Manisa province. Subsequently, he became its ruler. Mehmed tried several times to ascend the Turkish throne. He finally succeeded in doing so in 1451.

When the Sultan took serious measures to preserve cultural property capital Cities. He established contact with representatives Christian churches. After the fall of Constantinople, the Venetians and Genoese had to conclude non-aggression pacts with the Turkish state. The agreement also touched upon the issue of free trade.

After the subjugation of Byzantium, the Sultan took Serbia, Wallachia, Herzegovina, the strategic fortresses of Albania. His policies spread east and west. Until his death, the Sultan lived with thoughts of new conquests. Before his death, he intended to capture a new state, presumably Egypt. The cause of death is believed to be food poisoning or a chronic illness. It happened in 1481. His place was taken by his son Bayazid II, who continued his father's policy and strengthened the Ottoman Empire. Let us return to the events of 1453.

Siege of Constantinople

The article examined the reasons for the weakening and fall of Byzantium. Its existence ended in 1453.

Despite a significant superiority in military strength, the Turks besieged the city for two months. The fact is that Constantinople was helped by people, food and weapons from the outside. All this was transported across the sea. But Mehmed II came up with a plan that allowed him to blockade the city from the sea and land. What was the trick?

The Sultan ordered to place wooden decks on land and grease them with lard. On such a "road" the Turks were able to drag their ships to the Golden Horn harbor. The besieged took care that the enemy ships did not enter the harbor through the water. They blocked the way with huge chains. But the Greeks could not have known that the Turkish sultan would transport his fleet overland. This case is considered in detail along with the question of how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium in the history of the 6th grade.

city ​​invasion

Constantinople fell on May 29 of the same year, when its siege began. Emperor Constantine was killed along with most of the city's defenders. The capital of the former empire was plundered by the Turkish army.

It no longer mattered how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium (you can find such information yourself in the text of the paragraph). What mattered was that the inevitable had happened. New Rome fell a thousand years after the destruction of old Rome. Since that time, a regime of despotic oppression of the military-feudal order, as well as the most severe national oppression, has been established in South-Eastern Europe.

However, not all buildings were destroyed during the invasion of Turkish troops. The Sultan had plans for their use in the future.

Constantinople - Istanbul

He decided not to destroy the city, which his ancestors tried so hard to take possession of, completely. He made it the capital of his empire. That is why he gave the order not to destroy the city buildings.

Thanks to this, the most famous monument times of Justinian. This is the Hagia Sophia. The Sultan turned it into the main mosque, giving it a new name - "Aya Sufi". The city itself received a new name. Now it is known as Istanbul.

Who was last emperor? What are the reasons for the fall of Byzantium? In the text of the paragraph school textbook this information is present. However, not everywhere is indicated what the new name of the city means. "Istanbul" came from a Greek expression that the Turks distorted when they took over the city. The besieged shouted "Is tin polin", which meant "In the city". The Turks thought that this was the name of the Byzantine capital.

Before returning once again to the question of what was the reason for the fall of Byzantium (briefly), it is worth considering all the consequences of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks.

Consequences of the conquest of Constantinople

The fall of Byzantium and its conquest by the Turks had a tremendous impact on many peoples of Europe.

With the capture of Constantinople, the Levantine trade went into oblivion. This happened due to a sharp deterioration in the terms of trade with the countries that the Turks captured. They began to collect large fees from European and Asian merchants. The sea routes themselves became dangerous. Turkish wars practically did not stop, which made it impossible to conduct trade in the Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, it was the unwillingness to visit Turkish possessions that pushed the merchants to look for new ways to the East and India.

Now it is clear how many reasons for the fall of Byzantium are called by historians. However, one should also pay attention to the consequences of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. Moreover, they touched Slavic peoples. The transformation of the Byzantine capital into the center of the Turkish state influenced political life in Central and Eastern Europe.

In the sixteenth century, Turkish aggression unfolded against the Czech Republic, Poland, Austria, Ukraine, Hungary. When in 1526 the Turkish army defeated the crusaders in the battle of Mohacs, it took possession of the main part of Hungary. Now Turkey has become a threat to the possessions of the Habsburgs. Such a danger from the outside contributed to the creation of the Austrian Empire from the many peoples who lived in the Middle Danube basin. The Habsburgs became the head of the new state.

The Turkish state also threatened the countries of Western Europe. By the sixteenth century it had grown to enormous proportions, including the entire North African coast. However, the Western European states had different attitudes towards the Turkish question. For example, France saw Turkey as a new ally against the Habsburg dynasty. A little later, England also sought to get closer to the Sultan, who wanted to capture the Middle Eastern market. One empire was replaced by another. Many states were forced to reckon with such a strong adversary, which the Ottoman Empire proved to be.

The main reasons for the fall of Byzantium

By school curriculum the issue of the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire is dealt with in high school. Usually, at the end of a paragraph, the question is asked: what were the reasons for the fall of Byzantium? Briefly, in the 6th grade, it is supposed to designate them precisely from the text of the textbook, so the answer may differ slightly depending on the author of the manual.

However, there are four most common causes:

1. The Turks owned powerful artillery.
2. The conquerors had a fortress on the banks of the Bosporus, thanks to which they controlled the movement of ships through the strait.
3. Constantinople was surrounded by a two hundred thousandth army, which controlled both land and sea.
4. The invaders decided to storm the northern part of the city walls, which were less fortified than the rest.

The short list is external causes, which are primarily associated with the military power of the Turkish state. However, in the article you can find many internal reasons that played a role in the fall of Byzantium.

Constantinople fell on May 29, 1453. Mehmed II allowed his army to rob the city for three days. Wild crowds poured into the broken "Second Rome" in search of booty and pleasure.

