Byzantine mosaic masterpieces. Byzantium

Florentine, Roman, Venetian, Byzantine mosaics - these names of techniques caress the ear, and the images associated with those highly artistic objects that the masters of the past created have been captivating for thousands of years. Each school is unique, but all artists laid a drawing assembled from various materials(smalt, stones, ceramic tiles, wood veneer, etc.) on the prepared surface.

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First experiences

The history of mosaics dates back to the time of the Sumerian kingdom. The oldest mosaic was assembled from pieces of baked clay. Unfired clay was used as the basis.

The art of ancient Egyptian mosaicists is a variety of materials (semi-precious and precious stones, ivory and valuable tree species) and areas of application - furniture, household items, clothing of the pharaohs. The famous throne of Tutankhamen is also encrusted with mosaic elements.

Byzantium

The most ancient mosaic of Byzantium is dated III-IV centuries. AD Golden time This technology falls on the VI-VII and IX-XIV centuries. AD Given the high cost of materials and work, the main customer of Byzantine mosaics was the Catholic Church. Magnificent ancient mosaics have been preserved in the temples of Italy (in Ravenna, Montreal, Cefalu) and Turkey (in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul). The main motives biblical stories.

Byzantine mosaic is a standard, it is characterized by high artistic skill. The images are accurate, preference is given to large canvases, the effect of scale is taken into account: the remoteness of the viewer, his location. A distinctive feature of the drawing is the presence of a contour for each depicted object. The purpose of the technique is to visually highlight the element on a common, often golden, background when viewed from a long distance.

Mosaic "Christ Pantocrator". Cathedral of the Diocese of Cefalu (Italy, Sicily). 1145-1148

The ancient mosaic, created by Byzantine artists, is distinguished by respect for proportions, especially when depicting the human body, which is presented even in dynamics. The drawing is created voluminous, but the effect is leveled by the presence of a contour.

Masters in their work used smalt - colored glass. The technology is based on the addition of metal oxides to the glass, which give the tiles the desired color. In the workshops, up to several hundred different shades were obtained. The material for mosaics in Byzantium was very expensive. To create a panel, they resorted to smalt with the addition of gold leaf, mixed with copper and mercury. The technology is characterized by the density of the arrangement of plates (small squares, less often of a different shape) and the use of a direct set when laying them. The finished canvas has an uneven surface and a characteristic sheen.

Florence

Florentine mosaic Pietra Dura (from Italian - "carved stone") is a unique technique, the most complex of the existing ones. This is an ancient art, which is based on working with stone plates.

Florentine mosaic was especially popular in the 16th-19th centuries. At the end of the XVI century. Craftsmen from Milan were invited to the city, where the creation of stone products flourished in that period of time. The patrons of the masters were members of the Medici family, who created the first workshops and subsequently became the main customers.

Direction features:

• Semi-precious stones were used in the work - tiger's eye, amethyst, malachite, lapis lazuli, hematite, jasper, marble, aventurine, rock crystal, agate, chalcedony;
• The drawing project was created taking into account the peculiarities of the texture and the natural pattern of the stones;
• The shape of the tiles was not limited to the classic rectangle;
• Platinums were stacked so tightly to each other so that there was no gap;
• The technique was used to decorate walls, furniture elements (tables, cabinets), caskets, chess boards;
• Filigree performance ("stone picture"), complexity and realism of the composition. Masters created marinas, still lifes, landscapes, allegorical scenes.

Mosaic made in the Florentine technique on the doors of a wooden cabinet, from 20,000 colored stones (jasper, lapis lazuli, marble, amazonite and others). Peterhof Lapidary Factory. 80-90s 19th century

Florentine mosaic appeared in Russia in the middle of the 18th century. Russian masters easily mastered the technique, making a worthy competitor to the Italians. In the USSR, Florentine mosaics were used to decorate metro stations, although a priori the technique was used to create small canvases.

Rome

The ancient mosaic of Rome became the base that future generations of masters used. But at the same time, Roman mosaic as an art, as a technology, was borrowed from the Greeks. The work uses pieces of smalt or small stone - mainly marble and other natural stones - in the form of a square or rectangle. Traditionally, Roman mosaics were used to decorate the walls and floors of rooms (both public and private).

The oldest mosaic is dated to the 2nd century BC. BC. and found on the Greek island of Delos. First samples - geometric ornaments, recruited from whole raw stones. Later, stylized images of people and animals appeared.

The following techniques are known:

The duck on the floor is made in the opus tessellatum technique. Satyr and Nymph, mosaic in the House of the Faun in Pompeii. Opus vermiculatum. Opus sectile marble on the floor of Hadrian's Villa.

• Opus tessellatum, in which tesserae (stone fragments) over 4 mm in size were used;
• Opus vermiculatum, for which tesserae no larger than 4 mm were taken, which made it possible to draw small details;
• Opus sectile, which combined both large and small blades;
• Opus regulatum, where the paintings are formed from pieces of rock of the same size, laid out in straight lines.

Features of the panel pattern, made in the Roman style:

• Light background randomly assembled from homogeneous stones;
• Decorative elements (pattern, figures) are formed at the expense of smaller fractions;
• The color scheme of the picture is limited financial possibilities customer - the more monumental the project, the more expensive it is, the more diverse the material used, the better the artist can show his art and skill.

