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Moscow State University of Printing Arts. What is syntax

Linguistics, or linguistics - the science of speech, language and communication - studies the most diverse aspects of the structure and functioning of languages. Syntax is the student of phrases, sentences and text. This article is devoted to what exactly and from what point of view specialists study.

Phrases

Phrases are such formations in the language that are constructed from ready-made units - words and phraseological units - with the help of service words(prepositions) or without them according to certain rules of a particular language. Syntax is the student of the rules by which words are combined into phrases and by what means.

To construct a phrase, it is not enough to take any two words and mechanically combine them. First, they must be connected in meaning. Let's say the words "finch" and "lop-eared" can be easily connected according to all the rules of grammar (fold-eared finch, lop-eared finches, etc.), however, the meanings of these words will resist such a connection. It can take place only if both of these words or one of them are used in figurative meaning. For example, a “chaffinch” can be called a puppy that often freezes, then everything will be all right with the phrase “fold-eared finch”. This interesting questions, but syntax deals with them indirectly, this is more the field of the science of semantics and semasiology - the science of the meaning of words.

Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies phrases from the point of view of their formal connection. Syntaxists are interested in the question of why some combinations of words are perceived by native speakers as grammatically correct, while others are not. The simplest example is "blue water" and "blue water". In the first case, the rule of agreement between adjective and noun is violated. In Russian, the adjective (definition) must repeat the forms of the noun (defined) in order for the phrase to be correct. Therefore, syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies the phrase from a grammatical point of view.

Offer

Phrases are constructed from words, and phrases are combined into sentences. Syntax is a branch of the science of language that studies by what rules and according to what models this happens. There are a lot of questions to study and research, and the easiest way to see this is with the example of the difference between languages. Let's say in English sentence The structure of the grammatical basis must necessarily include both the subject and the predicate. If the meaning of a sentence does not imply a subject, it must still be presented formally. - It (formal subject, which is not necessary in terms of meaning) is raining.

In Russian, the grammatical basis can be represented in one word: "It rains all the time"; "It is cold today"; "It gets dark quickly in autumn." In all these sentences, it is impossible to distinguish subjects and predicates, and at the same time main member sentences (it is raining, it is cold, it is getting dark) and there is both a subject and a predicate (syntactic functions are realized by them syncretically). More voluminous associations - texts - are also studied by syntax.

Punctuation

Why is it important for all native speakers to understand what syntax is? Punctuation (correct placement relies on syntactic knowledge, therefore, in order to write correctly, it is necessary to understand not only the basics, but also the nuances of syntax. Let's say it is impossible to understand where to put a comma in a complex sentence without knowing what a complex sentence is and not being able to find the boundaries of its parts.

Thus, syntax is a science that studies texts, the laws of sentence formation and combining words into phrases. The knowledge of punctuation is based on syntax.

Syntax as a science 1. The subject of syntax. 2. Syntactic units. 3. Syntactic relations. 4. Syntactic links.

Literature 1. Valgina N. S. Syntax of the modern Russian language. - M., 2003. 2. Modern Russian language. Ed. V. A. Beloshapkova - M., 1989. 3. Rosenthal D. E. Golub I. B. Modern Russian language. - M., 2003. 4. Modern Russian: A collection of exercises. - M., 1990. 5. Sirotinina O. B. Lectures on the syntax of the Russian language. - M., 2006. 6. Sannikov VZ Russian syntax in the semantic-pragmatic space. - M., 2008. 7. Zolotova G. A., Onipenko N. K., Sidorova M. Yu. Communicative grammar of the Russian language. - M., 1998. 8. Shmeleva TV Semantic syntax. - Krasnoyarsk, 1993. 9. Priyatkina A.F. Russian language. Compound sentence syntax. - M., 1990. 10. Kustova G. I. Syntax of the modern Russian language. - M., 2007. 11. Vsevolodova M. V. Theory of functional-communicative syntax. - M., 2000. 12. Valgina N. S. . Text theory: tutorial. - M., 2003. 13. Filippov K. A. Linguistics of the text. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

1. The subject of syntax Syntax (from the Greek. Compilation, construction, structure) is a branch of the science of language - which studies, on the one hand, the rules for linking words and forms of words, and on the other, those unities in which these rules are implemented, t i.e. syntactic units. Syntax is the highest level of a language, which demonstrates the language in action; - the only section of the science of language that studies communication, the laws of communication between people.

