The main sea and ocean routes in the world economy and the geography of shipping. What sea routes pass through the seas of the Pacific Ocean

Date of publication or update 08/12/2017

Thor Heyerdahl in his writings repeatedly emphasizes that one of the main goals of his many years of research is the identification and reconstruction of the ancient sea routes of mankind, especially in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

Heyerdahl mapped out and carefully studied three main sea routes from the Old World to the New - two in the Atlantic and one in the Pacific Ocean - as well as two routes from the New World to the Old, both in the Pacific Ocean.

A few years ago, the Spaniards, having built a copy of one of the Columbus caravels, made an experimental voyage on it.

They tried to fully reproduce the situation and conditions of five hundred years ago, including provisions and nautical instruments of that time. It turned out that discovering America is not at all easy. The newly appeared Columbuses spent several weeks more on the transition than the great navigator, and at the end of the journey, seeing the land, they could not approach it on their own, they had to ask for the help of a tugboat.

Twenty years ago from the coast of Africa through Atlantic Ocean Liberian doctor Hannes Lindeman made the transition alone on the West African pirogue (dugout from one trunk), suggesting that he reproduces the voyages of a thousand years ago.

And, finally, Thor Heyerdahl, with his voyages on the papyrus boats "Ra-1" and "Ra-2", proves the possibility of transatlantic crossings in even more distant centuries. The path "Ra-1" and "Ra-2" was laid taking into account fair winds (northeast trade winds) and currents (Canary and North trade winds).

Therefore, the path to America in the northern tropical latitudes The Atlantic Ocean was available both to ships with watertight and with a bottom that freely passes water.

It has also been proved that any primitive ship can return to Europe if it is picked up in temperate latitudes by the westerly wind and powerful current Gulfstream. Depending on the hydrometeorological situation, the boat may end up either in northern or southern Europe.

The Inca route is a sea route in the tropical latitudes of the southern hemisphere. In our time, eleven rafts have already passed this way, starting with the well-known Kon-Tiki voyage in 1947. Seven years later, the balsa raft "Seven Sisters" delivered the American solo navigator William Willis from the coast of Peru to Samoa. In 1958, the Tahiti Nui raft, led by the Frenchman Eric de Bishop, sailed from the Peruvian coast to Central Polynesia. Also, the Czech Eduard Ingris sailed to Central Polynesia with his team on the balsa raft "Kantuta II". His previous attempt on the balsa raft "Kantuta I" in 1955 ended in failure. Ingris started from northern Peru and got to the Galapagos Islands, where the winds and currents twisted the raft, not moving it either to the east or to the west.

On the metal raft "Age is not a hindrance", almost seventy-five-year-old William Willis made a two-stage transition across the entire Pacific Ocean from Peru to Australia in 1963-1964.

In 1973, the international crews of three balsa rafts "La Aztlan", "La Guayaquil" and "La Muuluulaba" under the leadership of Vital Alsar made the transition from Ecuador to the Australian continent in 179 days.

Trans-Pacific voyages of all these and other models of Peruvian rafts were possible due to favorable southeast trade winds and the South trade wind current. In popular literature, ocean currents are sometimes referred to as "rivers without banks", or "rivers with liquid banks". Therefore, many have developed an idea of ​​currents as stable "self-moving bands" crossing the ocean. Actually it is not. Conducted in 1970 by Soviet oceanologists, six-month observations in the Atlantic Ocean at 17 points of the North Trade Wind Current showed that the current abruptly changes its direction after 10-40 days. And it is a trade wind that has a reputation for being steady and constant.

It is more correct to represent ocean currents not in the form of rivers, but in the form of systems of eddies of different scales, moving relative to each other and moving together in a certain direction. Thus, when sailing (more precisely, drifting) in the trade zone, the navigator is by no means guaranteed that the changed wind or current will push him out of the trade-wind air and water "highway".

In the Pacific Ocean, in its northern part, Thor Heyerdahl notes two possible routes. One of them is from the coast of Mexico to the Malay Archipelago. Here you can use the northeast trade winds and the North trade winds. For the reconstruction of this sea route, not a single model of a primitive vessel has yet been set sail. Another sea route is the route of the Spaniard Urdaneta, which in 1565 passed from the Philippine Islands along the Japanese islands and further from westerly winds crossed the Pacific.

In 1974, the Austrian explorer Kuno Knebl made an attempt to cross the Pacific Ocean along this route. He built a real Asian junk, using as a model a ceramic model of the first century AD, discovered during archaeological excavations.