Venice

Venice is art and art is Venice. Therefore, its own school of mosaic work was created here. And this art flourished here, as evidenced only by the list of temples where there is a Venetian mosaic:

• Archbishop's Chapel (Ravenna, 1112);
• Church of Santa Maria e Donato (Fr. Donato, second half of the 12th century);
• Cathedral of San Marco (Venice, XII-XIII centuries).

Mosaic of the central dome of the Cathedral of San Marco. Venice, Italy. 12th century

Local artists were influenced by both Byzantine and Romanesque traditions:

• The figures of people are heavy, and their faces are monotonous;
• Linear stylization is pronounced, especially noticeable when conveying volume and perspective;
• Dark colors prevail.

Modern Venetian mosaic - "terrazzo", created on the basis of a cement mixture and inert materials (stone chips, fragments of granite, broken colored glass).

A mosaic panel, regardless of the technique of execution, is the dominant element of the interior. Its plot and colors are the basis of the design of the room. comments powered by HyperComments

Byzantine mosaics are primarily smalt mosaics.

It was the Byzantines who developed the technology for the production of smalt, thanks to which this relatively economical and easy-to-handle glass became the main material in monumental painting. The Byzantines, by adding various metals (gold, copper, mercury) to the raw glass melt in various proportions, learned to make several hundred different colors of smalt, and with the help of simple tools elements of the mosaic could be given elementary geometric shapes, convenient for laying in a mosaic canvas.

Nevertheless, cubes became the main mosaic element - it was the compositions of neatly laid out small and more or less the same size cubes that created fame for Byzantine mosaics. The most ancient surviving examples of Byzantine mosaics date back to the III-IV centuries, and two periods of prosperity fall on the VI-VII centuries (golden age) and IX-XIV (after iconoclasm - the Macedonian revival, the conservatism of the Komnenos and the Palaiologan renaissance).

The most famous Byzantine mosaics are those of Ravenna and images of Hagia Sophia (Constantinople). If the Roman mosaic solved purely functional problems along with aesthetic tasks, the Byzantine one became the main element of the artistic decoration of cathedrals, tombs, basilicas and visual tasks came to the fore.

Roman mythological images, often playful and genre, look equally good both in private atriums and in public baths, were replaced by grandiose in design and implementation of monumental canvases on biblical subjects. Christian stories became the central theme of the mosaics, the desire to achieve the maximum impression of the image has become driving force improving the technique of laying mosaics and developing new colors and compositions of smalt.

A feature of Byzantine mosaics in temples was the use of an amazing golden background. The mosaics were laid out using the direct set method, and each element in the laying was distinguished by its unique surface and its position relative to other elements and the base. A single and living golden field was created, shimmering both in natural light and in candlelight. The uniqueness of the play of shades of color and reflections of light on a golden background created the effect of movement of the whole picture.

Obligatory for the Byzantine masters was the technique of making the contours of bodies, objects, objects. The contour was laid out in one row of cubes and elements from the side of the figure or object, and also in one row - from the side of the background. The smooth line of such contours gave clarity to images against a flickering background.

Most of the techniques of Byzantine mosaics are also used in modern mosaic compositions. The use of smalt, the background formed by the irregularities of smalt cubes, the even contours of the borders of objects and the background - this is a classic of mosaic, a classic of Byzantium.

In the case of Byzantium, one can accurately name the year that became the starting point of the Byzantine empire, culture, and civilization. Emperor Constantine I the Great moved his capital to the city of Byzantium (from the 1st century AD).

e. part of the Roman Empire) and renamed it Constantinople in 330.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be regarded as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of the Byzantine society, based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogma has developed under the strong influence of Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, and Manichaeism. It was a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which was ancient philosophical teachings. The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism is being replaced by a compromise between the Christian and the ancient worldview. The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. Thinkers such as Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy, which is rooted in the history of Hellenic thought. At the center of their philosophy is the understanding of being as perfection. A new aesthetics is born, a new system of spiritual and moral values, the man himself of that era is changing, his vision of the world and his attitude to the universe, nature, society.

Periods of the history of Byzantine art

Early Christian period (the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries)
early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I, the architecture of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the mosaics of Ravenna (VI-VII centuries)
iconoclastic period (7th-early 9th century). It was called the dark time - largely by analogy with a similar stage of development Western Europe.
period of the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) It is considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art.
the period of conservantism under the emperors of the Komnenos dynasty (1081-1185)
the period of the Palaiologan Renaissance, the revival of Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453).

Art Byzantine Empire- in many ways the subject of controversy among historians, philosophers and culturologists. But if many philosophical treatises and paintings have been lost over several centuries, then the beautiful Byzantine mosaics made of stone and smalt have become a symbol of an era and an entire civilization. In the Byzantine Empire, the production of mosaics and smalt was put on stream, the historical records included stories about experiments carried out by smalt masters to obtain different shades of smalt and attempts to impart various properties to smalt glass. Smalt mosaics were an indispensable attribute not only of places of worship and royal palaces, but were also decorations for the interiors of ordinary townspeople's houses.

