What did James Cook discover? All the most interesting in one magazine

The famous sailor from England, explorer and discoverer - James Cook was a captain in the Royal Navy and the Royal Society. This amazing man mapped many places. Cook devoted a huge amount of time to cartography. Therefore, almost all charts compiled by a scrupulous sailor are accurate and accurate. For many years, maps served sailors, until about the 19th century.

Childhood and youth

James was born October 27, 1728 in locality Marton. Based historical information, father was a poor Scottish farmhand. When James was 8 years old, the family of the future sailor moved to Great Ayton, where he entered the local school. Today the school has become a museum in honor of James Cook.

After 5 years of study, the boy started working on a farm, where his father received the position of manager. When James turned 18, he was hired as a cabin boy on the Hercules. This was the beginning of the maritime career of the young and ambitious Cook.

Trips

James worked on ships owned by John and Henry Walker. IN free time the young man independently studied geography, navigation, mathematics and astronomy by reading books. Traveler Cook left for 2 years, which he spent in the Baltic and in the east of England. At the request of the Walker brothers, he decided to return to the post of assistant captain on the Friendship. After 3 years, James was offered to take command of the ship, he refused.

Instead, Cook enrolls as a sailor in the Royal Navy and after 8 days is assigned to the ship "Eagle". This fact of the biography is bewildering: it is not clear why the young man preferred the hard work of a sailor to the captain's post. But after a month, Cook takes over as boatswain.

Soon, in 1756, the Seven Years' War begins, the ship "Eagle" participates in the blockade of the coast of France. As a result of the battle with the ship "Duke of Aquitaine", the "Eagle" wins, but is forced to leave for repairs in England. In 1757, James passed the captain's exam, and on his 29th birthday he was assigned to the ship Solebeus.

When Quebec was taken, James was transferred to the post of captain on the ship Northumberland, which was considered a professional promotion. By order of the Admiral, Cooke continued mapping the St. Lawrence River until 1762. Maps published in 1765.

Three expeditions

James led three voyages, they are an invaluable contribution to the idea of ​​the world.

The first expedition lasted three years, the official goal of which was to study the passage of Venus through the Sun. But secret orders ordered Cook, after completing the observations, to go in search of the southern mainland.

Expeditions of James Cook: first (red), second ( green color) and third (blue color)

Since at that time world states were fighting for new colonies, historians suggest that astronomical observations are a screen designed to cover up the search for new colonies. The expedition had another goal - to establish the shores of the east coast of Australia.

As a result of the expedition, the goal was achieved, but the information received was not useful due to inaccurate indicators. The second task, the discovery of the mainland, was not completed. The southern mainland was discovered by Russian sailors in 1820. Proved that New Zealand- these are two separate islands that are separated by a strait (approx. - Cook Strait). It turned out to bring a part of the eastern coast of Austria, which had not been explored before.

The second voyage, the specific goal set for James, is unknown. The task of the expedition is to explore the southern seas. It can be said with certainty that the advance to the south was accompanied by the desire of James to find the southern mainland. Most likely, Cook acted not only on the basis of personal initiatives.

The goal of the third expedition was to open the North-Western waterway, but it was not achieved. But Hawaii and Christmas Island were discovered.

Personal life

James Cook returned to England in 1762. After that, on December 21 of the same year, the sailor marries Elizabeth Butts. They had six children, James and Elizabeth lived in East London. The first child, who was named James, lived to be 31 years old. The life of the rest is relatively short: two children lived to be 17 years old, one child lived to be 4, and two more did not live even a year.

The successive deaths startled Mrs Cook. After the death of her husband, Elizabeth lived another 56 years, dying at the age of 93. The wife admired James, measured everything by his honor and moral convictions. When Elizabeth wanted to show disapproval, she said that "Mr. Cook would never do that." Before her death, Mrs. Cook tried to destroy personal papers and correspondence with her beloved husband, believing that the contents were too sacred for prying eyes. She was buried in the family vault in Cambridge.

Death

During his third and final expedition, on January 16, 1779, James landed in the Hawaiian Islands. The inhabitants of the island concentrated around the ships. The navigator estimated them at several thousand, the Hawaiians mistook Cook for their God. At first, good relations were established between the crew and residents, but the number of thefts committed by the Hawaiians increased. The ensuing skirmishes grew hotter.

Feeling the intensity of the situation, on February 4, the crew left the bay, but due to the storm, the ships suffered serious damage. On February 10, the ships were forced to return, but the attitude of the Hawaiians was already openly hostile. On February 13, ticks were stolen from the deck. The return attempt was unsuccessful and ended in a collision.

In the morning next day stole the boat, Cook wanted to return the property, trying to take the leader hostage. When James, surrounded by his people, led the leader on board, he refused to go right on the shore. At that moment, a rumor spread among the Hawaiians about the murder by the British local residents provoking hostile actions. Captain James Cook and four sailors died at the hands of the Hawaiians during these events on February 14, 1779.

Memory

As a tribute to the great sailor James Cook:

• Cook Strait, which separates New Zealand, was discovered by James in 1769. Prior to the discovery of the sailor, Abel Tasman considered it a bay.
• An archipelago in the Pacific Ocean is named after the sailor.

One of the Cook Islands

• The spacecraft module was named after Cook's first ship. During the flight, the fourth landing of people on the moon was carried out.
• A monument to James Cook was unveiled in 1932, on August 10th, in Victoria Square in Christchurch. The idea to immortalize the great navigator belongs to the local bookmaker and philanthropist - Matthew Barnett. He organized a competitive project, and then independently paid for the work of a talented sculptor William Theseevey and presented a monument to the city.

Monument to James Cook in Christchurch, New Zealand

• A crater on the Moon named after a sailor in 1935.
• dedicated a small comic essay to the captain.

Now Cook's legacy is his diaries, which are of particular interest to researchers today. James's biography has a lot of colorful episodes, and the captain himself is rightfully considered an outstanding discoverer.

Expeditions and finds

James Cook's first expedition

In the fundamental work of the English historian J. Baker "The History of Geographical Research and Discovery", one of the chapters is called "Cook's Age". With a clear exaggeration of the achievements of an outstanding navigator, one cannot but give him his due: each of his three round-the-world voyages deserves mention.