Agony of Byzantium

Already at the time of the birth of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, the entire territory of Byzantium was limited only to Constantinople and its environs. The country was in agony, or rather, as the historian Natalia Basovskaya correctly put it, it has always been in agony. The entire history of Byzantium, with the exception of the first centuries after the formation of the state, is an ongoing series of dynastic civil strife, which were aggravated by attacks from external enemies who tried to capture the Golden Bridge between Europe and Asia. But the worst of all became after 1204, when the crusaders, who went once again to the Holy Land, decided to stop at Constantinople. After that defeat, the city was able to rise and even unite some lands around itself, but the inhabitants did not learn from their mistakes. The struggle for power again flared up in the country. By the beginning of the 15th century, most of the nobility secretly adhered to the Turkish orientation. Among the Romans, Palamism was popular at that time, which was characterized by a contemplative and detached attitude towards the world. Supporters of this doctrine lived in prayer and were maximally removed from what was happening. Against this background, the Union of Florence, which declared the primacy of the Roman pontiff over all Orthodox patriarchs, looks truly tragic. Her acceptance meant complete dependence Orthodox Church from the Catholic, and the rejection led to the fall Byzantine Empire, the last pillar of the world of the Romans.

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The last of the Comnenos

Mehmed II the conqueror became not only the conqueror of Constantinople, but also its patron. He preserved Christian churches, rebuilt them into mosques, and established contacts with representatives of the clergy. To some extent, we can say that he loved Constantinople, the city under him began to experience its new, this time Muslim heyday. In addition, Mehmed II himself positioned himself not so much as an invader, but as a successor to the Byzantine emperors. He even called himself "Kaiser-i-Rum" - the ruler of the Romans. Allegedly, he was the last of the kind of the once overthrown imperial dynasty of Komnenos. His ancestor, according to legend, emigrated to Anatolia, where he converted to Islam and married a Seljuk princess. Most likely it was just a legend that justified the conquest, but not without reason - Mehmed II was born on the European side, in Andrianople.
In fact, Mehmed had a very dubious pedigree. He was the fourth son from the harem, from the concubine Hyum Hatun. He had zero chances for power. Nevertheless, he managed to become a sultan, now it only remained to legalize his origin. The conquest of Constantinople forever secured his status as a great legitimate ruler.

The audacity of Constantine

In the deterioration of relations between the Byzantines and the Turks, Constantine XI himself, the emperor of Constantinople, was to blame. Taking advantage of the difficulties that the Sultan had to face in 1451 - the rebellions of the rulers of the unconquered emirates and unrest in the troops of his own Janissaries - Constantine decided to show his parity with Mehmed. He sent ambassadors to him with a complaint that the amounts promised for the maintenance of Prince Orhan, a hostage at the court of Constantinople, had not yet been paid.

Prince Orhan was the last living contender for the throne in place of Mehmed. The ambassadors had to carefully remind the Sultan of this. When the embassy reached the Sultan - probably in Bursa - Khalil Pasha, who received him, was embarrassed and angry. He had already studied his master well enough to imagine how he would react to such insolence. However, Mehmed himself limited himself to coldly promising them to consider this issue upon his return to Adrianople. He was not offended by the insulting and empty demands of the Byzantines. Now he had an excuse to break his sworn promise not to invade Byzantine territory.

Killer guns of Mehmed

The fate of Constantinople was determined not by the fury of the Ottoman soldiers, whose influxes the city fought off for two whole months, despite a clear superiority in numbers. Mehmed had another ace up his sleeve. Three months before the siege, he received a formidable weapon from the German engineer Urban, which "punched through any walls." It is known that the length of the gun was about 27 feet, the wall thickness of the barrel was 8 inches, and the diameter of the muzzle was 2.5 feet. The cannon could fire about thirteen hundredweight cannonballs at a distance of about a mile and a half. 30 pairs of bulls pulled the cannon to the walls of Constantinople, another 200 people supported it in a stable position.
On April 5, on the eve of the battle, Mehmed pitched his tent right in front of the walls of Constantinople. In accordance with Islamic law, he sent a message to the emperor, in which he promised to spare the lives of all his subjects if the city was immediately surrendered. In case of refusal, mercy to the inhabitants could no longer be expected. Mehmed received no reply. Early on the morning of Friday, April 6, Urban's cannon fired.

fatal signs

On May 23, the Byzantines succeeded last time experience the taste of victory: they captured the Turks who were digging tunnels. But it was on May 23 that the last hopes of the inhabitants collapsed. By the evening of that day, they saw a ship quickly approaching the city from the side of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara, pursued by Turkish ships. He managed to get away from the chase; under the cover of darkness, the chain that blocked the entrance to the Golden Horn was opened, letting the ship into the bay. At first they thought that this was the ship of the rescue fleet of the Western Allies. But it was a brigantine that twenty days ago set off in search of the Venetian fleet promised to the city. She went around all the islands of the Aegean, but never found a single Venetian ship; moreover, no one even saw them there. When the sailors told the emperor their sad news, he thanked them and wept. From now on, the city could only rely on its divine patrons. The forces were too unequal - seven thousand defenders against the one hundred thousandth army of the Sultan.

But even in faith, the last Byzantines could not find consolation. I remembered the prediction of the death of the empire. The first Christian emperor was Constantine, son of Helen; so will the last one. There was another thing: Constantinople will never fall as long as the moon is shining in the sky. But on May 24, on the night of the full moon, there was a complete moon eclipse. We turned to the last defender - the icon of the Mother of God. She was put on a stretcher and carried through the streets of the city. However, during this procession, the icon fell off the stretcher. When the procession resumed again, a thunderstorm with hail broke out over the city. And the next night, according to sources, some strange radiance of unknown origin lit up Hagia Sophia. He was noticed in both camps. The next day, the general assault on the city began.

ancient prophecy

Cannonballs rained down on the city. The Turkish fleet blockaded Constantinople from the sea. But there was still the inner harbor of the Golden Horn, the entrance to which was blocked, and where the Byzantine fleet was located. The Turks could not enter there, and the Byzantine ships even managed to win the battle with the huge Turkish fleet. Then Mehmed ordered the ships to be dragged over land and launched into the Golden Horn. When they were dragged, the Sultan ordered to raise all the sails on them, to wave the oars to the rowers, and to the musicians to play frightening melodies. Thus, another ancient prophecy came true that the city would fall if the sea ships went overland.

