Philosophy of Ancient China: the wise men of the Middle Kingdom. Comparing Tao and man, Confucius emphasized that man is the center of all his teachings.

(Kung Tzu) was born around 551 BC in the family of a petty official who came from an impoverished noble family. Having lost his father early, he remained in the care of his mother. A seven-year-old boy was sent to school, where he studied for ten years with great diligence, demonstrating an adherence to the ritual and rites that later occupied a prominent place in his teaching.

According to his biographers, at the age of 19, Confucius married and was appointed to the position of keeper of the grain barns.

Having served for quite a long time in various positions with the rulers of several principalities, he left his bureaucratic career and began to preach his ethical and political views. The philosopher traveled around the principalities, giving advice to their rulers on how to manage their subjects wisely.

Confucius spent most of his life in the kingdom of Lu.

In 517 B.C. e., after the popular unrest in Lu, Confucius emigrated to the then prosperous neighboring kingdom of Qi. During that period, he was strongly influenced by Yan Ying, the first adviser to the ruler of Qi. In governing the state, Yan Ying pursued the principle of "He" (harmony, the struggle of opposites: "Rules must be created through achieving unity through disagreements"). Yan Ying, according to Confucius, possessed such qualities as "independence, integrity, modesty, simplicity, the absence of any hint of money-grubbing and genuine respect for the mind, regardless of the pedigree and social status of a person." Later, Confucius transferred many of the qualities of Yan Ying to the image of the Wise One (“Tsing Tzu”).

In 501 BC. Confucius began teaching and editing Chinese literary monuments. He withdrew from the service, retired, and concentrated on correcting the Shi Ching (one of the Confucian classics), as well as developing a ritual and practicing music.

The number of his disciples constantly multiplied.

At the end of 501 BC. e. King Lu appointed Confucius as governor of Zhongdu County. Confucius' career in this position lasted only from 501 to 499 BC. e. and became an integral part of the teachings of Confucius. The chronicles wrote: “A year has passed since Ding-gun appointed K. as the manager of Zhongdu, and from four sides everyone began to imitate him.” To change the tax system according to the principle of "I" (justice), Confucius divided all lands into marshy, flat, hilly and mountainous. When assigning people to work, Confucius took into account their physical condition; at the same time, the moral climate improved: “theft disappeared among the people, much attention was paid to funeral rituals.”

In 499 BC. e. Confucius was appointed supreme prosecutor and chief adviser to the ruler of the kingdom of Lu. He held this position for 3 years. "... During this time, he proved himself to be a great politician who knows and appreciates rituals, as an experienced adviser to the ruler, as a pacifier of vassals who were disobedient to their ruler and as a fair judge ...". Both his friends and enemies called Confucius "a husband without vices." He had to leave his post in 497 BC. e. due to the fact that the ruler of the kingdom of Lu acted contrary to the basic ritual and ethical norms.

Until the age of 66, Confucius traveled around the country, preaching his teachings, and then returned to his native Lu county, from which he did not leave until his death.

Confucius died at the age of 72 in 479 BC. in Qufu. On the site of the house where Confucius lived, a temple was built, which was then repeatedly rebuilt and expanded. Thus, an ensemble of temple buildings was created, and the burial place of the sage and his disciples was turned into a pantheon, and has been a place of pilgrimage for more than two thousand years.

In December 1994, the temple, house and forest surrounding the house, Confucius were listed by UNESCO in the Register of World Cultural Heritage Sites.

The central place in the Teachings of Confucius was occupied by the relationship of the ruler - "Bath" and Heaven as a source of grace - magical power“de”, thanks to which “Van” (“Son of Heaven”) streamlined the “Celestial Empire” (society). For Confucius, "de" has ceased to be the prerogative of the ruler - each person is responsible for the state of affairs in the Celestial Empire and is able to influence it; at the same time, “de” in the interpretation of Confucius is ethicized and means “dignity”, “virtue”.

Recognizing the role of the supreme principle behind Heaven, Confucius, as a practically effective measure of earthly affairs, indicated the path - "Tao", following which ensures the accumulation of "de" by a person. Unlike Lao Tzu, who interpreted "Tao" as a universal principle, Confucius understood it as a human "Tao" - the true principle of human deeds.

The standard of a person following the path of "Tao", Confucius called "jun-tzu" ("noble man"), the description of which was the focus of the philosopher's attention. Among the main qualities of "jun-zi" are "ren" - humanity, "i" - justice, "zhi" - knowledge and "li" - ritual.

The teachings of Confucius are imbued with the spirit of preserving traditions: "I imitate the old days, I do not compose."