James Cook. Portrait by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775. National maritime museum, Greenwich, London

James Cook served as a navigator in Canada during the French war. In his free time, he was engaged in self-education. When in 1768 the Royal Society (Academy) and the British Admiralty organized a major scientific expedition to the Southern Hemisphere, James Cook was placed at the head of it.

The official goal of the expedition was "observations of the passage of the planet Venus through the solar disk, June 3, 1769." Cook did not know about the main goal of the expedition. He was handed a sealed envelope, which was supposed to be opened upon arrival at George III Island (later renamed Tahiti), where astronomical observations were to be made.

For long-distance navigation, Cook chose the three-masted barque Endeavor (Attempt) with 22 guns. In the summer of 1768 they set off from Plymouth, crossing the course to the south-west of the Atlantic. There were 80 crew members and 11 scientists on board.

In the bay of Rio de Janeiro, an incident characteristic of that time occurred: they were mistaken for pirates, several members of the team were arrested. Subsequently, the voyage was successful. We passed Cape Horn in February in excellent weather.

A small fort was built in Tahiti to keep them safe. Established friendly relations with the natives. However, one of them, having snatched a gun from the guard, tried to escape. The British caught up with him and killed him. Only Cook's skillful diplomacy avoided further conflicts.

The authoritative expedition did not make any special astronomical discoveries. “Around the entire planet, we saw an atmosphere or a luminous nebula,” Cook wrote, “reducing the accuracy of determining the moments of contact ... as a result of which there were more discrepancies in our observations than could be expected.” (At the same time, the “loner amateur” M.V. Lomonosov, making similar observations, did not cite assumptions, but scientifically based evidence of the existence of an atmosphere on Venus.)

Cook had troubles with his team as well. Several sailors stole a large batch of nails (apparently, with them they paid for the "intimate services" of the natives). One thieving sailor was seized and flogged, but he did not betray his accomplices. The result of specific communication with local residents was a venereal disease spreading in the crew, due to which a special stop had to be made for treatment.

But this, of course, was not the main result of staying on the island. Botanical and geological studies were carried out there, a volcano was discovered and it was found out that itinerant local musicians had already composed several songs about the sailors who had arrived.

On June 3, James Cook opened the package with the secret instructions. He was invited to go in search of Terra Australis Incoqnita (Southern Unknown Land), which was supposed to be located at about 40 ° - 35 ° south latitude. The local priest Tupia wished to go to England. He became an indispensable intermediary in Cook's communication with the inhabitants of the islands. Pacific Ocean.

After a long search in October 1769, the British saw at 30 ° 30 south latitude in the west the land not marked on the map (this was the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand). The aliens met a warlike Maori tribe.

During the auction, a bloody skirmish ensued. The officer, angry with the native, shot him. Nevertheless, Cook was able to establish good relations with the Maori. The ship proceeded north along the coast of the island, rounded it and proclaimed the possession of Britain. Cook explored the strait, which received his name, once again on the east coast. It turned out that this is an island, and not a ledge of the southern mainland, as previously assumed.

True, there was also land to the south. Her Cook began to go around, moving now to the south. And this land was surrounded on all sides by water. Thus, Cook mapped the "island duo" - New Zealand, the area exceeding the island of Great Britain. In this region of the Pacific Ocean, contrary to expectations and maps, there were no traces of Australia Unknown.

Off the Great Barrier Reef off Australia, the Endeavor suffered a hole and almost sank. In the nearest bay, a hole was closed up for two months.

Heading west, Cook reached a vast land (Tasman called it Van Diemen's) and walked along it to the north. Dark-skinned hairy naked natives gave the impression of the most perfect savages. Cook explored almost the entire (except for the southern outskirts) eastern coast of New Holland (Australia), called it New South Wales and declared it an English possession.

After spending a little over three years sailing, Cook returned to his homeland. “I did not make great discoveries,” he wrote, “however, I explored a significant part of the Great South Seas to a much greater extent than all my predecessors.”

James Cook in Search of the Southern Unknown Land

Image of a kangaroo, from the illustrations for the Endeavor sailing magazine

This circumnavigation James Cook began in 1772 with two ships: the Resolution (Determination) and the Adventure (Adventure). The scientific support of the expedition was provided by the German naturalists Johann Forster and his son Georg.

The main goal: to discover the Unknown Southern Continent (in whose existence Cook lost faith) and establish British rule there.

Passing further south, the ships now and then fell into a storm. About 51 ° south latitude, ice floes began to occur, and then ice fields. It was cold even though it was November (Antarctic spring). Floating ice mountains, sparkling in the sun, turned into terrible ghosts during fogs, and during storms they threatened to shatter ships like nutshells.

Moving forward was extremely difficult and dangerous. But Cook did not stop searching. In mid-February 1773, for the first time in the history of navigation, his ships crossed the Antarctic Circle to a latitude of 67 ° 15. Spread out ahead solid ice. No sign of sushi. I had to head north. Both ships parted in the fog.

"Resolution" continued for some time the search for new lands. The ships then met again at the designated New Zealand location. And then a sharp difference in the state of the two teams became clear: on the flagship all the people were healthy, and on the Adventure most were in a deplorable state, two dozen patients did not get out of bed, suffering from scurvy, one was dying.

Captain Furno, leading an independent route, ceased to fulfill Cook's firm instruction: to use sauerkraut daily by the whole team. This seemed to be a quirk of the strict leader of the expedition, as well as his requirement to keep the cabins clean and aired regularly. Why do this when it's already cold?

Now it became clear to everyone how reasonable Cook's demands were. Even in his first round-the-world voyage, he realized, having lost a third of the team, what an insidious enemy of sailors - scurvy. And after consulting with experienced doctors, I learned about the measures to combat it. Dry cod and crackers, which sailors usually fed on long trips, did not save them from scurvy. Cook abandoned an exclusively traditional menu and managed to overcome a dangerous disease.

The ships continued to sail together in June. But already in October, in inclement weather near New Zealand, they parted again - completely. After waiting for the Adventure in the agreed bay, Cook sent his ship south.

In the meantime, the Adventure team has gone through a severe upheaval. Late to the meeting point, they saw an inscription on a tree: "Look below." Having dug a hole, they took out a bottle with a letter in which Cook reported on his further route.