Three days of robbery

Rome's successor, Constantinople, fell on May 29, 1453. Then Mehmed II gave his terrible instruction, which is usually forgotten in stories about the history of Istanbul. He allowed his numerous army to plunder the city with impunity for three days. Wild crowds poured into the defeated Constantinople in search of booty and pleasures. At first, they could not believe that the resistance had already ceased, and they killed everyone who came across them on the streets, not making out men, women and children. Rivers of blood flowed from the steep hills of Petra and colored the waters of the Golden Horn. The warriors grabbed everything that glittered, peeling off the robes from the icons and the precious bindings from the books and destroying the icons and books themselves, as well as breaking out pieces of mosaics and marble from the walls. So the Church of the Savior in Chora was plundered, as a result of which the already mentioned, most revered icon of Byzantium, the Mother of God Hodegetria, which, according to legend, was painted by the Apostle Luke himself, perished.
Some residents were caught during a prayer service in the Hagia Sophia. The oldest and weakest parishioners were killed on the spot, the rest were captured. The Greek historian Doukas, a contemporary of the events, tells about what is happening in his work: “Who will tell about the cries and cries of children, about the cries and tears of mothers, about the sobs of fathers, who will tell? Then the slave was knitted with the mistress, the master with the slave, the archimandrite with the gatekeeper, tender young men with virgins. If anyone resisted, they were killed without mercy; each, taking his captive to a safe place, returned for prey a second and third time.
When the Sultan and his court left Constantinople on July 21, the city was half destroyed and black from the fires. Churches were looted, houses were devastated. Driving through the streets, the Sultan shed tears: "What a city we have given to robbery and destruction."

We bring to your attention the material from the official website of the city of Istanbul, which outlines Turkish version the capture of Constantinople and the events preceding it.

The review especially emphasizes the humanity of the Ottoman conquerors, as well as the fact that Constantinople, almost immediately before its conquest by the Turks, was repeatedly conquered by its own Christian allies.

The essay gives a different view of the figure of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (i.e. Fatih) - Fatih Sultan Mehmet, who took Constantinople, which is different from the usual in Russia.

We also draw your attention to the fact that Turkish sources in our days, speaking about the history of Constantinople, usually use the name Istanbul. The original title of the article proposed here sounds like "Istanbul and its conquest." This, of course, does not sound entirely historical, but it is a common practice in Turkey.

Just like the Greeks, they still try to avoid the name Istanbul, often using the name Constantinople, even talking about the events that took place after the fall of Byzantium and the renaming of the city. ("Istanbul" - distorted from the Greek "polis" - "city").

In Russia, due to the strong influence of the Byzantine Greeks throughout Russian history, an exclusively one-sided interpretation of the events around the fall of Constantinople is usually accepted.

The information vacuum for the Russian-speaking audience on this issue continues to exist. And in general, speaking of information sources, with the exception of the daily Russian broadcast of the Voice of Turkey radio and its website, as well as the rarely updated website of the Turkish Ministry of Culture, there are no non-tourist resources about Turkey in Russian, where the Turkish state offers its own view on historical issues and politics for an audience in Russia. But there is also some progress.

Turkish version of events conquest of Constantinople

Mehmed the Conqueror.

Mehmed the Conqueror. A 15th-century portrait attributed to the Turkish painters Sinan Bey, nicknamed Nakkaş (calligrapher), and his student Siblizade Ahmed.

This portrait is now kept in the museum of the former Sultan's Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, where it appears as "Mehmed II with a fragrant rose."

During his reign, Mehmed II Fatih (the Conqueror) invited Italian artists to his court, in particular, Gentile Bellini visited Istanbul in 1479.

This Venetian artist was sent to Istanbul by the Council of the Doges of Venice, having learned about the request of the Sultan, expressed during the peace negotiations.

It is believed that in Istanbul the sultan apprenticed to Bellini the above-mentioned Sinan Bey and Siblizade Ahmed. They mastered the technique of European portraiture.

Bellini himself painted a portrait of Mehmed II, but this portrait of Turkish artists “Mehmed II with a fragrant rose” also became known.

This is a very popular and still widespread image of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror with a flower in Turkey, which, along with his military toughness, is considered to be evidence of his humanity and refinement.

A few years later, in 1481, Sultan Mehmed II died at the age of only 49.

The Turkish publication writes:

« From the very beginning of the Muslim campaigns, Constantinople was considered a holy goal for Muslims.. Over the centuries, Muslim Arabs, and then Muslim Turks, undertook numerous campaigns against Constantinople and besieged the city. Centuries before the conquest of Istanbul, the Prophet Muhammad said that the victorious troops would reach the gates of Europe, and he greeted these glorious warriors and the victorious commander. His words are the main motive for making campaigns against Constantinople, which was known among Muslims as "Constantinia".

The first campaign of Muslims against Byzantium was undertaken under Caliph Osman. Mu'awiyah, governor of Syria, organized the first naval campaign against Constantinople. In 655, the Arab fleet defeated the Byzantine fleet off the coast of Phoenicia and opened sea routes for Muslims.

The first Muslim siege of Constantinople was undertaken in 668 when Mu'awiyah was caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. The siege continued until the spring of 669, but the army stationed at Kadikoy was unable to conquer the city. Epidemics broke out that claimed the lives of many soldiers, and the army was forced to return. Ebu Eyup Al-Ansari, the flag bearer of the Prophet Muhammad, who participated in the campaign despite his old age, was killed during the siege and buried right at the city walls.

In 673 the caliph Mu'awiyah sent a new fleet, which reached the Sea of ​​Marmara in 674. However, the siege, which lasted seven years, ended in complete failure.

The second siege under the command of Maslam bin Abd al-Malik, which lasted from August 716 to September 717, also failed. The army was weakened by the weather, famine, disease and attacks from the Bulgarian bands. Some historical sources say that at the request of Maslam, Emperor Leon III organized a mosque for Muslim prisoners of war, and after the lifting of the siege, the emperor accompanied Maslam while walking around the city.