On this junk "Tai Ki" ("Great Space"), the international crew sailed for 115 days until it sank two thousand miles from the American coast. The main cause of the disaster is believed to be that the sea worm borer has worn away the hull of the junk.

More fortunate was the English sailor Brian Plett, who in 1959 on the built classic patterns The junk managed to single-handedly cross the North Pacific Ocean. True, Plett did not set himself any scientific tasks, only sports ones.

More recently, Thor Heyerdahl has begun modeling ancient voyages (probably the oldest) in the Indian Ocean.

Sailing on the reed boat "Tigris", simulating ancient Sumerian ships, Heyerdahl confirmed the possibility of distant voyages of Sumerian navigators in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. In general, the Indian Ocean, on the shores of which there was more than one ancient civilization, now intensively attracts the attention of maritime historians.

There is a point of view that it was the Indian Ocean that was the cradle of world navigation.

What seas are colored?
And the salinity of the seas

The largest water areas of the Pacific Basin include the Bering Sea in the north; the Gulf of Alaska in the northeast; Gulfs of California and Tehuantepec in the east, off the coast of Mexico; Gulf of Fonseca off the coast of El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua, and somewhat to the south - the Gulf of Panama. There are only a few small bays off the west coast of South America, such as Guayaquil off the coast of Ecuador. In the western and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, numerous large islands separate many interisland seas from the main water area, such as the Tasman Sea southeast of Australia and the Coral Sea off its northeast coast; the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria north of Australia; Sea Banda north of about. Timor; the Flores Sea north of the island of the same name; Java Sea to the north of about. Java; the Gulf of Thailand between the peninsulas of Malacca and Indochina; Bakbo Bay (Tonkinsky) off the coast of Vietnam and China; Macassar Strait between the islands of Kalimantan and Sulawesi; the Moluccas and Sulawesi seas, respectively, to the east and north of about. Sulawesi; finally, the Philippine Sea to the east of the Philippine Islands. A special area in the southwest of the northern half of the Pacific Ocean is the Sulu Sea within the southwestern part of the Philippine archipelago, which also has many small bays, inlets and semi-enclosed seas (for example, the Sibuyan Sea, Mindanao Sea, Visayan Sea, Manila Bay, Lamon Bay and Leite). Off the eastern coast of China are the East China and Yellow Seas; the latter forms two bays in the north: Bohaiwan and West Korean. The Japanese Islands are separated from the Korea Peninsula by the Korea Strait. In the same northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean, several more seas stand out: the Inland Sea of ​​Japan among the southern Japanese islands; the Sea of ​​Japan to their west; to the north - the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, connecting with Sea of ​​Japan Tatar Strait.

Answer

Choosing the right direction of movement for fast and profitable delivery of goods to the port of destination is a necessary condition for the economically rational organization of transport navigation. Theoretically, a ship can move on the high seas in any way available to it in terms of dimensions. However, the speed and safety of traffic is affected by wind, waves, currents, fogs, the presence of ice, underwater and surface navigational hazards, the density of vessel traffic, the possibility of replenishing ship stores, the presence of areas prohibited for navigation, etc.

For safe sailing necessary nautical charts . They are produced in several types, depending on the purpose:

navigation (general, travel, private, plans);

auxiliary (grid charts for ocean navigation, radio navigation, etc.);

reference (time zones, hydrometeorological, terrestrial magnetism, starry sky etc.).

In addition, according to the regions of the World Ocean, sailing directions . These are books describing sailing conditions and coastlines. Additionally are published various navigation aids: books of lights and signs, radio navigation aids. All changes on maps, in directions and navigational aids are reported in Notices to Mariners. All this work is carried out by special hydrographic organizations. In connection with the development of information technology, all modern ships are equipped with electronic charts.

In the ocean, the shortest distance is great circle - a line or arc of a great circle passing through two points on the surface of the globe. In the Mercator projection on nautical charts, it is depicted as a curved line convex to the nearest pole. This is the shortest distance between the points of departure and arrival, but due to the reasons mentioned above, such a path may not be the most profitable and safe, because sometimes it leads to the area of ​​​​storms or ice, etc.

The main world trade routes are eight major areas of maritime trade:

north atlantic route,

trade route Mediterranean - Asia - Australia,

South American way

trade route of the caribbean,

south pacific way,

north pacific route,

Path Europe - South America

and the South African Way.