Preparing for the voyage, Furneaux sent a boat with ten sailors ashore for provisions. None of them returned. The next day, a detachment was sent out to look for them under the command of Mate Barney. Here is what he wrote in his report:

“On the shore we found two dozen closed and tied with twine baskets ... filled with fried meat and fern roots, which are used by the natives as bread. Continuing to inspect the contents of the baskets, we found shoes and a hand. By the letters "T. X." tattooed on his arm. we immediately established that it was the hand of the sailor Thomas Hill.

There were no natives on the shore, smoke was smoking over the neighboring bay, the sailors on the boat went there. A large group of Maori sat around the fire. The sailors fired a volley, the crowd took to flight. The English landed on the beach. What they saw was terrible: the heads and entrails of their comrades lay on the ground. The dogs purred as they ate the bloodied remains. Taking with them two hands and one head, the sailors returned to the ship.

... This story and some like it aroused unhealthy passions in Europe. About savage cannibals there were also terrible stories. The belief spread that these monsters in human form eat their own kind from gastronomic perverted addictions. (When, a century later, Miklukho-Maclay went to live in New Guinea, everyone vied with each other to frighten him with cannibals.)

However, in this case, and many like him, food interests have nothing to do with it. The natives believed that the soul, abilities, strength of the killed enemy passes into the one who tastes his body. They did not specifically kill people for meat. But if after the battle there were dead bodies, then it was customary to eat them. Physiologically, this was justified: the Maori did not raise cattle, and almost all wild animals on the island were destroyed. The lack of proteins of animal origin with a monotonous plant food caused a strong need for meat. (By the way, naive cannibals were perplexed: how can whites kill so many people in the war that they have to be buried in the ground? This is monstrous cruelty and stupidity!).

In the tragedy with the unfortunate sailors of the Adventure, they themselves were the culprits. During the trade, having accused or convicted one native of petty theft, the sailors began to beat him. Relatives tried to intercede for him. The sailors fired a volley into the crowd and killed two. Without letting the aliens reload their guns, the Maori attacked them and killed everyone.

Cook also sent his people to trade with the Maori, forbidding violence. But he knew that they were cannibals. One sailor brought to the ship a boiled human head, bought for three nails. To exclamations of disgust and indignation, Cook objected: they do it from hunger. If you teach them to grow potatoes and raise domestic animals, cannibalism will stop!

He was right, but only partly. It is not so easy to master new forms of economy, and his attempts of this kind were not successful. It is difficult for people to give up old traditions. And the rite of "eating human flesh" existed among the natives for more than one millennium.

James Cook has developed a normal relationship with the locals. His ship prepared for a long voyage and again set off south. There was thick fog near the Antarctic Circle in calm weather. The dank damp exhausted the team from day to day. And the ice fields closed closer and closer. The ship could be in a death trap.

The courageous navigator was forced to retreat. They went into warm waters, visited Easter Island, again plowed the ocean, “closing” dubious lands and clarifying the position of many islands, explored the New Hebrides archipelago. On one of the islands there was a skirmish with the natives, and Cook was forced to give the command: "Fire!". Two islanders were killed and two wounded. Realizing the power of the aliens' weapons, the locals chose to establish business relations with them.

In further voyages, Cook discovered a large island - New Caledonia - and several small ones. His general conclusion about the tribes he met was supportive: "I must say that the islanders, although they are undoubtedly cannibals, have a natural good disposition and humanity."

On the way back to his native shores, he explored Tierra del Fuego, which turned out to be a group of islands. Another mountainous land, even closer to the Antarctic Circle, he named Lord Sandwich, the head of the British Admiralty. It was not Cook's subservience that manifested itself, but his subtle irony. Here is how he characterized Sandwich Island:

“This new Earth is terrible. Very high sheer cliffs dotted gaping caves. Waves raged at their foot, and their peaks were hidden behind clouds… As far as we managed to establish, this whole island was deserted and scary… The only inhabitants of these places were great cormorants nesting in the rocks. We did not find even shapeless amphibians and elephant seals here.”

Cook's last journey

"The Death of Captain Cook". Painting by Sean Linehan

Cook's second circumnavigation of the world lasted three years. On this he could end his voyages. He was rewarded according to his deserts, having determined a calm position with a good salary. But ten years after the completion of the second expedition, he again decided to go on an exploratory voyage.

By this time, Britain, which was becoming the “mistress of the seas” and expanding its colonial possessions, was preoccupied with the development of Russian Far East and adjacent water areas with a transition to North America. The Spaniards, in turn, moved north along the American west coast. There was hope to find a northern sea route to Alaska.

Cook volunteered to be the commander of this expedition. His candidacy was immediately approved, and Resolution and Discovery were placed at his disposal. In July 1776 they set sail south across the Cape of Good Hope, reached New Zealand and visited where their comrades from the Adventure had been killed. There was a temptation to take revenge. But, having found out the cause of the former conflict, the commander abandoned the punitive action.

Continuing sailing, Cook discovered several islands in the archipelago that received his name. In the Hawaiian archipelago, he discovered a group of quite plausible islands, giving them the name Sandwich (apparently, this lord was not such a hopeless person after all).

From Hawaii, Cook went to the American continent, explored its northwestern outskirts and visited Alaska, where he met the Russian industrialist Potap Zaikov. For the second time after the Russians, English ships passed the northwestern tip of Alaska, calling it Cape Prince of Wales.

After sailing to Chukotka, Cook turned back and went north of the American coast. He hoped that he would finally be able to find a way out to the Atlantic Ocean. However, they got in the way heavy ice at a cape called Ice Cape (Ice Cape). I had to turn back.

From the polar latitudes, they moved to the tropical, in the Hawaiian archipelago they discovered the largest of these islands (Hawaii). The appearance of white people on huge ships stunned the natives, they came in crowds to Cook, paying him honors as a deity.

White aliens behaved in a businesslike way, took away many gifts, not bestowing on the natives and violating their prohibitions. There were clashes during exchanges (and deceptions), and the Hawaiians sometimes arbitrarily took some things, not considering theft a great sin.