The last Arab siege was undertaken in 781-782. army under the command of Harun, son of the Abbasid sultan Al-Mahdi. Harun defeated the Byzantine army in Izmit, reached Uskudar and laid siege to the city. At the end of the siege, he signed an agreement with Byzantium and returned back. Thanks to the campaign, Harun, who later ascended the throne of the Abbasid state, received the title "Ar-Rashid" ("going on a straight path"). In addition to the campaigns and sieges mentioned, many other campaigns against Constantinople were undertaken by Muslim Arabs, but none of them ended in a siege.

Siege of Istanbul by the Ottomans

The Ottoman Turks were interested in Byzantium and Constantinople throughout the 14th century.

Long before the conquest of the city, all the settlements that make up modern Istanbul, except for Surici, were part of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire. During this period, the Ottomans intervened in the internal affairs of the Byzantine Empire and supported one side in the internecine struggle for power. In the period preceding the conquest of the city, they made various maneuvers in the vicinity of Constantinople.

Despite the fact that in 1340 the Ottoman troops reached the gates of Constantinople, this campaign did not end in a siege. The campaign launched by Sultan Murad I in Chataldzha was stopped by a strong Christian alliance. The first major siege to capture Constantinople was undertaken by Sultan Yıldırım Beyazıd. However, his army was unable to enter the city as a result of a treaty concluded with the emperor.

Sultan Yıldırım Beyazıd continued to take actions that had an impact on Constantinople. He succeeded in founding a Turkish quarter in the city, a mosque and a court that tried the cases of the Ottoman Turks. He influenced the enthronement of emperors who took care of the interests of the Ottoman Empire, which is one of the most important factors that influenced the course of the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans. The last attempt to besiege the city under Sultan Yildirim Beyazid was made in 1400. However, this action was halted by the invasion of Timur.

The siege led by Musa Celebi, the son of Sultan Yildirim Beyazid, undertaken in 1411, also ended in failure. The emperor, worried about the success of the Ottoman army, turned for support to Mehmed Chelebi, the brother of Musa Chelebi, who was in Bursa, and the siege was subsequently lifted. During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed Chelebi, there were no campaigns against Constantinople.

The last siege of the period preceding the conquest of the city took place during the reign of Sultan Murad II. A carefully prepared siege with a detailed strategic plan was the most difficult siege for the city. The siege began on June 15, 1422, with the 10,000-strong cavalry blocking the roads connecting Constantinople with other cities. Emir Sultan, one of the most influential spiritual leaders of the time, arrived from Bursa and joined the siege with an army of hundreds of dervishes, which was enthusiastically received by the soldiers. Despite the fact that the attack launched on the 24th of August with the participation of the Emir Sultan was very strong, the city did not surrender. The siege was lifted following the uprising of Prince Mustafa, brother of Sultan Murad II. The task of conquering Istanbul thus passed to the Sultan's son Murad II.

Conquest of Istanbul

Siege of Constantinople.

Siege of Constantinople.

April 22, 1453: In the early hours of the morning, the Byzantines were stunned and dismayed to see Ottoman troops ferry ships across the Galata Hill. Bulls dragged about 70 ships along wooden rails, and hundreds of soldiers balanced the ships with ropes. In the afternoon, the ships were already in the Halich Bay (Golden Horn).

From a modern drawing.

Before the conquest, Byzantium lost its former strength and ceased to be a strong empire. The territory of the empire was limited to Constantinople, the fortress of Silivri, Viza and Mesimvria, located on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara. Gradually, the Ottoman Turks surrounded these surroundings as well.

The small Byzantine villages outside the city walls remained outside Ottoman territory, not because they resisted the Ottoman Turks, but because the Ottomans did not take them seriously and considered them unimportant. They focused all their attention on Constantinople - their main goal. The reason for the failure of the last sieges was not the insufficiency of the army, but rather the internal problems of the Ottoman Empire.

During this period, Byzantium was no longer the former powerful empire. Byzantine emperors accepted Ottoman citizenship and paid tribute to it. Instead of the Byzantine emperors, the Ottomans now dealt with tribute-paying petty feudal lords. Constantinople was more of a religious center than the capital of an empire. He was the last and strongest fortress that protected the Christian world from Islam and the Muslim army, and he could not give up. Why, under the leadership of the Pope, new Crusades were undertaken.

However, for Byzantium, exhausted by the attacks and sieges of the Ottomans, a more serious threat was created by the split between orthodox Orthodoxy and Catholicism. This meant that Christian Europe could no longer defend orthodox Byzantium. In a desperate attempt to unite the two churches, the emperor and the patriarch knelt before the Catholic Church at an ecclesiastical council convened in Florence in 1439. The Greek Orthodox Church also accepted the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church. The union of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, established on a forced basis, served as a harbinger of a new period. Thus the feud between orthodox Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which had lasted for centuries, was temporarily suspended under the threat of the Ottoman Empire. However, this agreement was met with criticism and violent discontent by the inhabitants of Constantinople, and the celebration held in the Hagia Sophia in honor of the unification of the churches caused a wave of protests. The Byzantines did not want the presence of Europeans in Constantinople and the restoration of the Latin era.

A powerful army of crusaders, convened after the unification agreement concluded in Florence, captured Greece in 1443 and 1444. But in 1444, in the Battle of Varna, the Ottomans defeated the Crusaders. This is the last battle that determined the fate of Constantinople. Now, the conquest of the city has become an inevitable goal for the young empire. The pain in the heart of the Ottoman possessions had to be removed, since Constantinople was the main link between Greece and Anatolia.

A year before the assault on Constantinople, careful and thorough preparations began. The giant cannons necessary for the assault were poured out. In 1452, a fortress was built to provide control over the strait, a powerful fleet was formed, consisting of 16 rowing galleys, and the number of soldiers was doubled. The supply routes to Byzantium were blocked so that she could not take advantage of support. The indifference of Galata, which was at that time in the power of the Genoese, was also ensured.. On April 2, 1453, the advance detachments of the Turks approached the city. So, the assault on Constantinople began.

Chronology of the siege of Constantinople:

Painting Italian artist Fausto Zonaro The Conquest of Constantinople.