1. The subject of syntax V. V. Vinogradov: A sentence is a grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, an integral unit of speech, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. There are the following aspects of the study of syntax: - formal (constructive); - semantic (semantic); - communicative (functional); - pragmatic (applied).

2. Syntactic units In Russian science, two main syntactic units are traditionally distinguished - a phrase and a simple sentence. Predicativity is the grammatical essence of a sentence, which consists in a complex of grammatical meanings, correlated with the act of speech and always having a formal expression. Students listen to a lecture (sentence). Listening to a lecture by students (phrase).

2. Syntactic units A phrase is a non-predicative syntactic unit, the components of which are a word and a form of a word or several forms of words connected by a syntactic link. The phrase performs a nominative function. A simple sentence is a predicative syntactic unit consisting of several word forms connected to each other by a syntactic link or from one word form. A complex sentence is a syntactic unit, the components of which are predicative units, interconnected by a syntactic link.

2. Syntactic units A syntaxeme is a minimal semantico-syntactic unit of the Russian language that is further indivisible and acts both as a carrier of elementary meaning and as a constructive component of more complex constructions. The syntaxeme has three main features: - semantic (meaning of the word); - morphological (grammatical form); - syntactic (the ability to take a syntactic position). I drink tea with my wife (addition) with jam (definition) with pleasure (circumstance)

2. Syntactic units Text is a complex complex syntactic unit, which is a sequence of linguistic units united by a common meaning. The main properties of the text are coherence and integrity. The syntax of a language deals with the study of patterns of sentences and phrases available in a given language. The syntax of speech determines which of the possible language models are implemented in a particular context. The student is reading a book. The journalist wrote the article. N 1+ Vf + N 4 - block diagram.

3. Syntactic relations The components of syntactic units are with each other in certain semantic relationships - syntactic relationships that are formally identified, objectified by a syntactic relationship (composition or subordination). All syntactic relations are divided into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative relations arise only between the subject and the predicate. Winter came. Snow. Non-predicative relations can be realized at the level of phrases and sentences.

3. Syntactic relations Varieties of non-predicative relations: participle turnover) and the word they refer to: My heart, full of love ready to jump out of your chest. Looking at the article, I immediately guessed who the author was. 2) actually non-predicative relations are established - between words connected by a coordinating connection in a sentence: both you and me (connective relations), you, not me (adversative relations); - at the level of the phrase: write with a pen, run fast, white snow.

3. Syntactic relations Defining (attributive) relations - the dependent word determines the main thing in terms of the quality of the subject, a well-known journalist, Turkish coffee, a desire to learn. Circumstantial relationships - a dependent word denotes a sign of action (the main word) to run quickly, meet in the evening, forget due to absent-mindedness, go for treatment. Object relations - the dependent word denotes the subject of the application of the action or the sign denoted by the main word, the tool of action to paint a picture, read for students, serve dinner. Subjective relations - the dependent word denotes the producer of the action or the bearer of the state, expressed by the main word the arrival of the father, drawn by the artist, the blue of the sunset, the life of the language. Complementary (replenishing) relationships - the dependent word makes up for the informative insufficiency of the main word at home, to become sad, to be invisible, to admire in the evening.

syntactic relations predicative non-predicative (subject and predicate) (sentence and phrase) semi-predicative (isolated members and main word) actually non-predicative at the sentence level ( coordinative connection) at the level of the phrase, definitive object adverbial subjective complete

4. Syntactic links - formal-structure relations between the components of a syntactic unit, revealing semantic links (syntactic relations), and expressed by means of the language. Types of syntactic links: - writing; - submissive.

4. Syntactic links 1 In a coordinative link, the components are single-functional, i.e. they play the same role in creating a syntactic construction, with subordination- multifunctional (main and dependent) Room under the stairs, room and stairs. 2 Coordinating and subordinating connections differ in means of expression: - with a coordinating connection, they are the same at the level of phrases and sentences, with subordinating - different; - the coordinative connection is not expressed by word forms (only conjunctions or word order) rain and snow, rain with snow. 3. The coordinative connection can be - closed (with a single application, only two components are connected, not a sister, but a brother); - open (a large number of components are connected Either dreaming, or crumpling, or frost on the eyelashes ...). Subordinating relationship can only be closed.