(L.K. Kendall. Maritime business. ‒ M.: Transport, 1978. P. 7)

First place in terms of the intensity of shipping at the beginning of the 21st century, it occupies Atlantic Ocean (about 3/5 of all shipping). Most of the world's major ports are located along the shores of this ocean. The most important direction- North Atlantic, connecting the two most powerful centers of the modern world economy - the USA and Europe. It is adjacent to the sea routes of the Mediterranean, Norwegian and North Seas. Less intense in the Atlantic Ocean other directions:

South Atlantic (Europe - South America)

and the West Atlantic (Europe - Africa).

Meaning Atlantic Ocean in the world economy due to the intensive development of countries South- East Asia constantly falling.

Pacific Ocean takes second place in terms of shipping volume (about 1/4), but its share constantly increases. The most important direction is considered transpacific, connecting the ports of the USA and Canada with the countries of Southeast Asia. The range of transported goods is the most diverse: from food to machinery and equipment. Transoceanic include transport bridges(coal, iron ore, bauxite), connecting Australia with Japan and other countries of East Asia. Shipping lines are also developed along the Asian and American continents.

Third place in terms of traffic volume Indian Ocean (1/6). Most Significant it has sea transportation from Europe to Asia and Australia through the Suez Canal. In terms of the intensity of oil transportation from the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean ranks first. Of lesser importance in the world economy are the transoceanic directions connecting Australia with Africa and Europe along the Cape of Good Hope.

IN Arctic Ocean merchant shipping is carried out sporadically.

Taking into account the experience of navigation, for ocean crossings, special allowances - « ocean paths of the world". They are designed in two versions: for ships with strong power plants and with weak ones. In addition, it is practiced to cross the ocean under the guidance of the hydrometeorological bureau. In this case, the captain regularly receives recommendations on the route from the coast station based on the hydrometeorological information available to it. In any case, the final decision on the choice of path remains with the captain.

To improve the safety of navigation, in relation to local conditions, developed recommended shipping routes. Where the movement of ships is especially intensive, the establishment of traffic separation zones or areas. For example, in Gibraltar, the Baltic (Danish), Black Sea straits, the English Channel, etc. There are large ship flows through these straits, since they are the most profitable maritime trade routes. Below are brief information about the most important, from the point of view of merchant shipping, straits.

Baltic straits (aka Danish ) consist of three straits: Great Belt, Lesser White Sound. They connect the Baltic Sea and the North Sea through the wide straits of the Skagerrak and Kattegat. The Baltic Straits separate the coasts of Denmark and Sweden.

The Small Belt has a length of 120 km, a minimum width of 700 m, a passage depth of 15 m. There is a bridge across it. The passage of ships is difficult. Most ships use the Great Belt. Its length is 117 km, minimum width is 18.5 km, passage depths are 20-25 m, up to 30 m in the fairway. at the entrance to the Baltic straits, pilotage is voluntary; no fees are charged for the transit passage of the straits.

The English Channel (English channel ) and Pas de Calais (Dover ) connect the North Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Separate the coasts of England and France. Minimum width 18 miles. There are no special rules for passage outside the territorial waters of coastal states. The area is extremely busy shipping: every day about a thousand ships pass in both directions. A railway tunnel runs under the strait.

strait of Gibraltar connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean. Length - 65 km, minimum width 14.2 km, depth from 338 to 1181 m. On the Gibraltar Peninsula with an area of ​​​​5 square meters. km is a naval base. The height of the rock of Gibraltar is 429 m. Fortifications are carved inside the rock. It belongs to the category of international straits, so the passage through the strait of all ships is free.

Straits of Malacca and Singapore connect the Andaman Sea (part of the Indian Ocean) with the South China Sea. The Strait of Malacca is about 432 miles long and 21.6 miles wide at its narrowest point. It passes into the Singapore Strait, which opens into the South China Sea, the length of which is 110 km, the width is from 4.6 km to 21 km. There are no international agreements on the regime of the straits. The passage of vessels is free, but navigation conditions are difficult, so pilotage is recommended for large-capacity vessels. One of the most important sea routes passes through the straits. It separates the coasts of Malaysia and Singapore in the northeast and Indonesia in the southwest (Sumatra). IN last years gained notoriety as a piracy-prone area.

Strait of Magellan connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It passes between the mainland of South America and the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego and others. It washes the coast of two states: Argentina and Chile. The length of the strait is 575 km. Width at its narrowest point up to two miles (3.5 km). It is open to the free passage of ships, but navigation on it is dangerous. After the construction of the Panama Canal, the significance of the Strait of Magellan for world shipping was lost.