In the picture, Sultan Mehmed Fatih directs the transfer of warships overland for the final assault on Constantinople (1453).

In 1896-1909. Fausto Zonaro (life years 1854-1929) was a court painter at the Ottoman court (with the title Ressam-ı Hazret-i Şehriyari), and during his years in Istanbul he painted a number of paintings on Turkish history.

6 April 1453: Sultan Mehmed Fatih (Conqueror) pitched his tent in front of the gate of St. Roman (today's Topkapı). On the same day, the city was completely blocked, starting from the shores of Halich (i.e. the Golden Horn Bay. Note ..

April 6-7, 1453: Cannon fire began. Part of the fortress near Edirnekapi was destroyed.

9 April 1453: Baltaoglu Suleiman Bey launched the first attack to break into the Halic Bay.

April 9-10, 1453: Part of the fortress on the banks of the Bosporus was taken. Baltaoglu Suleiman Bey captured the Princes' Islands in the Sea of ​​Marmara.

April 11, 1453: The shelling of the fortress began. Cracks have formed in places. The continuous bombardment produced enormous destruction within the walls of Constantinople.

April 12, 1453: The Ottoman fleet attacked the ships blocking the entrance to Halic. The taller ships of the Christians were able to win, which weakened the morale of the Ottomans. By order of Sultan Mehmed, the bombing of the Byzantine ships that blocked Halich began. One galley was sunk.

Night of April 18, 1453: The Sultan gave the order to storm. The first, large attack lasted four hours, but was repulsed.

April 20, 1453: A battle began between the three galleys hired by the Pope and the Byzantine ship with a cargo of food and weapons and the Turkish fleet near Yenikapı, which approached Constantinople. The Sultan personally went ashore and ordered Baltaoglu Suleiman Pasha to sink the ships at all costs. Although vastly outnumbered, the Ottoman fleet was unable to stop the huge enemy ships. This failure lessened the enthusiasm of the Ottoman army. Ottoman soldiers began to leave the army. Soon the Byzantine emperor, taking advantage of the situation, proposed a peace agreement. With the support of Sadrazam Chandarla Khalil Pasha, the proposal was rejected. The siege and shelling of the city walls continues.

During this chaos and the weakening of morale, Sultan Mehmed received a letter from the sheikh and spiritual mentor Akshemseddin, in which he tells him the grand news of the conquest of the city. Armed with this moral support, Sultan Mehmed Fatih escalated the attack and decided to use the element of surprise. Turkish detachments will transport the warships located in Dolmabahce to the Halich Bay by land!

April 22, 1453: In the early hours of the morning, the Byzantines were stunned and frightened to see how the Ottoman troops ferry ships over the Galata Hill. Bulls dragged about 70 ships along wooden rails, and hundreds of soldiers balanced the ships with ropes. In the afternoon, the ships were already in the Gulf of Halich. The unexpected appearance of the Ottoman fleet in the bay created panic among the Byzantines. Part of the Byzantine troops was moved to protect the city walls overlooking Halich, which significantly weakened the defense of the fortresses from the land.

April 28, 1453: An attempt to burn the Turkish ships was repulsed by the Turks with bombard fire. A pontoon bridge was built between Aivansaray and Syutludzhe, from where the Ottomans fired at the city walls overlooking the bay. All the walls on the side of the bay were besieged. The demand for unconditional surrender was sent to the emperor through the Genoese. If he surrendered, he could leave the city and go anywhere, and the life and good of his people would be spared. But the emperor turned down the offer.

7 May 1453: An assault on the walls near the Bayrampasha river by a 30,000-strong army lasted about 3 hours, but was repulsed.

12 May 1453: A sudden assault on the area between Tekfursaray (Blachernae Palace) and Edirnekapı was also repulsed.

16 May 1453: The Turks began to dig under the walls near Egricapa, which met with a tunnel dug by the Byzantines. There was an underground mine war. The assault on the chain near the Halich Bay, undertaken on the same day, was also defeated. The next day, another assault was made, which was also repulsed by the Byzantines.

18 May 1453: The Turks attacked the wall at Topkapi with a huge wooden-framed tower. The fierce battle continued until evening. However, at night the Byzantines set fire to the tower and cleared the ditch that had been filled in by the Ottomans. In the following days, shelling of the city walls continues.

25 May 1453: Sultan Mehmed Fatih, through Isfendiyar Beyoglu, Ismail Bey, sent his last demand to the emperor for surrender. He promised that the emperor could get out of the city with his goods and treasury, the inhabitants could leave the city with their belongings, and those who remained could keep their goods. But the Byzantines did not accept these conditions.

26 May 1453: There were rumors that if the siege continued, the Hungarians would mobilize their troops to support the Byzantines and that a fleet from European countries was approaching. Sultan Mehmed assembled a council of war. On the advice of Candarla, Khalil Pasha and his supporters, who were against the siege from the very beginning, wanted the siege to be lifted. Sultan Mehmed, Zaganos Pasha, his mentor Akshemseddin, Molla Gürani and Molla Husrev opposed the idea of ​​a retreat. It was decided to continue the assault on the city. Zaganos Pasha was entrusted with the preparation.

May 28, 1453: A day of rest was declared so that the warriors would gain strength before decisive battle. There was complete silence in the camp. Sultan Mehmed inspected the army and encouraged the soldiers before the big attack. And in Constantinople, in the Hagia Sophia Cathedral, a religious ceremony was held in which the emperor called on all residents to take part in the defense of the city. This was the last rite of the Byzantines.

29 May 1453: The troops took up their fighting positions. Toward morning, Sultan Mehmed gave the order to advance. In Constantinople, the soldiers took their places on the walls and breaches, while the inhabitants gathered in the church. The Ottoman army began its final offensive from two directions: from land and from the sea. The offensive was accompanied by takbir ("praise and exaltation of Allah") and drum beats. The first attack was made by light infantry, after which the Anatolian soldiers went on the offensive. Three hundred Anatolians were able to break into the gap through a large gap in the wall, but were surrounded and killed. The next attack was carried out by the Janissaries, encouraged by the personal presence of Sultan Mehmed. The enemies came face to face. Ulubatly Hasan was killed, who hoisted the first Turkish flag on the fortress wall. With the penetration of the Janissaries into the city through Belgradkapi and the capitulation of the defenders at Edirnekapi, the Byzantine defense fell.