4. Syntactic links The subordinating link is realized in a phrase and a sentence. A phrase always has a grammatically independent and a grammatically dependent component. The grammatical dependence of one word form on another lies in the ability of the word to formally obey the requirements emanating from the categorical properties of the main word. This relationship is also called subordinative. At the level of the phrase, there are three types of subordination: coordination, control, adjacency.

4. Syntactic links Agreement is such a subordinating link, in which the dependent word is likened to the main one in all grammatical forms common with it (gender, number, case). The main features of the connection are the agreement: - weak, since the dependent component can be omitted without compromising the meaning; - predictive, because the main word determines the form of the dependent; - optional, since the word being defined is self-sufficient and can do without a definition. Agreement may be complete or incomplete: winter day (agreement in gender, number and case) old trees (agreement in number and case) by nine students (agreement in case)

4. Syntactic connections Management is such a subordinating connection, in which the main thing requires a certain form of case from the dependent with or without a preposition. 1. According to the morphological characteristics of the main word: - verb to respect the enemy; - substantive sport, attention to others; - adjective ready to work; - number two comrades; - adverbial is akin to art, furtively from neighbors. 2. By the presence / absence of a preposition: - prepositional to see a friend; - An impromptu talk with a friend. 3. If possible, manage various grammatical forms: - variable management talked about the university (about the university, about the university); - non-variable control move away from the window, swim to the shore.

4. Syntactic links Management is a multifaceted phenomenon. This is the most controversial type of connection. 1. Strong and weak management. At strong management the presence of a dependent word form is predetermined by the lexicogrammatic properties of the control word write a letter, move away from the window, five students. With weak control, the dependent word is used in a specific form, regardless of the lexical and grammatical properties of the main one to talk in the room (behind the wall, near the office). 2. V. A. Beloshapkova proposed to present management as a set of differential features: 1) predictability / unpredictability; 2) mandatory / optional; 3) the nature of the syntactic relations between the components. Predictable - this is such a connection in which the main component, with its lexicogrammatic properties, predicts the form of the dependent above the mountains, to feel pain. Unpredictable - go with a friend. Mandatory - this is a connection that manifests itself regularly, that is, the main word necessarily requires the addict to live in Tomsk, become an engineer. Optional house by the road.

4. Syntactic connections Adjacency is such a subordinating connection that exists between the main and dependent word in the event that the dependent word does not change morphologically and the connection between words is expressed lexically turn right, go limping, the habit of smoking. Adjacency is weak, unpredictable, optional. Cases of obligatory adjacency: - the infinitive adjoins the verbs of will, desire, opportunity, phase verbs wanted to learn, dared to object, I can help, began to suffer; - adverbs are adjacent to a number of informatively insufficient words to look decent, behave well, be friendly; - adverbs of place adjoin the verbs of location to find yourself far away, to be near. Nominal adjunction (N. S. Valgina): - creative assimilation of a bow tie; - parental dates to arrive the fifth of August; - accusative quantity to go twice; - accusative time to be absent for a year; - creative quantities to read for hours; - set expressions to be in bad standing.

syntactic connections coordinating connection subordinating connection at the level of a sentence at the level of a phrase agreement control adjunction

SYNTAX AND ITS SUBJECT. BASIC SYNTAX CONCEPTS

The term "syntax" is used primarily to refer to the syntactic structure of the language, which, together with the morphological structure, constitutes the grammar of the language. At the same time, “syntax” as a term is also applicable to the doctrine of the syntactic structure, in which case syntax is a section of linguistics, the subject of which is the syntactic structure of the language, i.e. its syntactic units and connections and relations between them.

The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.

Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraverbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, the meanings determined by the laws of word combination And building sentences, are the subject of syntax. Therefore, in the broad sense of the word, syntax (gr. syntaxis - compilation) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.

If morphology studies words in the totality of all possible forms, then syntax studies the functioning of a separate form of a word in various syntactic associations. The minimum unit of communication is the sentence. However, the syntactic properties of words are manifested not only in the sentence, the structure of which is entirely subordinated to the tasks of communication. The syntactic properties of words are also found at a lower level of the language system - in phrases that are a semantic and grammatical union of words. Therefore, syntax studies a sentence - its structure, grammatical properties and types, as well as a phrase - the minimum grammatically related combination of words. In this sense, we can talk about the syntax of a sentence and the syntax of a phrase.