Bab el Mandeb Strait (Arab. Gate of Sorrow, Gate of Tears ) connects the Red Sea with Arabian Sea(part of the Indian Ocean). It is a sea transport route of world importance. Separates the Arabian Peninsula from Africa. The length is 109 km, the smallest width is 26 km. The depth of the fairway is 31 m. In the middle of the strait there is a small island of Perim. Ethiopia is on the African coast, and Yemen is on the Arabian coast.

Bosphorus and Dardanelles (Black Sea Straits ) are an area of ​​active navigation. The Bosphorus connects the Black and Marmara Seas and has a length of 30 km, an average width of 2 km, a minimum depth in the fairway of 20 m. The Dardanelles connects the Aegean Sea of ​​​​Marmara and has a length of 120. -153 m. On average, about 150 ships pass through the straits per day.

The procedure for the passage of the Black Sea straits is regulated by the Convention on the Regime of the Black Sea Straits, signed in Montreux (Switzerland) in 1936. Restrictions on the freedom of navigation apply only to military ships, merchant ships of all countries enjoy the right of free passage of the straits.

After the collapse of the USSR, Turkey tightened the procedure for the passage of ships from the Black to the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The new restrictions are explained by the requirements of safety of navigation and ecology. Since October 3, 2002, the Turkish maritime authorities have changed the rules for regulating the movement of ships through the Turkish straits. Thus, ships over 200 meters long (mainly tankers with a carrying capacity of 60,000 tons or more) are prohibited from simultaneously moving through the straits in opposite directions. This led to an increase in the waiting time for tankers to pass and, accordingly, to an increase in the cost of their freight.

On average, every month Russia exports 3.5 million tons of oil and oil products from Novorossiysk and 1 million tons from Tuapse. Some experts believe that the restrictions on passage through the straits serve as a political argument for Turkey to support the transportation of oil through the Baku-Ceyhan oil pipeline (opened in 2006), which gives Caspian oil an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, bypassing Russia.

The organization of vessel traffic is significantly influenced by artificial channels , built to reduce the length of shipping. They are also of great military and strategic importance.

oldest of them - Suez Canal , connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Built in 1859-1869. Passes through the territory of Egypt. At the northern entrance to the canal is Port Said, on the south - the city of Suez.

The length of the canal is 86 miles, with approaching sea channels 93 miles, the width along the surface is 120-150 m, along the bottom 45-60 m, the passage depth is 16 m, which allows the passage of ships up to 150 thousand tons of displacement.

There are no gateways. There are two entrances from the north and one from the south. Movement in caravans, at a speed of 7 knots. In the area of ​​the Great Gorky Lake, caravans from the north and from the south disperse. The order of ships in the caravan is determined by the canal administration. High-speed vessels are placed at the head of the caravan. There are sailing rules and rules for measuring ships. The administration of the channel is located in the city of Ismailia.

The average daily passage of vessels is about 70. 14% of all international shipping passes through the canal, of which 70% is oil and oil products. It shortens the route from the Indian to the Atlantic Ocean and back by about half. This is important, given that through the Suez Canal in a southerly direction (exports from countries Western Europe), and in the western direction (Far Eastern imports), at least 80 million tons of cargo are passed annually.

For eight years from 1967 to 1975. The traffic on the canal was stopped due to the Arab-Israeli war. For the operation of the canal, Egypt receives annually up to $ 2 billion.

Next in age Corinth Canal , crosses the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and connects the Aegean and Ionian Seas. Built in 1881-1893. Length 6.3 km, width 24.6 m, depth 8 m. Vessels with a displacement of up to 5 thousand tons can pass. Movement is alternate, one-way. About 15,000 ships pass through every year.

Kiel Canal connects the North and Baltic Seas, is laid through the Jutland Peninsula. Built in 1887-1895. Passes through Germany. Length 98.7 km, width on the surface 104 m, on the bottom 44 m, depth 11.3 m. The traffic is one-way, but there are 11 extensions for ships to pass. The locks are only to protect the canal from sudden fluctuations in sea level.

Panama Canal connects the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Passed through the Isthmus of Panama. Channel direction from northwest to southeast. The construction was started in 1879 by France, in 1904 the right to build was transferred to the USA. The first ship passed in 1914, the official opening of the canal took place in 1920. The canal was controlled by the United States until December 31, 1999, after which it was transferred to the government of Panama.

Vessels move along the canal under their own power, and are pulled into the locks with the help of electric locomotives. Forced pilotage is used: a pilot and a special mooring team are in full control of the vessel. The passage time by the canal is ten hours (on average), the minimum is four hours. The maximum number of locks per day is 40-50. The canal can pass about 17.5 thousand ships a year. In fact, it takes 12-14 thousand. Passing through the canal is ten times cheaper than the way around Cape Horn, since it reduces the distance by 2.5-3 times.