During one conflict, Cook went ashore with a dozen sailors and took the leader and his sons hostage. The natives wanted to recapture the prisoners. Cook fired, a fight began; two or even three dozen Hawaiians were killed, as well as several Englishmen, including Cook.

The Hawaiians divided his body into parts that were intended for ritual cannibalism. The British carried out a cruel punitive operation, after which they received some parts of the body of the murdered commander: the head, hands. Describing the morals of the "civilizers", it can be noted that at that very time, two heads of Hawaiians, cut off by punishing sailors, hung on the yardarm of the "Resolution".

Charles Clark, who assumed the duties of commander, sent the ships north to the Chukchi Sea; bad weather and ice soon forced them to turn back. Clark died and was buried in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The captain of the Discovery, John Gore, sailed the ships around Asia and Africa through the Pacific and Indian oceans, passed the Cape of Good Hope, went out into the Atlantic and completed the expedition off the coast of England on October 4, 1780.

... The circumnavigation of James Cook marked the end of the era of exploration of the oceans. True, this development was superficial, in literally this word. There were almost no more or less complete data on sea currents and depths, bottom structure, chemical and biological features water areas, temperature distribution with depth, etc. These studies are still being carried out.

Despite heroic efforts, Cook never discovered the Unknown Southern Land. Returning from the second circumnavigation, he wrote:

“I went around the Southern Ocean at high latitudes and did it in such a way that I undeniably rejected the possibility of the existence of a mainland here, which, if it can be found, is only near the pole, in places inaccessible to navigation ... An end has been put to further searches for the Southern mainland, which is on for two centuries has invariably attracted the attention of some maritime powers ...

I will not deny that there may be a continent or a significant land near the pole. On the contrary, I am convinced that such a land exists there and, perhaps, that we saw part of it (“Sandwich Land”) ... These are lands doomed by nature to eternal cold, deprived of the warmth of sunlight ... But what should be the countries located even further south ... If anyone shows determination and perseverance to resolve this issue, and penetrates further south than me, I will not envy the glory of his discoveries. But I must say that his discoveries will bring little benefit to the world.

The risk involved in sailing these unexplored and ice-covered seas in search of the mainland is so great that I can safely say that no man will ever dare to penetrate further south than I did. Lands that may be in the south will never be explored.

This assumption of his was refuted by Russian navigators. And the great thing is that their discovery was scientifically predicted.

Discoveries of James Cook

James Cook (born October 27 (November 7), 1728 - death February 14, 1779) was an English navy sailor, explorer, cartographer and discoverer, member of the Royal Society and captain of the Royal Navy. He led three round-the-world expeditions to explore the oceans.

The main events of the biography. Expeditions

1759 - 1760 - Explored and mapped the banks of the Canadian St. Lawrence River.

1763 - 1766 - Mapped the coast of Newfoundland.

1768 - 1771 - First Pacific expedition: explored Tahiti and the Community Islands. Mapped the coasts of New Zealand and eastern Australia.

1772 - 1775 - Second trip around the world: explored Tahiti and New Zealand, visited the Marquesas Islands, New Caledonia New Hebrides and other islands of Polynesia and Macranesia. For the first time in history, he crossed the Antarctic Circle. Explored South Georgia and South Sandwich.

1776 - 1780 - Third voyage around the world: search for the Northwest Passage from the western coast of the North American continent. Return to New Zealand and Tahiti. Visited the Hawaiian Islands.

Explored the west coast of America from Oregon to Point Barrow, Alaska.

1779 - In 1779 he was killed in a skirmish with the Hawaiians.

Whatever the opinion of the public on my voyage, I must, with a feeling of true satisfaction, demanding no other reward than the recognition that I have fulfilled my duty, finish ... the report as follows: the facts confirm that we have proved the possibility of maintaining the health of a large crew in long voyage, in different climatic conditions, with tireless work.

James Cook. "Journey to the South Pole and Around the World"

One of the most eminent figures in the history of discovery. A man of the Age of Enlightenment, James Cook was not only a discoverer and conqueror of new lands, who gains fame and fortune or opens up new ways of trade. Thanks to his voyages, he became authoritative in solving scientific issues.

Walter Kremer. "300 travelers"

James Cook is one of the most prominent English navigators. He was the leader of three round-the-world expeditions. He discovered many islands in the Pacific Ocean, the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia, found out the island location of New Zealand. He made attempts to find the southern mainland - Antarctica. A bay near the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, a group of islands in Polynesia, a strait between both islands of New Zealand, etc. bear his name.

Childhood

1728, October 27 - in a poor family of a Yorkshire farmhand in the village of Marton, the ninth child was born, who later gained fame national hero England and strengthening its influence in the Pacific region.

His life was not easy, full of tireless work and perseverance in achieving the goal. Already at the age of seven, the boy began working on the Airy-Golm farm, owned by the landowner Thomas Scottow. It was he who helped a capable child get an elementary education by placing James in a school at his own expense.

A few years later, in the seaside village of Stay, Cook entered the service of the grocery and haberdashery merchant William Sanders, who later claimed that even in early years the future traveler was distinguished by maturity of judgment and subtle calculation. Perhaps it was here, when he saw the sea for the first time, that Cook felt his true calling, because a year and a half later, much earlier than the expiration of the 4-year contract, he signed up as a student on a sailing ship " Free love", transporting coal. Love for the "coal miners" remained with Cook until the end of his life. He considered these ships the most suitable for long-term voyages in uncharted waters.

First successes

1752 - smart and domineering Cook became the captain's assistant on the ship "Friendship". In this position, the beginning of the Seven Years' War found him, when his ship was in the port of London. After some hesitation, the young man signed up as a volunteer in the English navy, desiring, as he himself said, "to try his luck on this path." And it didn't let him down. Already 3 years later, in 1759, Cook received his first officer rank and sailed to Canada on the ship "Mercury", sent to conduct military operations on the river. Saint Lawrence. There he was able to distinguish himself by performing measurements in the fairway of the river at the risk of his life and drawing up an accurate map.

After the war ended, Cook focused on improving his education. Stubbornly, without anyone's help, he mastered geometry and astronomy, so much so that the depth of knowledge amazed his colleagues who studied in expensive special schools. He himself assessed his "scholarship" more modestly.