It shows the syntactic properties of individual words and establishes the rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined by the grammatical features of the word as a certain part of speech. Thus, the possibility of phrases like the red banner is determined by the grammatical properties of combined names: a noun, as a part of speech, has the property of grammatically subordinating an adjective, and an adjective, as the most consistent part of speech, is able to take a form determined by the form of a noun, which is externally revealed in its inflection; phrases like write a letter also rely on the grammatical properties of the combined words: it is interesting that in this case even the very grammatical property of the verb (transitivity) is associated with the need to be combined with a certain form of the name, transitive verbs are not only able to subordinate names to themselves, but also need it to express their own semantics. The syntax of the phrase in general language system is a transitional step from the lexical-morphological level to the actual syntactic level. This transitivity is due to the duality of the nature of the phrase, which is as follows. The phrase is built from separate lexical units, i.e., like a sentence, it is structurally formed. The functional significance of these units is different - it does not rise above the significance of lexical units.

A qualitatively new stage in the general language system, which determines the linguistic essence, the communicative and functional significance of the language. The syntax of the sentence is based on the study of units of the communicative plan. Connections and relationships of word forms and phrases in a sentence are subject to the goals of communication, therefore they are different from connections and relationships between the components of a phrase. However, even at this linguistic level, the general linguistic systemicity manifests itself quite clearly. For example, many even complex syntactic units are constructively based on morphological-syntactic relations, in particular complex sentences with conditional dependence: with an explanatory clause in a transitive verb, with a definitive substantive part, and others, since such clauses do not extend the entire subordinating part of the sentence, but a separate word in it (or a phrase) as a lexical-morphological unit. The presence of attributive clauses is dictated by the grammatical properties of the name, and the same properties that determine the possibility of an agreed adjective or participle, as well as an inconsistent form of denoting a feature in a phrase or the presence of an agreed separate definition in a simple complicated sentence; the same is true in sentences with a verbal dependency: the adverbial clause that extends the verb is determined by the lexical and grammatical properties of the verb. Wed, for example: Dagny felt a rush of air from the music and forced herself to calm down. - Dagny felt a rush of air from the music and forced herself to calm down.(Paust.); Around the clearing on which the guys were sitting, birch, aspen and alder grew magnificently!(Pan.). - Around the clearing, with the guys sitting on it, birch, aspen and alder grew luxuriantly.; Passing through the courtyard, Seryozha saw that the shutters on his windows were also closed.(Pan.). - Seryozha saw the closed shutters...

The general linguistic consistency is emphasized by the presence of interconnectedness and interpenetration of phenomena of different language levels. This is the foundation on which the building of a common language system is firmly based and which does not allow its individual links to crumble.

So, the phrase and the sentence are distinguished as syntactic units of different levels: the phrase is the pre-communicative level, the sentence is the communicative level, and the phrase into the system communication tools included only through the offer. However, the selection of these syntactic units is insufficient to judge the ultimate unit of syntactic articulation. So, it is impossible, for example, to recognize the phrase as a minimal syntactic unit. The very concept of a phrase contradicts this, since it presupposes a certain union of components. The word as such, as an element of the lexical composition of the language, cannot be recognized as a minimal syntactic unit, since when combined in syntactic units, it is not words in general, in the aggregate of their morphological forms, that are combined, but certain forms of words necessary to express a given content (naturally, with shaping possibilities). For example, in combination autumn foliage, two forms of the word are combined - the feminine form of the singular nominative case noun and the same adjectival form. Consequently, the primary syntactic unit can be recognized as the form of a word or the syntactic form of a word. This also applies to those combined components when words are devoid of the sign of formation, for example: very fruitful, very nice.

The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. However, its role and purpose is not limited to this. The syntactic form of a word can act as a “building element” not only as part of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in building its basis, for example: It's damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive attire. It follows from this that the syntactic form of a word participates in the construction of a sentence either directly or through a phrase. The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the syntactic form of a word is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On the boat, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers - a lot of Russian men and women(Boon.). The syntactic form of a word and a phrase, on the one hand, and a sentence, on the other hand, are syntactic units of different functional significance and different syntactic levels, but the units are interconnected and interdependent, units of the general syntactic system of the language. However, even a sentence, being a unit of a message, is significant in the language only as a small private link, which is structurally, semantically, and accentologically subordinate to common tasks communications, i.e. acquires its specificity only in connection with other links (proposals). This is how complex whole syntax, coherent speech syntax, text syntax, which studies units larger than a single sentence, units that have their own rules and laws of construction.