On the coast, gravitating towards the Atlantic Ocean, are located the countries of Europe and developing countries Africa on one side, North and South America on the other.

There is an intensive foreign trade exchange between the countries of these continents. Transportation of foreign trade cargo between all countries is carried out mainly by maritime regional and ocean routes.

Oceanic sea routes that run between the ports of the continents go to open waters at Cape Rat and Bishop Rock, at the Straits of Gibraltar, Providence, Windward, Mona, at the islands of Madeira, Cape Verde and Barbados, as well as at major ocean ports: New York, Cape Town, Rio de Janeiro, etc. Between these nodes are the routes of the transoceanic routes of the Atlantic.

In terms of the importance and intensity of shipping, the North Atlantic direction stands out - transoceanic routes between Europe and North and Central America. They have a general direction "east - west" from Cape Rath, Bishop Rock and the Strait of Gibraltar to New York, to the ports of the river. St. Lawrence and other ports of North America, as well as to the straits of Providence, Windward, Mona and further to the ports of the Caribbean Sea and the Panama Canal. Their length is from 2.5 to 4.0 thousand miles.

This is an area with difficult navigation conditions. Floating ice and icebergs in the northern part of the Atlantic, frequent and dense fogs in the area of ​​\u200b\u200babout. Newfoundland (especially in June and July), severe storm conditions during the winter make navigation much more difficult.

Difficult natural and weather conditions, intensive heavy vessel traffic in the North Atlantic Ocean in the western and eastern directions necessitated the establishment of recommended routes for the movement of ships, known as the main transoceanic routes of the North Atlantic Ocean.

In the English Channel, ships sailing from the Atlantic Ocean to the North Sea are advised to follow the passage between the banks of Le Vergoye and Bassurel and further, adhering to the French coast, between the banks of Sandetti and Out-Reitinger, go to the North Sea.

Vessels proceeding from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean are advised to follow the passage between the South Falls and Sandetti banks and further, keeping to the English coast, to the west of the Varne and Bullock banks.

For coastal navigation vessels (of the "river-sea" type, vessels with a deadweight of up to 4 - 5 thousand tons), a coastal area has been allocated, where navigators are not limited in their choice of routes.

There are three traffic separation areas on the approaches to New York. The first of them is designed for ships heading to the port from the east, from the North Atlantic or heading to the North Atlantic. He has eastbound from lighthouse Ambrose. The second traffic separation area has a southeast direction and is intended for ships arriving from South America, Africa and the Antilles. The third area has a southerly direction and is intended for coastal navigation vessels. In a similar way, areas for separating the movement of ships were also established on the approaches to other American ports.

One-way vessel traffic at turning points is based on the following principle. Depending on the angle of rotation when bypassing the cape, island, lighthouse, two, three or four knees of the traffic separation area are installed. On both sides of the separation zone, a path is established for one-way traffic of ships. At Cape Sai Vicente it is 3 miles wide. Vessels rounding the cape are advised to locate their courses within this body of water.

In the North Atlantic direction, hundreds of regular lines are organized by shipping companies from Great Britain, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the USA, France, and other countries. Modern multi-purpose ships and container ships sail on these lines.

Various machines and equipment, American coal, Canadian ore, cotton, grain, forest products, chemical and other cargoes are transported to the ports of European countries. In the opposite direction from Europe, ships carry English coal, various machines and machine tools to Canada, high-quality Norwegian and Swedish iron ore to the USA. Various industrial products, chemical, industrial and food products are also transported. The predominance of general cargo in this direction contributes to the expansion of container traffic between the ports of North America and Europe.

The Latin American direction originates in the ports of South America and runs along the east coast of South America to Recife. The coastal route then bifurcates. One branch of it crosses the ocean and passes by the islands of Cape Verde and Madeira, through the Strait of Gibraltar to the ports of the South, and through the English Channel to the ports of the West and Northern Europe; the other, the North American branch, crosses the ocean in the general direction of New York.

Ocean navigation from the eastern ports of South America to Europe is carried out over a distance of 5-6 thousand miles, and from the northern 3.5 thousand miles (Bishop Rock - Barbados Island).

Of the countries of Latin America, with diverse natural resources, Venezuelan oil, iron ore, ores of non-ferrous and rare metals, various grains, cotton, coffee and other goods are transported to Europe. In the opposite direction - from European countries to latin america industrial products, machinery and equipment, chemical, timber and other goods are delivered.