Under the rule of the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC - 3rd century AD), Confucianism became the state ideology and subsequently became the basis of the Chinese way of life, largely shaping the unique face of Chinese civilization.

On September 28, 2009, the Chinese celebrate the 2560th anniversary of the birth of the famous philosopher. Climax holiday events is expected to be the unveiling of the philosopher's new family tree. According to the latest data, there are about two million descendants of Confucius in the world today. It is possible that this time the list will increase by one and a half times: experts believe that more than 3 million people live in the world, related by family ties to the great Chinese thinker, family tree which includes 88 generations.

It is believed that commemorative celebrations in honor of the thinker began to be held in the Celestial Empire from 478 BC - a year after his death. After the proclamation of the New China, memorial events resumed in 1984, and in 2007 they received nationwide status.

Confucius lived during the introduction of a system of denunciations into Chinese society.

Wise with experience, he understood the danger that the spread of

informing, especially on close relatives - brothers, parents.

Moreover, he understood that such a society simply had no future.

Confucius grasped the need to urgently develop a framework that strengthens society on moral principles, and to ensure that society itself rejects denunciation.

That is why the decisive thought in the teaching is concern for elders, for relatives.

Confucius believed that this was to establish a link between generations,

provide full connectivity modern society with his previous

stages, which means ensuring the continuity of traditions, experience, etc.

Also an important place in the teachings is occupied by a sense of respect and love for people,

living nearby. A society imbued with such a spirit is very united, and

means and is capable of rapid and effective development.

The views of Confucius were based on moral categories and values.

the then Chinese village community, in which leading role played

observance of traditions laid down in ancient times. Therefore, antiquity and everything connected with it was set by Confucius as an example for contemporaries.

However, Confucius also introduced a lot of new things, for example, the cult of literacy and knowledge.

He believed that every member of society must strive for knowledge, before

entire own country. Knowledge is an attribute of a healthy society.

All the criteria of morality were united by Confucius into a common behavioral block “li” (translated from Chinese - rule, ritual, etiquette). This block was firmly associated with jen. “Overcome yourself to return to li - jen. Thanks to “li”, Confucius managed to tie together society and the state, connecting two important parts of his teaching.

Confucius believed that the prosperous material condition of society was

unthinkable without educational preaching activity. He said that noble people must protect and disseminate among the people moral values. Confucius saw this as one of the most important constituent parts the health of society.

In the relationship of society with nature, Confucius was also guided by concerns about people. In order to prolong its existence, society must rationally treat nature.

Confucius derived four fundamental principles of the relationship between society and nature:

1) To become a worthy member of society, you need to deepen your knowledge about

nature. This idea follows from the conclusion of Confucius about the need

education of society, especially the development of knowledge about the world around, and

complements it.

2) Only nature is able to give a person and society vitality And

inspiration. This thesis directly echoes the ancient Chinese teachings,

promoting non-interference of man in natural processes and only

contemplation of them in search of inner harmony.

3) Careful attitude both to the living world and to natural resources. Already at that time, Confucius warned mankind against a thoughtless wasteful approach to the use of natural resources. He understood that in the event of a violation of the balances existing in nature, irreversible consequences could arise both for humanity and for the entire planet as a whole.

4) Regular thanksgiving to Nature. This principle is rooted in

ancient Chinese religious beliefs.

Confucius expressed several of his wishes about the structure and principles

leadership of an ideal state.

All government should be based on "li". The meaning of “li” here is very voluminous. Ren here includes love for relatives, honesty, sincerity, striving for self-improvement, courtesy, etc., moreover, courtesy, according to Confucius, is an indispensable element for people performing public functions.

According to the scheme of Confucius, the ruler rises above the head of his family by only a few steps. Such a universal approach turned the state into an ordinary family, only a larger one. Consequently, the same principles should rule in the state as in society, that is, the attitudes of humanity, universal love and sincerity preached by Confucius.

Based on this, Confucius reacted negatively to the introduced at that time in

certain kingdoms of China to fixed laws, believing that the equality of all before the law is based on violence against the individual and, in his opinion,

violates the foundations of government. There was one more reason for Confucius's rejection of laws, he believed that everything forcibly imposed on a person from above would not reach the soul and heart of the latter, and therefore unable to function effectively. Model frame state structure proposed by Confucius - Rules. The principle that gives them viability is the principle of "he".

In addition, according to Confucius, all members of the

society. In conditions when the government of the state and the people

assumed on the basis of "whether", these Rules performed the role of law.

The Ruler is obliged to monitor the implementation of the Rules, and also to see that

society has not deviated from the true path. The concept of givens with a focus on

antiquity had a tremendous influence on the further course of development of political thought in China. Politicians looked for solutions to pressing problems in the "ideal" past.