The definition of a set of syntactic units is by no means sufficient to describe the syntactic system of a language, since a system is not only a set of elements, but also their connections and relationships. So, syntactic link serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence and forms syntactic relations, i.e. those varieties of syntactic correspondence that are regularly revealed in syntactic units, regardless of their level. For example: as a result of the subordinate connection of agreement in the combination stone house, attributive relations are born between the forms of words in a given syntactic unit; communication control has become the basis for object relations combined to buy a book.

Predicative relations arise as a result of the syntactic connection of the main members of the sentence. At the level complex sentence different types syntactic connection (subordinating, coordinating, non-union) also form syntactic relations - causal, temporal, target, comparative-adversative, enumerative, etc. This means that syntax studies the syntactic units of a language in their connections and relationships. The content of syntactic relations is two-dimensional: on the one hand, it reflects the phenomena real world, in which it draws its information content (relationships between the subject and its attribute, action and object, etc.); on the other hand, it is based on the interaction of the components of the actual syntactic units (dependence, for example, of the controlled form of the word on the control, the one that is consistent on the one that determines this agreement, etc.), i.e. based on syntactic link. This duality of the content of syntactic relations is the essence of syntactic semantics in general and the semantics of syntactic units in particular. Syntactic semantics(or syntactic meaning) is inherent in any syntactic unit and represents its content side; semantic structure however, naturally, only units that can be decomposed into components (phrases, sentences) can have. If we turn to the main syntactic unit - the sentence, then, based on what has been said, we can find in it the content side (reflection of real objects, actions and signs) and the formal organization ( grammatical structure). However, neither one nor the other reveals another side of the sentence - its communicative significance, its purpose. So, the content (what is transmitted), the form (how it is transmitted) and the purpose (for what it is transmitted) - these are the three conditionally singled out (they exist in unity) sides of the sentence, which served as the basis for a different approach to the study of the sentence - semantic, structural and communicative. All three sides of the same phenomenon have "deep analogy and parallelism." For example, in the simplest sentence The bird flies, the semantic structures (the real carrier of the sign and the sign), syntactic, or formal grammatical (subject and predicate), and communicative (given, i.e. the initial moment of the statement, and new, i.e. . what is reported about the given, or, in other terminology, the theme and rheme). However, this relationship can be violated, and it is this possible mismatch of the components of the syntactic, semantic and communicative structure of the sentence that justifies the thesis about the existence and independence of all three levels of sentence division. For example, in the sentence It's fun, a coincidence can only be found with respect to the function of the component fun: it is both a syntactic predicate, a semantic predicate, and a message rheme, while the component to him is a semantic subject of the state and at the same time the subject of the message, but it is not the subject.

Syntactic science knows all three aspects of the study of a sentence, as a result of which an opinion has been formed about the need to distinguish accordingly a sentence in a language (taking into account its syntactic semantics and formal organization) and a sentence in speech, i.e. a sentence implemented in a context, in a specific speech situation (taking into account its communicative orientation). The latter is usually called a statement, although the same term is often used - a sentence, meaning its speech content.

The set of syntactic units that are singled out in the language forms it syntactic means. Like any other, syntactic means have their own specific purpose, i.e. exist not on their own, but for the sake of certain functions. Particular functions of syntactic units are determined by the general communicative function of syntax. If the communicative function is performed by a sentence (statement) as a syntactic unit, then the role of this unit in the construction of a sentence (as a component of a phrase or a member of a sentence) can be recognized as the function of any syntactic unit of the pre-communicative level (syntactic form of a word, phrase). The concept of a function is often identified with the concept of syntactic meaning and is therefore directly related to syntactic semantics. With a differentiated use of these terms, the meaning is understood as an expression of extralinguistic relations, i.e. relations of reality, in this case, the content of the term "function" remains the actual syntactic indicators - the functions of "construction", associative.