The emperor, abandoned by soldiers, was killed in one of the street fights. Turkish detachments, which penetrated the city from all sides, completely crushed the Byzantine defense. Toward noon, Sultan Mehmed Fatih entered the city through Topkapi and immediately drove up to the Hagia Sophia, which he turned into a mosque. Thus another era ended and another began.

Consequences of the conquest of Constantinople

The conquest of Constantinople had important historical consequences both for the Turks and the Islamic religion, and for the whole world. Therefore, many historians take the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks as the end of medieval history.

With the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans established their rule over the numerous independent Turkish principalities (beylik) located in Anatolia. Thus, the conquest of the Byzantine Empire contributed to the unification of the Turkish communities living in Anatolia. The period of domination of the Ottoman Empire both in Anatolia and in the Islamic world begins with the conquest of Istanbul. Thus, the Ottoman principality turned into a world empire.

After the conquest, the Ottoman Muslims played an important and dynamic role in shaping world politics. Muslims took the main part in all international events of the Old World.

For three centuries, European Christians sought to expel the Muslims from Asia Minor through the Crusades, and Istanbul served as their frontier point. After the conquest, Christendom eventually accepted the dominance of the Islamic world in Asia Minor and never again undertook the Crusades. In fact, the Muslims turned their attention to Europe. The conquest of Istanbul was historical event, some turning point from which the long-term superiority of the Islamic world over Europe begins.

The fall of Constantinople is also considered a key historical moment, heralding the Renaissance. After its conquest, many Byzantine artists and philosophers emigrated to Rome, taking their works with them. This intelligentsia contributed to the revival of the classical Greek culture and soon the Renaissance movement began in Europe.

Sultan Mehmed Fatih (Conqueror)

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror (Fatih) in the days of the capture of Constantinople (1453).

Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror (Fatih) in the days of the capture of Constantinople (1453). Modern Turkish museum painting.

Very often, Mehmed II, during the days of the conquest of Constantinople, is portrayed by artists as a mature person, but it must be remembered that in 1453, when he conquered this city, Mehmed II was only 21 years old. In this image, age proportions are respected.

7th Ottoman Sultan. Born in 1432 and died in 1481. He ascended the throne twice: in 1444 and 1451. and ruled for 31 years.

Started training Prince Mehmed at a very early age. Prominent minds of that time, such as Molla Egan, Akshemseddin, Molla Gyurani and Molla Ayas, took part in his education and upbringing. In accordance with the royal tradition, he was appointed governor of the Sanjakbeylik province of Manisa so that he would gain the necessary experience in public administration.

He studied mathematics, geometry, interpretation of the Qur'an (tefsir), hadith, Sharia law, Muslim dogma, philosophy and history. He spoke Arabic, Persian, Latin, Greek and Serbian. Prince Mehmed became a strong military leader and a broad-minded intellectual.

Fatih Mehmed, who had a special interest in literature, took his well-deserved place among the famous poets of that time. Under the pseudonym "Avni" he wrote many ghazals, for which he became famous among his literary contemporaries. The first sofa (collected literary works) written in the palace belongs to Fatih Mehmed.

While the young prince Mehmed was the governor of the Manisi province of Sanjakbeylik, his father, Sultan Murad II, decided to retire, declaring him sultan. The occupation of the throne by a youngster opened up new horizons for action for European countries. Deciding to take advantage of the right time, they began to invade the Ottoman possessions. An army of crusaders was convened to drive the Ottoman Turks out of Europe. In response to this, Sultan Murad II, having become the commander-in-chief of the army, defeated the crusaders at Varna. After the Battle of Varna, Sultan Murad II returned and again took over the reign. Sultan Mehmed was sent to Manisa, where he continued to study with the eminent minds of the time.

After the death of his father, Sultan Mehmed came to the capital Edirne to take the throne for the second time. From the very first for his reign, he set about implementing his plans for the conquest of Constantinople. First, on the European part, he built a fortress opposite Anadolu-Hisar, known as Rumeli-Hisar. According to his plan, gigantic cannons, unprecedented in Europe, were cast. He formed a powerful fleet, and on the day of the offensive he decided to take command.

After the conquest of Constantinople, Sultan Mehmed directed his attention to expanding his possessions to the Danube River and solving the Serbian problem. He was able to convince Serbia to accept Ottoman citizenship. Then he took away from the Genoese the trading port of Kaffa and Amasra, which was the main naval base. He also took possession of Sinop and conquered Trabzon, putting an end to the principality of Jandarogullar and the state of Pontus. Then Sultan Mehmed took the island of Midilli, took possession of Bosnia-Herzegovina and united the Balkan countries south of the Danube River.

He took Konya and Karaman from the Karamanli dynasty and turned them into the province of Karaman.

Then Mehmed took the island of Egriboz from the Venetians, put an end to the principality of Alaiye (Alanya), won the war with Uzun Hasan, the ruler of Ak-Koyunlu, and finally annexed Anatolia to the possessions of the Ottoman Empire.

Later he went west and conquered several Genoese fortresses and made the Crimean Khan a vassal of the Ottoman Empire.

Then he captured Albania, annexed Otranto, located in southern Italy, to the possessions of the Ottoman Empire.

The panicked pope urged European countries undertake a new crusade, which Europe did not dare to do.

In the spring of 1481, he set off on a new campaign and died in the Gebze region. Some researchers suggest that he was poisoned.

Sultan Mehmed Fatih as statesman and scientist

Sultan Mehmed Fatih (the Conqueror) received a rigorous and comprehensive education, and from the early childhood prepared to become the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He possessed outstanding military talents and superbly managed a well-disciplined and well-organized army. He kept his offensive plans in strict secrecy and hid them even from those closest to him. He was the first sultan to have a high regard for artillery. Before the conquest of Constantinople, cannons were used exclusively as a means of intimidating the enemy (with a roar of a shot). No one thought about their destructive power and what an important role they could play in the battle. Considering their potential, Sultan Mehmed focused on the preparation of many bombards of unprecedented sizes at that time. He independently made ballistic records for them and calculated the resistance.