Compared to antique mosaics made of pieces of stone, smalt compositions were distinguished by a greater variety of colors, brightness, play of light on the surface and, importantly, were much more affordable. This determined the rapid spread of smalt technology both in the Byzantine Empire itself and beyond its borders (in particular, in Ancient Rus')

Byzantine smalt mosaics. Early Byzantine period

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, 5th century BC

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, according to legend, was built as a burial place for the daughter of Emperor Theodosius. However, in fact, Galla is buried in Rome, and her so-called mausoleum was a chapel dedicated to St. Lawrence - a martyr and patron of the imperial family, especially revered in the family of Theodosius. Like many other Ravenna buildings, this martyrium was built using the Lombard brickwork technique. Outwardly, it is very similar to a fortress structure: closed, deliberately fenced off from outside world the volume is emphasized by thick walls, narrow, like loopholes, windows. In plan, the mausoleum is a Greek cross, at the intersection of the arms of the cross there is a cube, inside of which there is a dome on sails. The heavy, overhanging vault, which has no clear boundaries, is devoid of window openings. Only through narrow windows in the walls a dim, flickering light penetrates into the church.

The lower part of the walls of the chapel (up to the height of human growth) is lined with transparent jet marble of a slightly yellowish tint. The surfaces of the dome and arches, as well as the rounded sections of the walls under the arches (lunettes) are decorated with smalt mosaics. Pieces of smalt with irregular shape, form an uneven surface. Because of this, the light from it is reflected at different angles, creating not a uniform cold brilliance, but a magical radiant shimmer, as if trembling in the twilight of the temple.

The theme of the painting of the mausoleum is connected with the funeral rite. Mosaics are located only in the upper parts of the temple. In the center of the vault is a cross (a symbol of victory over death) with stars in the blue sky. The vaults are decorated with dense floral ornaments associated with the symbols of the Garden of Eden. In the southern lower lunette is depicted St. Lawrence walking with a cross to his death. The open cabinet shows the books of the four Gospels, inspiring the martyr to a feat in the name of the Savior.

Saint Lawrence. Mosaic of the south lunette of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. About 440.

In the upper, large lunettes on the sides of the windows, the apostles are depicted in pairs. They raise their hands to the dome with a cross, in a silent gesture embodying the gospel call, the personification of which is the image of St. Lawrence: "Take up your cross and follow me." The apostles are depicted in such a way that their turns and gestures organize a circular movement passing from lunette to lunette. Only the chief apostles Peter and Paul in the eastern lunette (where the altar is located) are depicted symmetrically: the movement ends here.

In the northern lower lunette - Christ in the form of the Good Shepherd looks at the visitor from the wall above the entrance. Sheep walk around Him on the green grass, and He affectionately touches a sheep that has approached. The Divine shepherd is dressed in golden clothes and sits on a hillock, like an emperor on a throne, firmly leaning on a cross. The cross here acts as an attribute of power, like an imperial staff; Christ affirms it over the world as a sign of the triumphal procession of Christianity. The figure of the Son of God is shown in a complex contrasting turn: his legs are crossed, his hand reaches for a sheep, but his head is turned in the other direction, and his gaze is directed into the distance.

Christ the Good Shepherd. Mosaic of the north lunette of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. About 440.

A characteristic feature of the mosaics of the Mausoleum of Galla is the contrast of the two lunettes.
The scene with the Good Shepherd is executed in the spirit of an ancient pastoral with intentional touching images. The pinkish-green gamut, subtle color transitions, the use of halftones in the rendering of flesh demonstrate the unfading charm of antiquity, emphasized by the conclusion of the composition in a heavy and magnificent frame of the surrounding box vault.
Scene with the image of St. Lawrence demonstrates the birth of a new artistic language. The composition is clear, distinguished by simple symmetry large forms. The image is deliberately displayed on foreground. The beginnings of a reverse perspective (the image of a lattice under a strongly shrinking window) create the illusion of a space “tilting” towards the viewer. The composition is built not centric and pyramidal (following the example of the Good Shepherd), but crosswise, diagonally. The figure of St. Lawrence is captured in motion. The fragile contours of the folds of his clothes do not fall, but take off and cross in a whimsical rhythm. In the face of the saint there is not a trace of the soft beauty and psychological neutrality of the pastoral. It sharply and powerfully manifests the spiritual principle, the ecstatic illumination of a martyr for the faith.

Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna, 5th century BC dome mosaic

The Baptistery (baptismal) of the Orthodox in Ravenna is an example of a centric-type building. It is an octagon in plan. The baptistery was decorated under Bishop Neon (451-73). Its luxurious decoration allows you to feel the special splendor of the rite of baptism. The decoration is very well thought out from the point of view of architecture, and the architectural (enriched Ionic order) and sculptural decoration (high reliefs with images of the prophets) are organically combined with mosaic painting and are included in it as an integral part.

The main feature of the decoration is the implementation of a single motif at all its levels - arches on columns or a portico with a pediment on columns. This motif forms the lowest tier of the octahedral baptistery, where deep arcosoles alternate with false niches. In the second tier, it multiplies: the arches, framing the sculptures of the prophets, surround the window openings. In a more complex and rich form, the same motif is found in the third, mosaic tier of the decoration. Here, this motif is illustratively embodied: it reproduces the space of the basilica, where porticos with episcopal chairs and fruit trees are located on the sides of the apses, in which thrones with crosses or altars with open Gospels on thrones are presented. Above, in the very last tier surrounding the central medallion, the motif of the arch on the columns appears in a hidden form: the columns here become luxurious golden candelabra separating the figures of the apostles, and the arches or pediments become bends of drapery sagging in scallops from the frame of the central medallion.