The North American branch has a general North-South direction. The greatest length of the route is more than 6 gys. miles (New York - Bahia Blanca) and the smallest - 2 thousand miles (New York - the northern ports of South America). Sea transportation in this direction is carried out mainly on American ships.

A variety of raw materials (ore, cotton, coffee, oil, non-ferrous metal ores, etc.) come to the USA from the countries of South America; in the opposite direction are various machines and equipment, manufactured goods, grain, chemical and other goods.

The European-West African direction runs from the English Channel (Bishop Rock) and Gibraltar past the Canary Islands, along the western coast of Africa to Cape Town. Its length from the English Channel is 5785 miles, and from Gibraltar 5120 miles in the general direction "North-South".

The American-West African direction has two routes - from the ports of North America to the ports of Africa and from the ports of South America to the ports of Africa. From North America, the route runs from New York, past the Ascension Islands and St. Helena to Cape Good Hope(6785 miles), and from South America from Recife, Rio de Janeiro and the bay of Rio de la Plata to Cape Town (about 3500 miles).

Significant volumes of oil and oil products, high-quality iron, manganese and other ores are transported to Europe in these directions; and machines and equipment, grain, chemical and other cargoes are transported to the countries of Africa and South America.

Of particular note is the regional sea route between the ports of the Baltic Sea and the northern basins of Russia around the Scandinavian Peninsula. Its length is 4 thousand miles. Moreover, half of the way passes in the waters of the Arctic Ocean with difficult hydrometeorological conditions, often repeated storms and bad weather.

Oil and oil products, coal, salt, machinery and equipment, including equipment for oil and gas production, as well as large-diameter pipes for the construction of oil and gas pipelines, are transported from the ports of the Baltic basin to the Scandinavian countries and the ports of the Northern basin of Russia. In the opposite direction are the products of the north - timber and timber products, apatites, high-quality iron and ores of rare and non-ferrous metals, fish and products of the fur trade. In the last years of the last century, in connection with the development of the northern gas and oil fields of Russia, a significant flow of oil and gas was formed in European countries- to the ports of the North and Baltic seas.

Magellan discovered the Pacific Ocean in the autumn of 1520 and called the ocean the Pacific Ocean, “because, according to one of the participants, during the transition from Tierra del Fuego to the Philippine Islands, more than three months, we never experienced the slightest storm.” By the number (about 10 thousand) and the total area of ​​the islands (about 3.6 million km²), the Pacific Ocean ranks first among the oceans. In the northern part - the Aleutian; in the western - Kuril, Sakhalin, Japanese, Philippine, Large and Small Sunda, New Guinea, New Zealand, Tasmania; in the central and southern - numerous small islands. The bottom relief is varied. In the east - the East Pacific Rise, in the central part there are many basins (North-Eastern, North-Western, Central, Eastern, Southern, etc.), deep-water trenches: in the north - Aleutian, Kuril-Kamchatsky, Izu-Boninsky; in the west - Mariana (with a maximum depth of the World Ocean - 11,022 m), Philippine, etc.; in the east - Central American, Peruvian, etc.

The main surface currents: in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean - warm Kuroshio, North Pacific and Alaska and cold California and Kuril; in the southern part - warm South Trade Winds and East Australian and cold West Winds and Peruvian. The water temperature on the surface near the equator is from 26 to 29 ° C, in the subpolar regions up to −0.5 ° C. Salinity 30-36.5 ‰. The Pacific Ocean accounts for about half of the world's fish catch (pollock, herring, salmon, cod, sea bass, etc.). Extraction of crabs, shrimps, oysters.

Important sea and air communications between the countries of the Pacific basin and transit routes between the countries of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Major ports: Vladivostok, Nakhodka (Russia), Shanghai (China), Singapore (Singapore), Sydney (Australia), Vancouver (Canada), Los Angeles, Long Beach (USA), Huasco (Chile). The International Date Line runs along the 180th meridian across the Pacific Ocean.