The further career of James Cook, thanks to his unparalleled diligence, intelligence and insight, continuously went up. 1762, September - participating in military operations against the French in Newfoundland, he made a detailed inventory of Placentia Bay and a topographical survey of its shores, examined the conditions of navigation between the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula. The result of his labors were eight accurate maps of these places.

Pacific expedition

1768 - The British Admiralty organized a Pacific expedition to observe the passage of the planet Venus through the disk of the Sun to Tahiti. In addition to the official, other goals were also pursued: to prevent the seizure of new lands by other powers, to resume the creation of strongholds and bases in the region to establish British control here. Great importance was attached to the discovery of new rich lands, the development of trade in "colonial goods", including slaves. The most suitable candidate for the head of the expedition turned out to be James Cook, who was not yet widely known, but who had proven himself in professional circles.

The lieutenant personally chose a bark on the Thames (the three-masted ship "Endeavor" - "Attempt"), which left the mouth of the Thames on June 30, 1768, with a team of 84 people, and in January 1769, passing Madeira, Canary Islands, islands wa Cape Verde, has already rounded Cape Horn and entered the Pacific Ocean. Thus began the Pacific epic of James Cook, which immortalized his name and turned him into a legendary man.

On April 13, the expedition reached Tahiti, where on June 3, under excellent weather conditions, astronomical observations of Venus were made. From here, Cook turned west and rediscovered the Society Islands, so named after the Learned Society of London; then he went around New Zealand, finding out that it was a double island, which refuted the opinion of Tasman, who considered it part of the legendary Southern continent.

The next discoveries were the discovery of the previously unknown east coast of Australia, the Great Barrier Reef, the rediscovery of the Torres Strait. In the end, Cook's ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to England in 1771, completing a voyage that lasted 2 years and 9.5 months. Accurate maps of all surveyed areas were drawn up. Tahiti and the nearby islands were declared possessions of the English crown.

Second trip around the world

The second round-the-world trip, which lasted from 1772 to 1775, had an even greater resonance. They began to talk about Cook as a new Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan.

The task of the expedition was associated with the search for the southern mainland, which for several centuries has been unsuccessfully searched for by navigators. different countries. The Admiralty, greatly impressed by Cook's successes, assigned two ships to this difficult task.

For almost three years, the Resolution and Adventure, the new ships of James Cook, were sailing. Leaving Plymouth on June 13, 1772, he was the first of the round-the-world travelers to explore the entire previously unknown part of the Pacific Ocean between 60 ° and 70 ° S. latitude, at the same time twice crossed the Antarctic Circle and reached 70 ° 10? Yu. sh. Having discovered huge icebergs and ice fields, Cook became convinced that "the risk associated with sailing in these unexplored and ice-covered seas is so great that ... no person will ever dare to penetrate further south than I could" and that lands that "may lie in the South will never be explored."

Cook was wrong, and his mistake - the captain's authority was so great - slowed down the search for Antarctica for several decades. On the second voyage, Cook discovered South Island George, South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, about. Norfolk; he also continued research and measurement work.

Third trip around the world

Reconstruction of Endeavour

Cook rested for a year, having received a long vacation, and on July 12, 1776, he set off on his third and last trip. On the ships "Resolution" and "Discovery" he, now with the rank of captain, set sail in search of a trade route from the Pacific to the Atlantic around North America- the long-sought northwest passage.

This expedition rediscovered the group Hawaiian Islands, named after the then head of the Admiralty Sandwich, the still completely unknown northwestern coast of America, right up to Alaska, was put on the map, the location of Asia and America relative to each other was clarified. In search of a northwest passage, the travelers reached 70°41? With. sh. at Cape Icy, where the ships were blocked by pack ice. The expedition turned south, and in November 1778 the crew landed again in the Hawaiian Islands.

Death of James Cook

It was there that the world-famous tragedy took place. The Hawaiians had an ancient legend about the god O-Rono, who should return to Hawaii on a floating island. The priest O-Rono declared Cook a god. The honors paid by the islanders were unpleasant to the navigator. However, believing that this would make the stay of the team in Hawaii safer, he did not dissuade the natives.

And in their midst, a complex struggle of interests between priests and warriors began. The divine origin of the captain was called into question. There was a desire to check it out. Theft in the expedition camp led to skirmishes with the natives. The situation escalated, and in one of the clashes, on February 14, 1779, James Cook was killed with a spear in the back of the head. The Hawaiians took the corpse with them, and the next day the priests - the captain's friends - weepingly brought back the pieces of the body that they had inherited during the division. Yielding to the demands of the sailors, Captain Clerk, who replaced Cook, allowed the Hawaiians to be dealt with. The sailors ruthlessly killed everyone they came across on the way, burned the villages. The natives sued for peace and returned the body parts, which the crew gave to the sea with great honors.

Contribution made to the history of geographical discoveries

Cook's activity was regarded by contemporaries and researchers of a later time ambiguously. Like any talented and bright personality, he had his fans and enemies. Father and son, Johann and Georg Forster, took part in the second voyage as natural scientists. The convictions of the eldest of them, who were strongly influenced by Rousseau's ideas about the "natural" man, made him a serious opponent of Cook in assessing many travel situations, especially those related to the relationship between Europeans and natives. Forster was mercilessly critical of Cook's actions and often idealized the inhabitants of the islands.

Serious disagreements between the scientist and the captain arose immediately upon returning from the voyage. Both Forsters categorically refused to adhere to the official plan of travel notes outlined by the Admiralty. Finally, Johann had to make a commitment not to publish his own description of the journey. But he gave his notes to George, who processed them and nevertheless published them three months earlier than the publication of Cook's notes. And in 1778, Forster Sr. published his "Observations made during a trip around the world."

Both books of the Forsters became a curious commentary on their notes. former boss and forced contemporaries to take a somewhat different look at the "valiant" and "merciful" behavior of the British during the expedition. At the same time, drawing idyllic pictures of heavenly prosperity on the islands of the southern seas, both naturalists sinned against the truth. Therefore, in everything related to the life, religion and culture of the natives, the notes of Cook, a man of a clear and cold mind, are more accurate, although the works of the Forsters for a long time served as a kind of encyclopedia of the countries of the southern seas and were very popular.