The scenery of the baptistery is closely related to the theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem, which opens to the eyes of a Christian in the scene of the Baptism of the Savior (Theophany), located in the dome, directly above the baptismal font. The decoration seems to be "inscribed" into the sphere of the dome, this is achieved by a special technique: the figures and the elements separating them are interpreted as a kind of radius - golden rays emanating from the central disk. The theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem explains the presence of crowns in the hands of the apostles: it is they who will sit on the twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. Thus, Baptism is immediately placed in the context of the search for a good answer at the Judgment Seat of Christ, and the lushly fruitful trees in the sections of the symbolic basilicas of the third tier are an image Christian soul bearing good fruit. The judgment is that “Light has come into the world”, and the motif of light flowing from the central medallion with Christ, indicated by white and golden streams (at the level of the apostolic circle), takes on a special meaning in the composition.

Orthodox Baptistery in Ravenna. 5th century Dome mosaic.
The central medallion containing the scene of the baptism of Christ (Epiphany).
Around the Central medallion is an apostolic circle.

The theme of Heavenly Jerusalem appears in close interweaving with the theme of the earthly church. Along with the prospect of seeing the Heavenly City in the scene of the Epiphany, the theme of the transfer of power and grace is no less significant here. From the Savior receiving Baptism (central medallion), the grace-filled energy is transmitted through the apostles (radial rays) to the earthly church (it is symbolized by altars and episcopal seats of the third level of decoration). This outflow of blessed energy is thought to be continuous, constant.

The idea of ​​the inexhaustibility, the infinity of this stream is emphasized by the peculiarity of the composition of the apostolic circle: it has neither beginning nor end, there is no center towards which the disciples of Christ would move. More precisely, this center is located outside the circle itself, it is the image of the Savior on the central medallion. Painting as a whole is very effective. The figures of the apostles are shown in motion. The largeness of their step is emphasized by the widely spaced legs and the bend of the hips. The illusion of space is still present: the surface on which the apostles are walking looks lighter than the mysterious and bottomless blue background of the main image. The heavy and opulent robes are reminiscent of the splendor of Roman patrician robes. In the apostolic chitons, only two colors vary - white, personifying light, and gold, the light of heaven. Only multi-colored shadows (gray, blue, dove) set off these luminous robes. Golden clothes are likened to a thin airy fabric - it lays down in lush, as if swollen folds. White fabric, on the other hand, freezes in unnaturally brittle folds.

The theme of the Epiphany is, first of all, the theme of the outflow of light, the bestowal of light. The apostles are shown as the bearers of this eternal light, since they carry the light of Christian enlightenment - enlightenment by the truth. The faces of the apostles are impressive, each of them has a pronounced individuality. They appear as real personalities, which is facilitated by the still undeveloped typology and iconography. Christian images. Large noses, sharply defined nasolabial folds, relief wrinkles, powerfully protruding nape, plump lips, expressive glances. In these images, likened to Roman patricians, incredible inner energy is guessed, which symbolizes the power of the Christian church of the 5th century, which has become practically the only spiritual and political authority in the Western world.

Grand Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

Unlike religious buildings of the era, the floor of the Bolshoi imperial palace in Constantinople contains big number images of everyday scenes involving people and animals. The background mosaic layout draws attention - hundreds of thousands of pieces of a monochromatic white mosaic form a bizarre pattern in which the scale of the work and the accuracy of the ancient masters are striking.

Eagle and snake. Mosaic of the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

Deer and snake. Mosaic of the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

Hare and dogs. Mosaic of the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

Boy with a basket. Mosaic of the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

pastoral scene. Mosaic of the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. 5th century

Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, 6th century
The compositions are dominated by perfect balance. Architectural forms, plant motifs, human bodies, likened to the simplest geometric figures, as if drawn by a ruler. Draperies have neither volume nor lively softness. There is no living sensation of substance in anything, even a remote hint of natural breathing. Space finally loses any resemblance to reality.

Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, 6th century
In the depiction of martyrs and martyrs, there is a clear trend that can be called the sacralization of style. The image deliberately seeks to renounce any specific life associations. Even a distant hint of an imaginary space or environment of action disappears - all free space is occupied by an endless golden background. Flowers under the feet of the wise men and martyrs play a purely symbolic role and further emphasize the unreality of the depicted.

Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna, 6th century
The style of the mosaics shows clear signs of Western taste. The forms are abstract and deliberately simplified, the composition is dominated by a linear rhythm. The wide and ethereal spots of the silhouettes are painted with an even color, which, in fact, retains its expressiveness. External elegance, color sonority compensate for the anemic and amorphous style.

Byzantine smalt mosaics. The era of the Komnenos dynasty

Smalt mosaics in the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady, Daphne

The most striking and complete manifestation of the Byzantine style of the late 11th century and the era of the Komnenos are the mosaics of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne, near Athens, representing a unique phenomenon in the history of Byzantine art. The temple is partly decorated according to the classical scheme: in the dome - Pantokrator with sixteen prophets in the walls of the drum, in the apse - the Mother of God with adoring prophets. However, a large number of festive scenes are located on flat wall surfaces, and not only on transitional architectural elements between rectangular and round parts or arched passages.

Christ - Pantocrator. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100

Mosaics of Daphne create a feeling of festivity, uncomplicated calmness and universal harmony. Any gloomy tones completely disappear from the painting, and the gospel images are filled with poetic beauty. Even in the scenes of passion there is no hint of passion and pathos of suffering and sacrifice. Blood, pain and the crown of thorns of the Crucifixion do not fit into this world of noble and neutral beauty.