He aspired to create a world empire and spent his entire life campaigning to achieve this goal. During his 32-year reign, he conquered 17 states, including 2 empires, 6 principalities and 5 duchies. He made the Black Sea Turkish, conquered the entire Balkan Peninsula and several islands in the Aegean Sea. He increased the possessions of the Ottoman Empire, which he inherited from his father, Sultan Murad II, by 2.5 times.

In addition to his conquests, Sultan Mehmed Fatih occupies an important place in the history of the Ottoman Empire in terms of the structural and political reforms carried out at the state level. By the code of laws of Kanun-name, he regulated the activities of the military-administrative, financial and judicial-religious systems of the government. Being an open-minded and broad-minded ruler, he patronized the development of culture and art. He also showed a rare religious tolerance. For example, after the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed Fatih called Italian humanists and Greek scientists to his palace and was the only one who stood up for orthodox Orthodoxy. In addition, the Patriarch occupied a position equal in level to the vizier. Sultan Mehmed asked Patriarch Gennady II to write a book on the principles of the Christian faith and translate it into Ottoman Turkish.

For a century, 8 madrasahs built near the Fatih Mosque were considered the main educational institutions Ottoman Empire. From time to time, the Sultan would gather "Ulema", recognized and authoritative experts in Islam, and listen to their discussions about theological positions. He patronized the development of the sciences and treated scientists with the greatest respect. Under the reign of Sultan Mehmed Fatih, sciences such as mathematics, astronomy and theology reached their zenith."

Introductory note, notes and descriptions for illustrations website

In 2009, a panorama museum dedicated to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 (Panorama 1453 Tarih Müzesi) was opened in Istanbul. An international team of artists led by Hashim Watandash worked on the panorama. The background, including the landscape and walls, was made by Ramazan Erkut, the human figures and horses were painted by graduates of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts Yashar Zeynalov and Oksana Legka, and the subject plan, including the platform and 3D objects, was made by Atilla Tunzha.

Warspot offers to get acquainted with the results of their painstaking work and "visit" the walls of Constantinople at the very moment when the end was put in thousand years of history Byzantine Empire.

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The museum building, which is a squat round pavilion, is located near the Topkapı tram station, where the most fierce assault on the city took place in 1453. It was here, near the Topkapi or Cannon Gates, which in Byzantine times bore the name of St. Roman, the Turks managed to break into the city.

The museum exposition is located on two floors, of which the panorama itself completely occupies the upper one. At the bottom there are stands with various information, including maps, diagrams, engravings depicting the main participants and various episodes of the capture of Constantinople.

In the photo we see a map representing the disposition of the enemy forces. The defenders of the city took refuge behind its walls. The Turkish army is outside. Opposite the central area of ​​\u200b\u200bdefense is the headquarters of Sultan Mehmed II Fatih.

The panorama is a round platform with a diameter of 38 meters, covered with a 20-meter dome. The canvas with a total area of ​​2,350 square meters depicts approximately 9.5 thousand figures of battle participants, city defenders and attackers.

Its creators applied several technical innovations. This is the first panorama in which, thanks to the high dome, you can see the sky above your head. A low-lying visual platform enhances the effect of presence. The viewer, as it were, observes what is happening on the same level as the attackers.

The panorama reproduces the decisive moment of the assault on Constantinople, when on May 29, 1453, after a fierce battle that lasted several hours in the gaps, the Turks managed to break into the city.

Directly in front of us, riding a white horse, is depicted the young Sultan Mehmed II and his retinue. Behind the Sultan, reserve troops were built in several echelons, the tents of the Turkish camp are visible even further.

Sultan Mehmed II at that time was only 21 years old. The intransigence of the Sultan, who insisted on a decisive assault, contrary to the opinion of the retinue inclined towards a siege, ultimately led to victory.

The main forces of the Turks are attacking the city. The scene is depicted very dynamically and is accompanied by a powerful sound effect in which the roar of cavalry hooves, cannon shots, the cries of the combatants and the music of the military band merge into an endless rumble.

The Turkish army besieging the city consisted of 120,000 regular soldiers and another 20,000 horsemen of the bashi-bazouk militia. The composition of the army was very diverse and also included soldiers sent to the Sultan to help the Christian rulers of Serbia dependent on him.

In the foreground on the left we see a horseman, instead of armor, dressed in the skin of a leopard. His headdress and shield are decorated with the wings of birds of prey. Such horsemen were called "del" (literally - "mad"). Usually they were recruited from the natives of the Balkan regions subject to the Ottomans. Delhi fought in border conflicts, in which they were distinguished by "insane" bravery. Hussars originate from them.

The defenders of the city bravely defend themselves, hitting the attackers on the distant approaches to the walls with shots from cannons and throwing machines. They also successfully use the ancient Byzantine weapon "Greek fire", the smoke from which covered the sky that day. In the foreground, a vessel with Greek fire hits right in the middle of the column of advancing troops.

All the troops available to the Turks participate in the assault. The first attack was mainly attended by bashi-bazouks, who suffered heavy losses. After a two-hour battle, they were taken back, and the Anatolian Turks under the command of Ishak Pasha went on the attack. In several places they managed to push the defenders of the city and even break through the gap through the wall, but here, however, they were all surrounded and killed. Then the Sultan himself led the Janissary foot soldiers in the third attack. This time, after a stubborn battle, the Turks managed to break into the city.

Thanks to the descending relief, a wide panorama of the left flank of the Turkish army appears before our eyes. A fierce battle is also in full swing here, ditches in many places are covered with fascines and earth, the Turks with ladders approach the very walls, and the defenders manage to hold back their onslaught with the last of their strength.