Plant life (except bacteria and lower fungi) is concentrated in the upper 200th layer, in the so-called euphotic zone. Animals and bacteria inhabit the entire water column and the ocean floor. Life develops most abundantly in the shelf zone, and especially near the coast at shallow depths, where the flora of brown algae and a rich fauna of mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, and other organisms are diversely represented in the temperate zones of the ocean. In tropical latitudes, the shallow water zone is characterized by widespread and strong development coral reefs, near the shore - mangroves. With the advancement from cold zones to tropical ones, the number of species sharply increases, and the density of their distribution decreases. In the Bering Strait, about 50 species of coastal algae are known - macrophytes, in Japanese islands- over 200, in the waters of the Malay Archipelago - over 800. In the Soviet Far Eastern seas known species animals - about 4000, and in the waters of the Malay Archipelago - at least 40-50 thousand. In the cold and temperate zones of the ocean, with a relatively small number of plant and animal species, due to the mass development of some species, the total biomass greatly increases; in the tropical zones, individual forms do not receive such a sharp predominance, although the number of species is very large.

With distance from the coasts to the central parts of the ocean and with increasing depth, life becomes less diverse and less abundant. In general, the fauna of T. o. includes about 100 thousand species, but only 4-5% of them are found deeper than 2000 m. At depths of more than 5000 m, about 800 species of animals are known, more than 6000 m - about 500, deeper than 7000 m - slightly more than 200, and deeper than 10 thousand m - only about 20 species.

Among coastal algae - macrophytes - in temperate zones, fucus and kelp are especially distinguished by their abundance. In tropical latitudes, they are replaced by brown algae - Sargasso, green - Caulerpa and Galimeda and a number of red algae. The surface zone of the pelagial is characterized by the massive development of unicellular algae (phytoplankton), mainly diatoms, peridiniums and coccolithophorids. in zooplankton highest value have various crustaceans and their larvae, mainly copepods (at least 1000 species) and euphausids; a significant admixture of radiolarians (several hundred species), coelenterates (siphonophores, jellyfish, ctenophores), eggs and larvae of fish and benthic invertebrates. In T. o. one can distinguish, in addition to the littoral and sublittoral zones, a transitional zone (up to 500-1000 m), bathyal, abyssal and ultraabyssal, or a zone of deep-water trenches (from 6-7 to 11 thousand m).

Planktonic and benthic animals serve as abundant food for fish and marine mammals (nekton). The fish fauna is exceptionally rich, including at least 2,000 species in tropical latitudes and about 800 in the Soviet Far Eastern seas, where, in addition, there are 35 species of marine mammals. The most commercially important fish are: anchovies, Far Eastern salmon, herring, mackerel, sardine, saury, sea ​​bass, tuna, flounder, cod and pollock; from mammals - sperm whale, several species of minke whales, fur seal, sea otter, walrus, sea lion; from invertebrates - crabs (including Kamchatka), shrimps, oysters, scallops, cephalopods and many others; from plants - kelp (seaweed), agaronos-anfeltia, sea grass zoster and phyllospadix. Many representatives of the fauna of the Pacific Ocean are endemic (pelagic cephalopod nautilus, most Pacific salmon, saury, greenling fish, northern fur seal, sea lion, sea otter, and many others).

The large extent of the Pacific Ocean from North to South determines the diversity of its climates - from equatorial to subarctic in the North and Antarctic in the South. Most of the ocean surface, approximately between 40 ° north latitude and 42 ° south latitude, is located in the zones of equatorial, tropical and subtropical climates. The circulation of the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean is determined by the main areas of atmospheric pressure: the Aleutian Low, the North Pacific, South Pacific and Antarctic Highs. The indicated centers of action of the atmosphere in their interaction determine the great constancy of northeast winds in the North and southeast winds of moderate strength - trade winds - in the tropical and subtropical parts of the Pacific Ocean and strong westerly winds in temperate latitudes. Especially strong winds are observed in the southern temperate latitudes, where the frequency of storms is 25-35%, in the northern temperate latitudes in winter - 30%, in summer - 5%. In the West of the tropical zone, from June to November, tropical hurricanes - typhoons are frequent. The monsoon circulation of the atmosphere is typical for the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. average temperature air temperature in February decreases from 26-27 °С near the equator to -20 °С in the Bering Strait and -10 °С off the coast of Antarctica. In August, the average temperature varies from 26-28°C near the equator to 6-8°C in the Bering Strait and to -25°C off the coast of Antarctica. Throughout the Pacific Ocean, located north of 40 ° south latitude, there are significant differences in air temperature between the eastern and western parts of the ocean, caused by the corresponding dominance of warm or cold currents and the nature of the winds. In tropical and subtropical latitudes, the air temperature in the East is 4–8 °C lower than in the West. In the northern temperate latitudes, the opposite is true: in the East, the temperature is 8–12 °C higher than in the West. The average annual cloudiness in areas of low atmospheric pressure is 60-90%. high pressure - 10-30%. The average annual precipitation at the equator is more than 3000 mm, in temperate latitudes - 1000 mm in the West. and 2000-3000 mm to the east. The least amount of precipitation (100-200 mm) falls on the eastern outskirts of the subtropical regions of high atmospheric pressure; in the western parts, the amount of precipitation increases to 1500-2000 mm. Fogs are typical for temperate latitudes, they are especially frequent in the area of ​​the Kuril Islands.