Narrative tendencies are growing in Daphne's mosaics: there are more scenes, landscape, elements of architecture appear in them, more attention is paid to the plot. However, the main motivation of the master is by no means a craving for a pronounced development of the story. Carefully selected details, the ideal nature of the action, the absence of any kind of emotion and, moreover, expression and spiritual tension fix the world not as a process, but as a state. The artist is more interested in not what happens, but how it happens.

Baptism of Christ. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100

In Daphne, the compositional principles of Byzantine painting were developed. The compositions of the mosaics are very free, filled with a wide breath of space not occupied by forms. It is not just statuary that is characteristic, but the ideal, complete roundness of the volumes, likening the figures of the painting to a beautiful round sculpture. The ratio of figures between themselves and with space has changed: the characters are depicted in a variety of angles and turns, the abundance of three-quarter and profile outlines creates a constant movement of volumes from the depths outward. Volumetric, but light fabrics demonstrate the plasticity of bodies and at the same time lag behind the surface, as if slightly blown by the wind.

Appearance of an angel to Joachim. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100

The faces are striking in a special chilly beauty, serenity, endless distance from the world of passions and emotions. Even pretty gentle types (Our Lady, angels) are completely distracted from spiritual tenderness. The feeling of ideal dispassion likens the image of man and the God-Man to the dispassion of an ideally arranged and ordered cosmos. Color palette smalt acquires a special airiness and inner radiance. The extraordinary richness of color overflows, instantly transforming the main tone, evokes a feeling of the oscillating surface of fabrics. All colors are taken in a single, coldish-silvery key with a predominance of ash, silver, blue, cold pink and radiant sapphire hues. The gold smalt of the backgrounds looks loose and transparent due to the light, slightly greenish tint of gold.

Mosaics from the Cathedral of Cefalu

The mosaics of the basilica in Cefalu (Sicily) belong to the classical direction of art of the Comnenos era, which continued to live throughout the 12th century. The creation of mosaics in Cefalu coincided with the reign of Manuel Komnenos, the time of the wide expansion of Byzantine art, the brilliant work of Constantinople artists around the world, reviving the glory of the great Roman Empire, the revival of the greatness of which the emperor dreamed of.

The ensemble was performed by Constantinopolitan masters by order of the Norman king Roger II. The compositions combine the Byzantine perfection of artistic performance and the depth of spiritual meaning with an unusual, slightly barbaric, festive luxury. The most important element of the mosaic decoration of the cathedral is the monumental image of Christ Pantokrator in the conch of the apse. This typically Byzantine image traditionally occupied the central dome in Greek temples. In the hand of Christ is the Gospel, on the spread of which the line is read: "I am the Light of the World." Reflecting the dual nature of the Sicilian culture of that time, the inscription is reproduced in two languages, on one page - in Latin, on the other - in Greek, although the image itself clearly belongs to the Byzantine master.

Christ Pantocrator. Mosaic of the conch of the apse of the cathedral in Cefalu. 12th century

The face of Christ is full of majesty, but it does not have that severe alienation and spiritual intensity that are characteristic of Eastern Christian ideas about Christ as a “terrible Judge”. The composition is distinguished by clarity, rigor, transparency of artistic language and inner meaning. The figure of Christ is full of grace and special nobility of forms.

The main type of fine art in the Eastern Roman or Roman Empire, later Byzantium, was painting (with an almost complete rejection of sculpture / sculpture).
The main forms of Roman-Byzantine Orthodox painting are: monumental temple painting (mosaic and fresco), iconography (including those made of enamel and gold embroidery) and book miniatures. the most wonderful works of art This era are, according to most art historians, are mosaics.

Small multi-colored cubes of smalt (an alloy of glass with mineral paints), from which the image is laid out, flicker, flash, shimmer, reflecting light. Mosaic masters were able to create magnificent picturesque effects from the features of smalt, very accurately calculating the angle of incidence of light and making the surface of the mosaic not quite smooth, but somewhat rough. Sometimes the surface of the smalt cubes was made faceted, as, for example, on the mosaics in the katholikon (main church) of the Hosios Loukas monastery in Greece, created at the beginning of the 11th century.

Candlemas, mosaic, katholikon of the monastery of Hosios/Hosios Loukas, in Phokis, Greece

The strength of the impact on the viewer and the safety of the mosaic is much higher than that of the fresco, although the time of creation is approximately the same.

Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem, fresco, monastery Hosios/Hosios Lucas, Greece, XI v.

The mosaicists took into account the optical fusion of colors in the eye of the viewer looking at the mosaic from a great distance. Even in our time, cleared of age-old dust and soot, it remains the same radiant and sonorous in color.

Mosaics and frescoes as an exquisite decorative tool have been known since ancient times. For example, in british museum, London, UK the famous "standard from Ur", Assyria, circa 2600 BC is kept.

The mosaics of the "standard" tell about the results of the UR (a) - a military campaign, victories over the enemy, trophies and features of the court life of the king and his entourage - these are the main themes of the mosaics of Ancient Mesopotamia, including scenes from the life of the ancient Sumerians.

In the Archaeological Museum, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, frescoes from the Palace of Knossos are kept, for example, the cult mystery “Playing with the Bull, the Minotaur. Tauromachia, her age
around 1500 BC - left;
Sacred horns at the southern borders of the palace territory, according to legend - the throne of King Minos - on the right.

Games - competitions with animals.