The dispute between the captain and scientists has not been resolved to this day. And now, not a single serious publication about James Cook is complete without quotes or references to the Forsters. However, Cook was and still is the brightest star in the constellation of the discoverers of the Earth; he delivered to his contemporaries many accurate, objective observations of nature, customs and mores of the inhabitants of the territories he visited.

It is not difficult to verify this: all three books by J. Cook were published in Russian: “The first circumnavigation of the world by Captain James Cook. Sailing on the "Endeavour" in 1768-1771" (M., 1960), “The second circumnavigation of James Cook. Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772–1775”, (Moscow, 1964), “The Third Voyage of Captain James Cook. Sailing in the Pacific Ocean in 1776-1780. (M., 1971). Despite the remoteness of what is written from our time, books are read with keen interest and carry a lot of information, including about the personalities of the captain himself and the people who surrounded him.

Cook was known for his tolerant and friendly attitude towards the indigenous people of the territories he visited. He made a kind of revolution in navigation, having learned how to successfully deal with such a dangerous and widespread disease at that time as scurvy. Mortality from it during his voyages was practically reduced to zero. A whole galaxy of famous sailors and explorers took part in his voyages, such as Joseph Banks, William Bly, George Vancouver, George Dixon, Johann Reinhold and Georg Forster.

Childhood and youth

James Cook was born on October 27, 1728 in the village of Marton (South Yorkshire). His father, a poor Scottish farmhand, had four children besides James. In 1736, the family moved to the village of Great Ayton, where Cook was sent to a local school (now turned into a museum). After five years of study, James Cook begins working on a farm under the supervision of his father, who by that time had received the position of manager. At the age of eighteen, he is hired as a cabin boy for the Walkers' Hercules collier. Thus begins the maritime life of James Cook.

Carier start

Cook began his career as a sailor as a simple cabin boy on the Freelove coal-burning brig, owned by shipowners John and Henry Walker, on the London-Newcastle route. Two years later, he was transferred to another Walker ship, the Three Brothers.

The testimony of Walker friends is known about how much time Cook spent reading books. He devoted his free time from work to the study of geography, navigation, mathematics, astronomy, and he was also interested in descriptions of sea expeditions. It is known that Cook left the Walkers for two years, which he spent in the Baltic and off the east coast of England, but returned at the request of the brothers as an assistant captain to the Friendship.

Three years later, in 1755, the Walkers offered him command of the Friendship, but Cook refused. Instead, on June 17, 1755, he signed up as a sailor in the Royal Navy and 8 days later was assigned to the 60-gun ship Eagle. This fact in his biography perplexes some researchers - the reasons why Cook preferred the hard sailor's work to a captain's position in the merchant fleet are unknown. But a month after admission, Cook becomes a boatswain.

Soon the Seven Years' War (1756) began. The Eagle participated in the blockade of the coast of France. It is also known that in May 1757, near the island of Ouessant, the "Eagle" entered into battle with the French ship "Duke of Aquitaine" (displacement 1500 tons, 50 guns). During the pursuit and battle, the "Duke of Aquitaine" was captured. The Eagle was damaged in that battle and was forced to go to England for repairs.

Upon reaching two years of experience, in 1757, James Cook successfully passed the exam for a master (Eng. Sailing Master), and on October 27 he was assigned to the ship "Salebeus" under the command of Captain Craig. Cook was at that time twenty-nine years old. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, he was assigned to the 60-gun ship Pembroke. "Pembroke" participated in the blockade of the Bay of Biscay, then in February 1758 was sent to the North American coast (Canada).

Cook was given the most important task, which was of key importance for the capture of Quebec, to furnish the fairway of the section of the St. Lawrence River so that British ships could pass to Quebec. This task included not only drawing the fairway on the map, but also marking the navigable sections of the river with buoys. On the one hand, due to the extreme complexity of the fairway, the amount of work was very large, on the other hand, they had to work at night, under fire from French artillery, repelling night counterattacks, restoring buoys that the French managed to destroy. The successful work enriched Cook with cartographic experience, and was also one of the main reasons why the Admiralty ultimately chose him as his historical choice. Quebec was besieged, then taken. Cook did not take part in the hostilities directly. After the capture of Quebec, Cook was transferred as a master to the flagship Northumberland, which can be regarded as professional encouragement. By order of Admiral Colville, Cooke continued mapping the St. Lawrence River until 1762. Cook's charts were recommended for publication by Admiral Colville and were published in the North American Pilot of 1765. Cook returned to England in November 1762.

Shortly after returning from Canada, on December 21, 1762, Cooke married Elizabeth Butts. They had six children: James (1763-1794), Nathaniel (1764-1781), Elizabeth (1767-1771), Joseph (1768-1768), George (1772-1772) and Hugh (1776-1793). ). The family lived in London's East End. Little is known about Elizabeth's life after Cook's death. She lived after his death for another 56 years and died in December 1835 at the age of 93.

Three Expeditions of James Cook

Under the leadership of James Cook, three expeditions were made that significantly expanded people's ideas about our world.

First circumnavigation of the world (1768-1771)

Expedition goals

The official goal of the expedition was to study the passage of Venus through the disk of the Sun. However, in secret orders received by Cook, he was instructed to immediately after the completion of astronomical observations to go to southern latitudes in search of the so-called Southern Continent (also known as Terra Incognita). Considering that there was a fierce struggle between the world powers for new colonies, the following assumption is very likely: astronomical observations served as a screen for the Admiralty to cover the search for new colonies. Also, the purpose of the expedition was to establish the shores of Australia, especially its east coast, which was completely unexplored.

The composition of the expedition

The following reasons can be distinguished that influenced the choice of the Admiralty in favor of Cook:

1. Cook was a sailor, and therefore subordinated to the Admiralty, which needed "its own" person as the head of the expedition. It was for this reason that Alexander Dalrymple, also claiming this title, was disadvantageous to the Admiralty.
2. Cook was not just a sailor, but an experienced sailor.
3. Even among experienced sailors, Cook stood out for his extensive experience in cartography and navigation, as evidenced by the successful work carried out to measure the fairway of the St. Lawrence River. This experience was confirmed by the directly acting admiral (Colville), who, recommending Cook's work for publication, characterized Cook as follows: “Knowing from experience the giftedness of Mr. enterprises of the same kind.