To designate syntactic units divided into components, there is also the term "syntactic construction", which is used both in relation to an abstract language model and in relation to a specific language unit built on this model.

In the general language system, the syntactic side occupies a special place - this is a phenomenon of a higher order, because for the expression of thought it is not enough just to select lexical material, it is necessary to correctly and clearly establish a connection between words, groups of words. No matter how rich lexicon language, in the end, it always lends itself to inventory. But "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words." It is in the structure of the language, i.e. in its grammar (and first of all in syntax), the basis of its national specificity is laid. It is known that many words of the Russian language have a foreign language origin, but they calmly coexist with native Russian words. Time has made completely Russian such, for example, words as beet, bed, money, etc., and precisely because they obeyed the rules of compatibility of words in the Russian language. In the grammatical arrangement of a word, the syntactic side always comes first: for example, many morphological properties of a word appear as a result of the specifics of its functioning in a sentence, a prime example to that - the history of the formation and development of adverbs.

The syntactic structure of the Russian language is enriched and improved. As a result of the constant interaction of individual elements in the general syntactic system of the language, parallel syntactic constructions appear to express the same content. Structural variability leads, in turn, to stylistic differentiation.

The stylistic possibilities of modern Russian syntax are quite tangible and wide enough. The presence of options in the ways of expressing thoughts and, consequently, in the syntactic organization of speech allows us to develop a whole system of syntactic means adapted to function in various types of communication, in different speech situations (in different functional styles of speech).

The study of syntactic units and their stylistic properties creates the possibility of targeted selection means of expression language, their conscious use in different speech contexts. The choice of syntactic units corresponding to the specific goals of speech communication is always associated with the search for the best option. Moreover, this optimal variant must meet the requirements not only the right meaning, but also the desired emotional sound. And this purely emotional side of the utterance is very often created by means of syntax. In particular, constructions of expressive syntax have not only an informational function, but also a function of influence. From this it is clear what great importance is the purposeful study of the syntactic system of the language.

§1. Syntax Subject

Syntax- a linguistic discipline that studies the syntactic links of words in a phrase and sentence, as well as links simple sentences within the complex. Accordingly, three units of syntax are distinguished. Each has its own nature and characteristic features.

Syntax is the level of structure of the language.

§2. Syntax units

Syntax units:

phrase
simple sentence
difficult sentence

It is important to understand that sentences and phrases are units of different levels. Why do they deal with one linguistic discipline - syntax? Because for syntax it is important how different syntactic constructions are created from words based on syntactic relations.
Words are combined into phrases, and phrases are combined into sentences. A sentence is a syntactic construction high level than a phrase. It is organized differently: each sentence has a grammatical basis. Simple sentences have only one grammatical basis. If there is more than one grammatical basis in a sentence, then this sentence is complex.

lie on the stove

phrase

Emelya was lying on the stove.

simple sentence, grammatical basis: Emelya lay

While Emelya was lying on the stove, the buckets themselves went to the river for water.

a complex sentence consisting of two simple ones that have grammatical foundations: Emelya lay And buckets went down

test of strength

Find out how you understood the contents of this chapter.

Final test

What does syntax study?
- phonetic word structure
- morphemic word structure
- parts of speech
- syntactic links of words in a phrase and sentence, as well as links of simple sentences in complex
Is it correct to believe that syntactic constructions are created on the basis of syntactic links?
What units of language does syntax study?
- word and phrase
- phrase, simple sentence and compound sentence
- morphemes
Is there a phrase in the sentence: The holidays are over.?
How many grammatical bases are in the sentence: Smile even if you don't smile back.?
Whether the sentence is simple or complex: What do you need to be happy?
- simple sentence
- difficult sentence

Its syntactic units and connections and relations between them.

The division of grammar into morphology and syntax is determined by the very essence of the objects being studied.

Morphology studies the meanings and forms of words as elements of intraverbal opposition; the meanings of verbal forms that arise in combination with other verbal forms, meanings determined by the laws of word compatibility and sentence construction, are the subject of syntax. Therefore, in the broad sense of the word, syntax (gr. syntaxis - compilation) is a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech.