The forces of the defenders of the city are depicted somewhat exaggeratedly numerous. In fact, against the 140,000th Turkish army, the Greeks were able to put up only 8,000 soldiers. These forces were barely enough to somehow occupy an extremely long line of defense. The defenders could concentrate troops in any large number only in the direction of the main attack.

On the eve of the decisive assault, Constantinople was subjected to heavy artillery bombardment. Large-caliber Turkish guns hit the city walls almost point-blank, firing more than 5,000 cores at them. Particularly heavy damage to the fortifications was inflicted in the area of ​​the gates of St. Roman. Of the 23 towers that were here, only 11 survived, many curtains turned into piles of stones.

The image shows the decisive moment of the battle - the breakthrough of the Turks for the second line of the walls of Theodosius, which put an end to the resistance of the defenders of the city. The fortifications were badly damaged by the bombardment, in several places the walls turned into piles of broken stone and brick, along which the columns of the attackers move forward. Where the walls survived, the Turks dragged assault ladders to them. New crowds of attackers are climbing up them. The red banner raised above the second wall indicates that the fortification has been captured. However, small groups of defenders still continue to offer hopeless resistance.

Here we see the last minutes of the defense of the city. The resistance of the defenders has already been broken. Crowds of attackers, foot soldiers and horsemen rushed into the huge gap in the wall. A fierce hand-to-hand fight is going on in the gap. From above, the defenders of the city bombard the attackers with arrows and darts. Others fell into despair and only look at the breaking through enemies, no longer offering resistance.

The assault on the city turned into huge losses for the attackers. In this fragment, we see the wounded or dying Janissaries, who are given all possible assistance. In the foreground, a water carrier is depicted giving drink to a mortally wounded warrior.

Gate of St. The novels make it possible to visualize the fortifications that surrounded the capital of Byzantium. These fortifications crossed the Bosphorus Cape from the Sea of ​​Marmara to the Golden Horn at a distance of 5.6 km. The first row of walls 5 m high protected a moat with water 20 m wide and up to 10 m deep. The second row, which was 2-3 meters wide and 10 meters high, was reinforced by 15-meter towers. The third row, the most massive, reached a thickness of 6–7 m and was protected by towers from 20 to 40 m high.

The bases of the walls went 10–20 m underground, which practically excluded the possibility of undermining. The walls were equipped with combat platforms, and the towers were equipped with loopholes through which the defenders of the city could fire at the attackers.

At the highest point of the panorama, on top of the northern tower, is the legendary Turkish giant warrior Hasan Ulubatly, who, according to legend, was the first to hoist the banner over the city tower, inspiring the army with a close victory. The next moment after that, he was killed by a Byzantine arrow.

A large canvas depicting a double-headed eagle is a symbol of the defending Byzantines. While the battle is going on, the symbol is held on one of the towers, the winners are already lowering the double-headed eagle on the other.

Here we see a hand-to-hand fight unfolding in the breach. The city was defended by 5,000 Greek soldiers of the garrison and about 3,000 Latin mercenaries (Catalans, Venetians and Genoese), who responded to a call for help. They were led by an experienced condottiere Giovanni Giustiniani Longo. His contribution to the defense of the city was enormous. It was the fatal wound of Giustiniani in the battle on May 29, from which he died 2 days later, that became one of the reasons for the victory won by the Turks.

Simultaneously with the assault and hand-to-hand combat, the shelling of the city from cannons continues. Under the blows of huge cores, towers collapse, dragging both defenders and attackers down. Along with modern artillery, the Turks also used ancient siege towers against the walls. To protect them from incendiary arrows, they were covered with freshly skinned skins. The defenders of the city used Greek fire (combustible mixture) and red-hot oil, which was poured from bronze cauldrons mounted on the walls, against the attackers.

In the gap through the dust and smoke, the doomed city can be seen. The dome of the Hagia Sophia is clearly visible in the distance.

One of the most destroyed sections of the wall. Towers and curtains turned into a pile of stone scree. The defenders of the city are trying to strengthen what is left with the help of improvised means, and one by one they repulse the attacks of the attackers.

In the foreground we see Turkish diggers who are trying to dig against the fortifications. The massive and deep foundation of the walls, as well as the rocky ground, did not give a chance for the success of such enterprises. However, in the first stage of the siege, the Turks did try to lay several tunnels. All of them were timely discovered and blown up by the defenders of the city, so the Turks had to abandon this plan. Behind the diggers, the assault on the city continues.

The right flank of the Turkish army. The Turkish fleet on the Sea of ​​Marmara and the camp tents are visible in the distance. The fortifications of the southern part of the Theodosius wall suffered much less from the shelling of cannons. During the assault, the defenders of the city who occupied them successfully repelled all the attacks of the Turks. When the attackers still managed to break into the city in the central sector of defense, its defenders were surrounded here. Many of them managed to escape only because the Turks, who were afraid of being left without prey, left their posts to join the robbery.

Most of all, the Turks owed their victory to artillery. Mehmet II took into account the mistakes of previous sieges and prepared well for an attack on the city. By his order, 68 artillery pieces were manufactured and delivered to the city. Most of them fired stone cannonballs weighing 90 kg. Eleven large guns threw cannonballs weighing from 226 to 552 kg. Artillery shelling of the city lasted 47 days. During this time, Turkish guns fired more than 5,000 shots.

The largest Turkish weapon was the Basilica bombard with a barrel length of 8.2 m, a caliber of 76 cm, weighing over 30 tons, made by the Hungarian craftsman Leonard Urban. For its movement and maintenance, 60 oxen were required. 700 people charged this mass with a stone core weighing up to a ton for an hour. Fortunately for the defenders of the city, the gun could fire no more than 7 shots a day, and soon completely failed.

The fate of its creator was also tragic. Upon learning that Urban had previously offered his services to his enemies, Mehmet II ordered his execution a few days after the capture of the city.

In the foreground is a broken artillery barrel and huge cannonballs scattered in disorder. In the background, a panorama of the Turkish camp and the troops lined up in front of it opens up. A military band is visible to the right. The Turks were among the first in Europe to appreciate the importance of music for raising the spirit of their troops and paid close attention to its organization.