Games with dolphins, mosaic Tauromachia - games with a bull, mosaic

The pictorial art of antiquity (Ancient Greece and ancient rome) is also represented by magnificent frescoes and mosaics.

The famous frescoes have been preserved in the Villa of the Mysteries in the suburbs of Pompeii. On the red background of the walls in the natural growth of a person, the participants of the holiday dedicated to the god Bacchus / Dionysus are presented.

Pompeii. Villa of the Mysteries. 100-15 years

In the fresco "Spring" from the city of Stabiae, near Pompeii, Italy, a girl symbolizing spring (the goddess Flora?) moves away from the viewer into the depths of a flowering meadow. In her left hand she holds a cornucopia, and with her right she gently touches a flower. Her chestnut hair, golden-yellow cape and pink tone of bare shoulders are in harmony with the bright green background, and the lightness of the girl's movements, as if floating through the air, form the basis of the picturesque composition of the fresco.

Spring, Stabiae, Pompeii, fresco

Landscape paintings are often found on frescoes: parks, gardens, harbors, winding river banks. There were enough good frescoes for a small album, so I ask you, friends, I will definitely post it, but a little later.

The Greeks called mosaics images dedicated to the muses. Muses are eternal - these pictures must also be eternal, therefore they were collected first from pieces of colored stone, and then in the Hellenistic and Roman periods from pieces of specially welded glass - smalt.

It was the mosaics that were the basis of the decorative decoration of the palaces and villas of the nobility of Ancient Rome. Mosaics in Rome, Pompeii, Stabia and Herculaneum are especially well preserved. By the way, there is a legend that the famous golden smalt was created by Greek mosaicists in pagan Rome and used to decorate the famous Golden Palace of Nero, then for many centuries the method of its manufacture was forgotten or lost and resumed only in the Christian era.
One way or another, the pictorial art of ancient times still amazes with the splendor of decorative compositions, the richness of plots, the variety of artistic techniques, the knowledge and use of direct aerial perspective, i.e., much of what was "invented" by Renaissance artists.

In the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, a copy of the mosaic painting "The Battle of Alexander the Great with the Persian King Darius III" has been preserved.

battle against the Persians at Issus

Alexander the Great on a fragment of an ancient Roman mosaic from Pompeii.

Mosaic of the 2nd century BC

Mosaics and frescoes became the property of a Christian church in the first centuries AD, when believers, forced to hide, began to use picturesque ancient scenes and images of underground labyrinths - catacombs that served for the burial of the dead. Christians endowed these images with new symbolic content: the palm branch - an indispensable attribute of imperial triumphs - a symbol of heavenly bliss, the vine - the sacrament of the Eucharist, bread and wine - transubstantiation into the flesh and blood of Christ, Orpheus - Christ, and Psyche - a symbol of the Christian soul.

For the new barbarian states that arose on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire and worshiped the culture of the great Rome, it was very important that the mosaic remained the dominant way of depicting it in temples, this testified to the continuity of traditions and the preservation of the status of heirs to the Eastern Roman Empire. In addition, the Romans at that time could afford it (mosaic is a very expensive pleasure) - to cover most of the walls, the inner surfaces of domes and vaults, pillars and columns with magnificent mosaics, and this made a great impression on other peoples.

close-up cultural center The empire of the Romans, where a large number of Christian mosaics have been preserved in temples and tombs, is Ravenna - the abode of great shadows.

Everything that is momentary, everything that is perishable,
You buried for centuries.
You sleep like a baby, Ravenna,
Sleepy eternity in the hands.

From the cycle of Italian poems by A. Blok.

Ravenna is ancient and beautiful.

In Ravenna there is a unique complex of monuments of the 5th-7th centuries, a turning point when Rome and Byzantium, antiquity and the Middle Ages met.
The sign of their meeting and short-term union is the mausoleum of Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius the Great, Ravenna, Italy, first half of the 5th century.

Mausoleum of Gala Placidia general form outside, general view of the interior

Close, dimly lit, it is decorated inside with amazing mosaics, which it is difficult to say whether they belong to the Roman-Hellenistic past or the Byzantine-Medieval future.

According to Christian teaching, the design of the temple and the mausoleum should connect two worlds: the real and the other world, the heavenly and the earthly. Fine art played the first role here, creating divine images, teaching and opening the way to salvation, leading the believer from the real world to the supersensible. This determined, dictated the artistic design of the interior of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia.

And the mosaic masters completed the task with a "five plus" - the interior in the mausoleum is perceived as a transformed world that opposes reality. The lower part of the walls was lined with marble, and the vaults, sails and dome were lined with deep blue mosaics.
The mosaics of the mausoleum do not have a golden, but a blue background: figures of Christian martyrs and saints, draped in antique white, emerge from the densely shimmering blue, golden stars flash, fabulous landscapes of paradise spread with scarlet poppies, golden deer and birds, where the arches are entwined with golden vines , and in the dome there is a cross and a starry sky. This mosaic symbolizes the triumph of Christ over death, His absolute power over the created world.

paradise in the mausoleum of Gala Placidia, mosaic, Cross and starry sky- mosaic in the dome.