The syntax of a phrase shows the syntactic properties of individual words and establishes the rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined by the grammatical features of the word as a certain part of speech. Thus, the possibility of phrases like the red banner is determined by the grammatical properties of combined names: a noun, as a part of speech, has the property of grammatically subordinating an adjective, and an adjective, as the most consistent part of speech, is able to take a form determined by the form of a noun, which is externally revealed in its inflection; phrases like write a letter also rely on the grammatical properties of the combined words: it is interesting that in this case, even the grammatical property of the verb itself (transitivity) is associated with the need to combine with a certain form of the name, transitive verbs are not only able to subordinate names to themselves, but also need it for expressions of their own semantics. The syntax of a phrase in the general language system is a transitional stage from the lexico-morphological level to the actual syntactic one. This transitivity is due to the duality of the nature of the phrase, which is as follows. The phrase is built from separate lexical units, i.e., like a sentence, it is structurally formed. The functional significance of these units is different - it does not rise above the significance of lexical units.

The syntax of a sentence is a qualitatively new stage in the general language system, which determines the linguistic essence, the communicative and functional significance of the language. The syntax of the sentence is based on the study of units of the communicative plan. Connections and relationships of word forms and phrases in a sentence are subject to the goals of communication, therefore they are different from connections and relationships between the components of a phrase. However, even at this linguistic level, the general linguistic systemicity manifests itself quite clearly. For example, many even complex syntactic units are constructively based on morphological-syntactic relations, in particular complex sentences with conditional dependence: with an explanatory clause in a transitive verb, with a definitive substantive part, and others, since such clauses do not extend the entire subordinating part of the sentence, but a separate word in it (or a phrase) as a lexical-morphological unit. The presence of attributive clauses is dictated by the grammatical properties of the name, and the same properties that determine the possibility of an agreed adjective or participle, as well as an inconsistent form of denoting a feature in a phrase or the presence of an agreed isolated definition in a simple complicated sentence; the same is true in sentences with a verbal dependency: the adverbial clause that extends the verb is determined by the lexical and grammatical properties of the verb. Wed, for example: Dagny felt a rush of air that emanated from the music, and forced herself to calm down. - Dagny felt a rush of air emanating from the music, and forced herself to calm down (Paust.); Around the clearing on which the guys were sitting, birch, aspen and alder grew magnificently! (Pan.). - Around the clearing, with the guys sitting on it, birch, aspen and alder grew magnificently; Passing through the courtyard, Seryozha saw that the shutters on his windows were also closed (Pan.). - Seryozha saw the closed shutters ...

So, the phrase and the sentence are distinguished as syntactic units of different levels: the phrase is the pre-communicative level, the sentence is the communicative level, and the phrase is included in the system of communicative means only through the sentence. However, the selection of these syntactic units is insufficient to judge the ultimate unit of syntactic articulation. So, it is impossible, for example, to recognize the phrase as a minimal syntactic unit. The very concept of a phrase contradicts this, since it presupposes a certain union of components. The word as such, as an element of the lexical composition of the language, cannot be recognized as a minimal syntactic unit, since when combined in syntactic units, it is not words in general, in the aggregate of their morphological forms, that are combined, but certain forms of words necessary to express a given content (naturally, with shaping possibilities). For example, in the combination autumn foliage, two forms of the word are combined - the feminine singular form of the nominative case of the noun and the same form of the adjective. Consequently, the primary syntactic unit can be recognized as the form of a word or the syntactic form of a word. This also applies to those combined components when words are devoid of a sign of formation, for example: very fruitful, very pleasant.

The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. However, its role and purpose is not limited to this. The syntactic form of a word can act as a "building element" not only as part of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in building its basis, for example: It's damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive attire. It follows from this that the syntactic form of a word participates in the construction of a sentence either directly or through a phrase. The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the syntactic form of a word is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On the boat, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers are many Russian men and women (Bun.). The syntactic form of a word and a phrase, on the one hand, and a sentence, on the other hand, are syntactic units of different functional significance and different syntactic levels, but the units are interconnected and interdependent, units of the general syntactic system of the language. However, even a sentence, being a unit of communication, is significant in the language only as a small private link, which is structurally, semantically, and accentologically subordinate to the general tasks of communication, i.e. acquires its specificity only in connection with other links (proposals). This is how the syntax of a complex whole arises, the syntax of coherent speech, the syntax of a text that studies units that are larger than a single sentence, units that have their own rules and laws of construction.