Under the influence of the atmospheric circulation developing over the Pacific Ocean, surface currents form anticyclonic gyres in subtropical and tropical latitudes and cyclonic gyres in northern temperate and southern high latitudes. In the northern part of the ocean, circulation is formed by warm currents: the Northern Trade Wind - Kuroshio and the North Pacific and cold California currents. In the northern temperate latitudes, the cold Kuril Current dominates in the West, and the warm Alaska Current dominates in the East. In the southern part of the ocean, the anticyclonic circulation is formed by warm currents: the South Equatorial, East Australian, zonal South Pacific and cold Peruvian. To the north of the equator, between 2-4° and 8-12° north latitude, the northern and southern circulations are separated during the year by the Intertrade (Equatorial) countercurrent.

The average temperature of the surface waters of the Pacific Ocean (19.37 ° C) is 2 ° C higher than the temperature of the waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, which is the result of the relatively large size of that part of the Pacific Ocean area, which is located in well-heated latitudes (over 20 kcal / cm2 per year). ), and limited communication with the Arctic Ocean. The average water temperature in February varies from 26-28 °С near the equator to -0.5, -1 °С north of 58° north latitude, near the Kuril Islands and south of 67° south latitude. In August, the temperature is 25-29 °С near the equator, 5-8 °С in the Bering Strait and -0.5, -1 °С south of 60-62 ° south latitude. Between 40 ° south latitude and 40 ° north latitude, the temperature in the eastern part of the T. o. 3-5 °C lower than in the western part. To the north of 40 ° north latitude - on the contrary: in the East, the temperature is 4-7 ° C higher than in the West. To the south of 40 ° south latitude, where zonal transport of surface waters prevails, there is no difference between water temperatures in the East and in the West. In the Pacific Ocean, there is more rainfall than evaporating water. Taking into account the river runoff, more than 30 thousand km3 comes here annually. fresh water. Therefore, the salinity of the surface waters of the T. o. lower than in other oceans (average salinity is 34.58‰). The lowest salinity (30.0-31.0‰ and less) is observed in the West and East of the northern temperate latitudes and in the coastal regions of the eastern part of the ocean, the highest (35.5‰ and 36.5‰) - respectively in the northern and southern subtropical latitudes. At the equator, water salinity decreases from 34.5‰ or less, in high latitudes - to 32.0‰ or less in the North, to 33.5‰ or less in the South.

The density of water on the surface of the Pacific Ocean increases fairly evenly from the equator to high latitudes in accordance with the general nature of the distribution of temperature and salinity: near the equator 1.0215-1.0225 g/cm3, in the North - 1.0265 g/cm3 and more, in the South - 1.0275 g/cm3 and more. The color of the water in the subtropical and tropical latitudes is blue, the transparency in some places is more than 50 m. In the northern temperate latitudes, the dark blue color of the water prevails, off the coast it is greenish, the transparency is 15-25 m. In the Antarctic latitudes, the color of the water is greenish, the transparency is up to 25 m .

Tides in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean are dominated by irregular semidiurnal (height up to 5.4 m in the Gulf of Alaska) and semidiurnal (up to 12.9 m in the Penzhina Bay of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk). Near the Solomon Islands and off part of the coast of New Guinea, daily tides, up to 2.5 m. 40° north latitude. The maximum height of wind waves in the Pacific Ocean is 15 m or more, the length is over 300 m. Tsunami waves are characteristic, especially often observed in the northern, southwestern and southeastern parts of the Pacific Ocean.

Ice in the North Pacific Ocean forms in seas with severe winter climatic conditions(Beringovo, Okhotsk, Japanese, Zheltoe) and in bays off the coast of Hokkaido, the Kamchatka and Alaska peninsulas. In winter and spring, ice is carried by the Kuril current to the extreme northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. Small icebergs are found in the Gulf of Alaska. In the South Pacific, ice and icebergs form off the coast of Antarctica and are carried by currents and winds into the open ocean. The northern limit of floating ice in winter passes at 61-64 ° S, in summer it shifts to 70 ° S, icebergs at the end of summer are carried up to 46-48 ° S. Icebergs form mainly in the Ross Sea.