The illusoriness and mystery are enhanced by natural light from the windows located in the lunettes and vault.
A lunette is a half-moon-shaped part of a wall bounded above by an archivolt and below by a horizontal cornice. Concepts close in meaning: desudeport, zakomara, kokoshnik, pediment.

light window in the lunette of the mausoleum of Gala Placidia

And only in the lunette above the entrance, from the inside, the place of the missing window is occupied by the mosaic of the Good Shepherd, sparkling like a lighted window.
The image of Christ is a refined Hellenistic version of "The Good Shepherd in the Garden of Eden". Against the background of a completely earthly landscape, under a sparkling blue sky, Christ, a young, beardless shepherd, reminiscent of the meek Orpheus ancient myths, but in golden robes, he really sits on a hillock, his crossed legs touch the ground and the shadow of his sandaled feet is clearly visible.
Around him, sheep walk on the green grass (white sheep are symbols of the souls of the righteous), he stretches out his hand to one of them. Above the head of Christ is a halo, but an antique hairstyle, obviously a wig, generalized, rather small facial features - all elements are clearly inherited from antiquity.
The liveliness of the complex pose is important - Christ is depicted not in full face, but half-turned, part of his attention is turned not to the audience, but to the "sheep" - the spiritual flock. Christ leans not on a shepherd's staff, but on a cross - a sign of the triumphant spread of Christianity in the world (by the way, the shadow of the cross is also clearly visible on earth).

Good Shepherd, mosaic

And one more thing, clearly visible (indicated by a dotted line) the boundary of the earthly/terrestrial world - the light blue sky and the mountainous, dark blue in the upper part of the mosaic. The "tongue" of the heavenly sky, descending, "wraps" only the head and shoulders of Christ - only he belongs to both worlds.

The type of young Christ (“Christ Emmanuel”) is rare in iconography: this is how he was depicted in the first centuries of Christianity, when ancient representations about eternal youth, as an attribute of a deity, have not yet been supplanted by the harsh cult of "elderhood".

Another remarkable set of mosaics is in the church of San Apollinare Nuovo, built by King Theodoric in the 6th century. in Ravenna.

San Apollinare Nuovo, exterior view and interior.

Another image of the Good Shepherd in the church of San Apollinare Nuovo: white sheep surround Christ, but his hands are raised in a blessing gesture, and his eyes are fixed on the distance.

Good Shepherd, mosaic

Another mosaic "The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes" from the same church of San Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, created in 504, is no less interesting. It also depicts a young Jesus Christ, beardless, still a man (before the crucifixion), which confirms the color of the halo around his head - a halo of green and gold.
Green color is a symbol of incompleteness of development and transformation, gold color conveys to the wearer images and information of another spiritual world. But Christ is in purple robes with gold stripes. Purple- a symbol of the transcendent world, deep immersion in otherworldly space.

In full accordance with the canon, two pairs of brothers whom He called on the lake are depicted symmetrically on both sides of Christ: James with John and Peter with Andrew (which is why this mosaic is sometimes called “The Miraculous Catch”). Called in white and blue clothes - colors symbolizing spiritual purity, holiness, detachment from the worldly; they receive bread and fish with covered hands, as holy gifts with which Christ partakes and blesses the apostles.

Miracle with loaves and fishes or Miraculous catch

Christ is depicted full face, his arms are outstretched, in one loaf, in the other - fish, he gives gifts to his followers; their figures are depicted in a quarter and a half turn, but their faces are turned towards the audience. The eyes of all depicted are enlarged and directed directly at the audience. All images are presented within a schematized, but earthly landscape - they actually stand on a blooming green surface of the earth, to the right and left of this group there are hills and green trees and shrubs. The background of the mosaic is soft, mixed, soft greenish-brown with golden splashes.

And one more mosaic, or rather a part of it, but I couldn’t help but include it, I hope you, friends, will also like it, especially those who love and appreciate eccentricity.

The adoration of the Magi is the Magi, friends, although I can't believe it either.

The largest number of mosaics survived in the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, built by Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. It was a court imperial church, which explains the variety of subjects and backgrounds on which they are depicted. Moreover, there is some interesting feature: plots on green, blue-blue and rare white backgrounds are purely Christian, and the colors of the backgrounds belong to late antiquity. In general, the green background predominates, while the golden background is associated mainly with the altar mosaics.

Basilica of San Vitale, general view, facade, interior of the central nave and apse

Basilica of San Vitale, transept and vault interior, band mosaics on pillars and arches

Two mosaics on the side walls of the altar - two processions. One is headed by Emperor Justinian, the other by Empress Theodora. All figures are the same in height, the emperors are distinguished by purple clothes, crowns and halos. In the depiction of the faces of the imperial couple and Bishop Maximilian, the artist's desire to convey a portrait resemblance is guessed, but the frozen poses, the detached facial expression, the outlines of the figures hidden by the folds of the mantles deprive the images of individuality - this perfect images ideal rulers, not real people. But the mosaic accurately conveys the spirit of the Roman ceremonial, the official splendor elevated to the rank of superearthly.

Emperor Justinian with retinue, mosaic, Empress Theodora, with retinue, mosaic

All those depicted have too large, motionless eyes, and halos around the heads of Justinian and Theodora elevate these living people, although endowed with sacred power, to the rank of saints. It was this tradition that became one of the reasons for the emergence of iconoclasm. According to their contemporaries, not all emperors, empresses and patriarchs of the church were worthy of such a high rank, especially during their lifetime.

In the lower tier, Justinian and Theodora, accompanied by a retinue, presenting gifts to the temple. This mosaic is interesting in that it indicates clear differences in the attitude of the Roman Orthodox Church to the emperor and the empress. Although their heads are covered with halos, there is a green canopy above the heads of Theodora and the patriarch standing between her and Justinian, and the green color is a symbol of incompleteness. spiritual development, more "humanity".