The definition of a set of syntactic units is by no means sufficient to describe the syntactic system of a language, since a system is not only a set of elements, but also their connections and relationships. So, the syntactic connection serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of the phrase and the sentence and forms syntactic relations, i.e. those varieties of syntactic correspondence that are regularly revealed in syntactic units, regardless of their level. For example: as a result of the subordinate connection of agreement in the combination stone house, attributive relations are born between the forms of words in a given syntactic unit; communication control has become the basis for object relations combined to buy a book.

Predicative relations arise as a result of the syntactic connection of the main members of the sentence. At the level of a complex sentence, different types of syntactic links (subordinating, coordinating, non-union) also form syntactic relations - causal, temporal, target, comparative-adversative, enumerative, etc. This means that syntax studies the syntactic units of a language in their connections and relationships. The content of syntactic relations is two-dimensional: on the one hand, it reflects the phenomena of the real world, in which it draws its information content (the relationship between the subject and its attribute, action and object, etc.); on the other hand, it is based on the interaction of the components of the actual syntactic units (dependence, for example, of the controlled form of the word on the control, the one that is consistent on the one that determines this agreement, etc.), i.e. relies on syntax. This duality of the content of syntactic relations is the essence of syntactic semantics in general and the semantics of syntactic units in particular. Syntactic semantics (or syntactic meaning) is inherent in any syntactic unit and represents its content side; the semantic structure, of course, can only have units decomposed into components (phrases, sentences). If we turn to the main syntactic unit - the sentence, then, based on what has been said, we can find the content side (reflection of real objects, actions and signs) and formal organization (grammatical structure) in it. However, neither one nor the other reveals another side of the sentence - its communicative significance, its purpose. So, the content (what is transmitted), the form (how it is transmitted) and the purpose (for what it is transmitted) - these are the three conditionally singled out (they exist in unity) sides of the sentence, which served as the basis for a different approach to the study of the sentence - semantic, structural and communicative. All three sides of the same phenomenon have "deep analogy and parallelism." For example, in the simplest sentence The bird flies, the semantic structures (the real carrier of the sign and the sign), syntactic, or formal grammatical (subject and predicate), and communicative (given, i.e. the initial moment of the statement, and new, i.e. . what is reported about the given, or, in other terminology, the theme and rheme). However, this relationship can be violated, and it is this possible mismatch of the components of the syntactic, semantic and communicative structure of the sentence that justifies the thesis about the existence and independence of all three levels of sentence division. For example, in the sentence He's fun, a coincidence can only be found with respect to the function of the component fun: it is both a syntactic predicate, a semantic predicate, and a message rheme, while the component to him is the semantic subject of the state and at the same time the subject of the message, but it is not the subject.

The set of syntactic units that are singled out in a language forms its syntactic means. Like any other, syntactic means have their own specific purpose, i.e. exist not on their own, but for the sake of certain functions. Particular functions of syntactic units are determined by the general communicative function of syntax. If the communicative function is performed by a sentence (statement) as a syntactic unit, then the role of this unit in the construction of a sentence (as a component of a phrase or a member of a sentence) can be recognized as the function of any syntactic unit of the pre-communicative level (syntactic form of a word, phrase). The concept of a function is often identified with the concept of syntactic meaning and is therefore directly related to syntactic semantics. With a differentiated use of these terms, the meaning is understood as an expression of extralinguistic relations, i.e. relations of reality, in this case, the content of the term "function" remains the actual syntactic indicators - the functions of "construction", associative.

In the general language system, the syntactic side occupies a special place - this is a phenomenon of a higher order, because for the expression of thought it is not enough just to select lexical material, it is necessary to correctly and clearly establish a connection between words, groups of words. No matter how rich the vocabulary of a language is, in the end it always lends itself to inventory. But "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words." It is in the structure of the language, i.e. in its grammar (and first of all in syntax), the basis of its national specificity is laid. It is known that many words of the Russian language have a foreign language origin, but they calmly coexist with native Russian words. Time has made completely Russian such, for example, words as beet, bed, money, etc., and precisely because they obeyed the rules of compatibility of words in the Russian language. In the grammatical arrangement of a word, the syntactic side always comes first: for example, many morphological properties of a word appear as a result of the specifics of its functioning in a sentence, a vivid example of this is the history of the formation and development of adverbs.

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