The expedition was allocated "Endeavor" - a small ship belonging to the class of so-called "coal miners" (so named due to the fact that ships of this class were mainly used to transport coal), with a characteristically shallow draft, converted specifically for the expedition.

The botanists were Carl Solander and Joseph Banks, a member of the Royal Society and its future president, who was also a very wealthy man. Artists - Alexander Buchan and Sidney Parkinson. Astronomer Green was supposed to make observations with Cook. The ship's doctor was Dr. Monkhouse.

The first mate on the Diligence was Zachary Hicks, the second mate was John Gore. The team consisted of forty sailors and twelve marines.

Expedition progress

August 26, 1768 "Endeavor" left Plymouth and April 10, 1769 reached the coast of Tahiti. Fulfilling the orders of the Admiralty, prescribing "to maintain friendship with the natives by all means", Cook established strict discipline in the communication of the expedition members and the ship's crew with the natives. It was strictly forbidden to enter into conflicts with local residents, to use violence. The available cases of violation of this order were severely punished. Fresh food for the expedition was obtained through exchange for European goods. Such behavior of the British, albeit dictated by purely pragmatic considerations (it was simply unprofitable to arouse excessive self-hatred), was nonsense at that time - Europeans, as a rule, achieved their goals with the use of violence, robbing and killing natives (there were also cases of wanton murders) . For example, Wallis, a compatriot of Cook, who had visited Tahiti shortly before him, in response to a refusal to supply his ship with food free of charge, fired on Tahitian villages from naval artillery. But the peace-loving policy bore fruit - it was possible to establish good relations with the islanders, without which the observation of Venus would have been seriously difficult.

In order to ensure control over the coast, where observations were to be made, a fort was built, surrounded on three sides by a rampart, in some places - a palisade and a moat, protected by two cannons and six falconets, with a garrison of 45 people. On the morning of May 2, it was discovered that the only quadrant, without which the experiment was impossible, had been stolen. By the evening of the same day, the quadrant was found.

From June 7 to 9, the crew was busy with the ship's cruising. On July 9, shortly before sailing, Marines Clement Webb and Samuel Gibson deserted. Faced with the unwillingness of the islanders to contribute to the capture of deserters, Cook took hostage all the most significant leaders of the district and put forward the return of the fugitives as a condition for their release. The leaders were released when, with the help of local residents, the soldiers were returned to the ship.

After making astronomical observations, Cook headed for the shores of New Zealand, taking with him a local leader named Tupia, who knew the nearby islands well and, in addition, could serve as an interpreter, and his servant Tiata. With the natives of New Zealand, despite the emphasized peacefulness of the British, it was not possible to establish good relations. The expedition had to participate in several skirmishes, during which the New Zealanders suffered some losses.

Continuing to move along the western coast, Cook found a bay very convenient for anchorage. In this bay, which he called Queen Charlotte Bay, Endeavor got up for repairs: the ship was pulled ashore and re-caulked. Here, on the shores of Queen Charlotte Bay, a discovery was made - rising to a hill, Cook saw the strait dividing New Zealand into two islands. This strait was named after him (Cook Strait or Cook Strait).

In April 1770, Cook approached the east coast of Australia. On the shore of the bay, in the waters of which the Endeavor stopped, the expedition managed to find many previously unknown plant species, so Cook called this bay the Botanical Bay. From Botany Bay, Cook headed northwest along the east coast of Australia.

On June 11, the ship ran aground, seriously damaging the hull. Thanks to the tide and the measures taken to lighten the ship (spare parts of the rigging, ballast and guns were thrown overboard), Endeavor managed to be refloated. However, through the damaged side plating, the ship was quickly flooded with water. In order to block the flow of water, a canvas was brought under the hole, so the flow of outboard water was reduced to an acceptable level. Nevertheless, the Endeavor needed serious repairs, since in its current position, uninterrupted operation of pump installations was required to keep the ship afloat, not to mention the fact that it was simply dangerous to continue sailing with a huge hole in the side, barely covered by a sail. And Cook starts looking for a place where it would be safe to get up for repairs. After 6 days, such a place was found. The Endeavor was pulled ashore, the holes were patched up. It soon became clear that the ship was cut off from the sea by the Great Barrier Reef, thus the expedition was locked in a narrow strip of water between the Australian coast and the Reef, dotted with shoals and underwater rocks.

Rounding the Reef, had to go north 360 miles. We had to move slowly, constantly throwing the lot, we had to pump out the incoming water from the hold without stopping. In addition, scurvy began on the ship. But Cook continued to follow this path, ignoring the gaps that occasionally appear in the solid wall of the Reef. The fact is that the coast, gradually moving away from the Great Barrier Reef, could one day be inaccessible to observation from the open sea, which did not suit Cook at all, who wanted to keep the Australian coast in front of his eyes. This perseverance paid off - continuing to follow between the Reef and the coast, Cook stumbled upon the strait between New Guinea and Australia (at that time they did not know whether New Guinea was an island or part of the Australian mainland).

Cook sent a ship through this strait to Batavia (the old name for Jakarta). Malaria entered the ship in Indonesia. In Batavia, where the Endeavor arrived at the beginning of January, the disease assumed the character of an epidemic. Tupia and Tiatu also fell victim to malaria. The ship was immediately put in for repairs, immediately after which Cook left Batavia with its unhealthy climate. However, people continued to die.

On the island of Panaitan, dysentery was added to malaria, which from that moment became the main cause deaths. When the Endeavor entered the port of Cape Town on March 14, there were 12 people on the ship capable of working. Losses in personnel were extremely high, only on the way from Batavia to Cape Town 22 team members died (mainly from dysentery), as well as several civilians, including astronomer Green. To make further navigation possible, the team was understaffed. On July 12, 1771, the expedition returned to England.

Results of the first expedition

The main stated goal - the observation of the passage of Venus through the disk of the Sun - was carried out, but the results of the experiment were not useful due to inaccurate measurements caused by the imperfection of the equipment of that time.