Justinian and Theodora

At the level of the second tier, in the lunette, located on three arches, there is a very interesting mosaic - combinatorial or combined. Its content includes two main plots that are closely related. The Trinity connects them together. Their consistent "reading" reminds believers of important biblical events in the Old Testament.

Hospitality and Sacrifice of Abraham, mosaic

In the 7th century, Byzantine painting rises to one of the highest levels. From the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea, Turkey, built in the same century and destroyed during the Greco-Turkish war of 1917-22, only photographs and fragments of mosaics have survived. One of the surviving fragments is winged figures with banners and powers in their hands, in luxurious clothes of court bodyguards.

The faces of these militant angels are amazing - they are reminiscent of the ancient ideal of beauty - delicate ovals, classical proportions and features, a sensual mouth is small, a thin nose, and a gaze that is mesmerizing. They are executed in a softly picturesque manner, reminiscent of the impressionistic. Olive, pink, pale lilac and white smalt cubes are arranged “in disorder”, which in fact is an ideally accurate calculation of outstanding mosaicists: at a distance they merge and create the illusion of a delicate living face.

angel Dunamis., a fragment of a mosaic from the altar vault of the Church of the Assumption in Nike, Turkey

This perfect example"inspired sensuality", but they do not express anything definite, connected with a real human feeling or experience. Their spirituality is passionless, and sensuality is ethereal.

Covering spherical curvilinear surfaces with mosaics, master mosaicists discovered that light ornaments and figures were visually pushed forward into the real space of the interior. The effect was enhanced by the golden background, which had no depth and did not allow it. In combination with the concave surface, the gold of the background, as it were, “brings” the image of the saint into the same spatial environment with those praying.
At the same time, the images of the saints, standing motionless in front of the worshipers, and looking intently at them with huge eyes, seemed to people significant and unearthly.

Those who came to the temple had a feeling of being inside holiness itself, which was the main idea of ​​any Christian centric church.
The achievement of these goals was facilitated by such techniques as the principle of symmetry (the location of the figures should be symmetrical with respect to Christ), the flatness of the composition, the different scales of the figures, their frontal setting, borrowed from ancient Egyptian samples.

Mosaic - "shimmering precious painting", which gives special optical effects, was very suitable for creating abstract images, sublime and surreal.

The next section will be devoted to the Roman/Byzantine icon, without it there would be no Russian icon, which means that the soul of our people would be different.

Chic monumental canvases, distinguished by a special scope and scale of images, is a Byzantine mosaic. This ancient species the art of composing any image or picture from identical particles of small size. Central theme such mosaics was Christian ...

Chic monumental canvases, distinguished by a special scope and scale of images, is a Byzantine mosaic. This is the oldest form of art of composing any image or picture from identical particles of small size. The central theme of such mosaics was a Christian orientation, and the driving force on the way to improving laying technology, creating new shades and textures was the desire to achieve the maximum visual effect.

Unlike Roman mosaics, which solved the secular tasks of decorating and giving functionality to rooms in private villas or public buildings, Byzantine mosaics had slightly different functions. Their main purpose was considered to give artistic value to the decoration of cathedrals, tombs, temples, basilicas, etc. Byzantine masonry is designed to perceive the image from a great distance - the paintings are somewhat uneven, "velvety" shades and textures, which "revives" the created images.

What is a Byzantine mosaic made of?

Many centuries ago, an amazing material called smalt was created in Byzantium. According to ancient legends, it was the Byzantines who discovered the unique properties of glass, which gains unprecedented strength when various metals are added to molten glass chips. This is how smalt turned out - glass mass with an admixture of gold, copper, mercury in different proportions. Each individual metal provided a certain shade of mosaic blocks, which, using simple tools, the craftsmen gave geometric shapes that were convenient for laying. This is how the Byzantine mosaic turned out - an exclusive form of art made with the help of smalt.

"Zest" of the Byzantine style

A feature of the use of such a mosaic in temples was the creation of a chic golden background, which can be seen in most paintings. Usually, the masters used a direct set for laying, when a single golden field was obtained, which not only looked great in daylight, but also seemed “alive” in the mysterious reflections of candles. This effect of movement was determined by the play of shades and reflections of light on golden smalt.

An important nuance inherent in Byzantine masonry is the presence of precise contours of each depicted object. In order to achieve maximum clarity, the contours of the appearance of the object were laid out in mosaic cubes in a row from the side of its figure, and in one row from the side of the general background. If you enjoy the beauty and grandeur of such a canvas from a long distance, then the selected contours give the characters a spectacular effect, accentuating their face on a shimmering golden background.

Among other features, more late art Byzantine mosaic laying tends to maintain the correct proportions of the human body, which is sometimes depicted both in a turn and in a moving state.

Byzantine wall "painting": history of origin

The oldest preserved examples of mosaics date back to the 3rd-4th centuries, although the smalt was found around the 1st-2nd centuries BC. The most famous Byzantine tiles are the mosaic of Ravenna, as well as the image of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. IN Kievan Rus the remains of the production of smalt were found near St. Sophia of Kyiv. According to archaeologists, Russian masters were led by people from Byzantium. Byzantine mosaic has not lost its nobility and energy to this day: it is a creative flight, a reflection of spiritual luxury, an aura of harmony and peace.