The second task - the discovery of the southern mainland - was not completed, and, as is now known, could not be completed by Cook during the first voyage. (The southern mainland was discovered by Russian sailors F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev in 1820).

The expedition also proved that New Zealand is two independent islands separated by a narrow strait (Cook Strait), and not part of an unknown mainland, as was previously believed. It was possible to put on the map several hundred miles of the east coast of Australia, until that time completely unexplored. The strait between Australia and New Guinea was opened. Botanists collected large collection biological samples.

Second circumnavigation of the world (1772-1775)

In 1772, the Admiralty began preparations for a second expedition to the Pacific.

Expedition goals

The specific goals that the Admiralty set for Cook's second expedition are unknown. It is only known that the tasks of the expedition included the continuation of the study of the southern seas. Quite definitely, Cook's persistent attempts to penetrate as far south as possible were aimed at finding the southern mainland. It is unlikely that Cook acted in this way on a personal initiative alone, so it seems very likely that the discovery of the southern mainland was one of the goals of the expedition, although nothing is known about such plans of the Admiralty.

The second expedition of D. Cook (1772-1775) was connected with the geographical and political problems put on the agenda at the initial stage of European expansion into the seas of the southern hemisphere. The organization of the second expedition of Cook, made after returning to his homeland as a captain, was associated with the great activity that the French at that time showed in the southern seas. At least four French expeditions were sent in the late sixties in search of the southern mainland. They are associated with the names of Bougainville, Surville, Marion du Fresne, Kerguelen. For the French, the search for the southern mainland was also not caused by scientific interests. The initiative came from the merchant French East India Company, which, of course, cared only about its own enrichment; it was she who equipped the Surville expedition in the same way as in the first half of the 18th century - the Bouvet expedition, which Cook mentions. The results of these French expeditions (except for the Bougainville expedition) were not yet known in London, and therefore they were all the more worried. It was decided to send two ships (the French sent 2-3 ships together) and put Captain Cook at the head of a new expedition, whose successes made a huge impression in England. The Admiralty was in such a hurry with this matter that after compiling a detailed report on the first voyage, Cook was given only three weeks of rest (in December 1771) - after a three-year voyage.

Of course, the Royal Society had a hand in this - it was considered a semi-governmental organization and was a powerful force in society. Undoubtedly, Cook's own position was far from passive on this issue: like all great pioneers, once he tasted the joy and satisfaction of penetrating into the unknown, he would never rest until he again embarked on this path. There is no doubt that the leading geographers of the time, especially Alexander Dalrymple, who continued to believe in his idea of ​​the Southern Continent, would hasten the organization of a second expedition. But everyone understands that only the Lords of the Admiralty really made decisions. They thought of the possibility that Cook might actually stumble upon the mythical Southern Continent, or some other country or island hitherto undiscovered, and add it with his usual swiftness to the British crown; an intriguingly pleasant and not at all impossible thought, since the South Seas remained largely unexplored. It is more likely that they told Cook that he must embark on another heroic journey of discovery - no matter which direction he takes - that will bring new trust, honor and glory to him and his country, and along with them, the Lords of the Admiralty. . In support of this point of view, it should be noted that on the second journey, the most terrible one ever undertaken, Cook received no special instructions. It may be remarked in passing that no one would ever undertake such a voyage again, because when Cook completed it, there was little left to discover in the high latitudes of the southern ocean. There is no doubt that Cook received carte blanche as to where he was to sail and what he was to do.

James Cook short biography English navigator and a researcher of the World Ocean will help write a report about it.

James Cook short biography

James Cook was born on October 27, 1728 in the English village of Marton in the family of a day laborer. From the age of 7 he worked with his father, at 13 he began to attend school, where he learned to read and write, at 17 he was hired as an apprentice clerk to a merchant in a fishing village and saw the sea for the first time. In 1746 he entered a ship's cabin boy, carrying coal, then became an assistant to the captain; went to Holland, Norway and the Baltic ports, making time for self-education.

In June 1755 he was hired by the British navy as a sailor, two years later he was sent to Canada as a navigator. In 1762-1767, already in command of a ship, he surveyed the shores of the island of Newfoundland, explored its interior, compiled sailing directions for the northern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Gulf of Honduras. In 1768 he was promoted to lieutenant.

In my first expedition Cook goes to the expanses of the southern seas at the age of 40 with the rank of lieutenant. Its purpose is astronomical observations of the passage of Venus through the solar disk. It was supposed to take place in early June 1769, and it could only be observed in the region of the Southern Tropic. But there is another, more important one: it had to be found out whether the Southern Land (Antarctica) really existed, and if so, then it should become the property of the British crown. But as a result of his first trip, Cook fails to verify the existence of the mainland. Nevertheless, the expedition discovered and explored many islands, explored the east coast of Australia, declaring it a colony of England.
Cook's first circumnavigation lasted a little over 3 years; he was awarded the rank of captain of the 1st rank.

The second expedition took place in 1772 and ended in 1775. Now two ships were placed at the disposal of James Cook "Resolution" And "Adventure". They sailed, like last time, from Plymouth and took direction to Cape Town. After Cape Town, the ships turned south.

January 17, 1773 the first expedition to cross the Antarctic Circle, but the ships lost each other. Cook went in the direction of New Zealand, where they, as agreed, met. Taking with them a few islanders who agreed to help lay out the route, the ships sailed further south and again lost sight of each other.

On the second expedition, James discovered the islands New Caledonia, Norfolk, South Sandwich Islands, but because of the ice, he failed to find the southern mainland. And he came to the conclusion that it does not exist.

Cook was the first to meet and describe flat icebergs, which he called "ice islands".

James Cook's third circumnavigation took place in 1776 and lasted almost 3 years - until 1779. Again, two ships were at his disposal: "Resolution" And "Discovery". This time, Cook was looking for new lands in the Pacific Northwest, thinking of finding a passage around North America.

In 1778, he discovered the Hawaiian Islands, reached the Bering Strait and, having met the ice, returned to Hawaii. In the evening February 14, 1779 Captain James Cook, 50, was killed by Hawaiians in an open skirmish over a theft from his ship.

Cook was married and had 6 children who died in early childhood. More than 20 geographical features are named after him, including three bays, two groups of islands and two straits.