Confucius divided people in relation to government into two groups:

1) Managers

2) Managed

The greatest attention in this part of the Teaching is given to the first group of people. According to Confucius, these should be people with the qualities of Jun Tzu.

It is they who should exercise power in the state. Them high moral qualities should be an example for everyone else. Their role is to educate the people, to guide them on the right path. When compared with the family, a clear analogy is seen between Jun Tzu in the state and the father in the family.

Managers are the fathers of the people.

For managers, Confucius deduced four Tao:

1) A sense of self-respect. Confucius believed that only self-respecting people

able to show respect for the people when making any decisions. This

simply necessary, given the unquestioning obedience of the people to the ruler.

2) Sense of responsibility. The ruler should feel responsible for

the people he rules. This quality is also inherent in Jun Tzu.

3) The feeling of kindness in the education of the people. Ruler with feeling

kindness, is able to better educate the people to improve their moral qualities,

education, and hence to ensure the progress of the whole society.

4) Sense of justice. This feeling should be developed especially in people

On whose justice the well-being of society depends.

excessive absolutization royal power, and in his model limited the rights

king, great importance making sure that major decisions are not made

one person, but a group of people. According to Confucius, this excluded

the possibility of a subjective approach to the development of various problems.

Allocating the main place in his system to man, Confucius, however,

recognized the higher will above people, the Will of Heaven. In his opinion, Jun Tzu

capable of correctly interpreting the earthly manifestations of this will.

Focusing on the ruling people, Confucius emphasized that the main

factor of stability of the state - the trust of the people. power that is not

trusts the people, is doomed to distance from them, and therefore to inefficiency

management and in this case the regression of society is inevitable.

whale. "way") is one of the basic concepts of Chinese philosophy. If in the understanding of Confucius Tao is the "way of man", i.e. moral behavior and based on morality social order, then in Taoism itself, Tao has a universal ontological meaning: the root cause of the universe, its mysterious regularity; the wholeness of life present in everything.

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DAO

Chinese, literally, the path, as well as approach, schedule, function, method, regularity, principle, class, teaching, theory, truth, morality, absolute is one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. Etymologically, it goes back to the idea of ​​dominance (show) in "movement/behavior". The closest correlative categories are de (“grace”) and qi (“tool”). IN modern language binom daode means morality, morality. The term Tao was conveyed Buddhist concepts"marga" and "patha", expressing the idea of ​​the path, as well as "bodhi" ("enlightenment", "awakening"). Logos and Brahman are often recognized as analogues of Tao. The hieroglyph dao is included in the designation of Taoism (dao jia, dao jiao) and neo-Confucianism (dao xue). In Mo Tzu, early Confucianism is also called “the teaching of the Tao” (dao jiao), and in Zhuang Tzu, “the art/technique of the tao” (tao shu). In various philosophical systems, Tao was defined differently, so Hin Yu called it, like Te, an “empty position” that does not have a precisely fixed meaning.

In the Shu-jing, the term tao has abstract meanings: “behavior”, “advance”, “the way of the sovereign and Heaven” and is correlated with de, which also expresses the abstract concept of social and cosmic harmony. Since the emergence of Chinese philosophy, the question of the relationship between "human" and "heavenly" has become central to it, i.e. common, dao. (In a narrow sense, “celestial tao” meant the course of time or the movement of stars from west to east, as opposed to the movement of the sun from east to west.) Already in the “Shi jing”, there was a convergence of the concepts of “dao” and “limit” (see Tai chi) .

Confucius focused on the "human" aspects of Tao and Te, which are interconnected, but can also manifest themselves independently of each other ("Dunyu", V, 12, XII, 19). He concretized Tao in various sets of ethicized concepts: "filial piety" and "brotherly love", "fidelity" and "generosity" (zhong shu), i.e. the implementation of the "golden rule" of morality, "humanity" (zhen), "knowledge" ("zh") and "courage" (yong), etc. In "Lun Yue" Tao is a good course of social events and human life, depending both on "predestination" (min), and on the individual. Its carrier is the individual, and the state, and all mankind (Celestial). Due to the differences in the carriers, their dao is also different: straight and crooked, large and small, inherent in a “noble man” (jun zi) and an “insignificant person” (xiao ren). Accordingly, de differ. The Celestial Empire may lose the Tao altogether. Ideally, one Tao should be known. Its assertion in the world exhausts the meaning of human existence; in the absence of Tao in the Celestial Empire, one should “hide”, refuse to serve.

The followers of Confucius and representatives of other schools universalized the concept of the two main types of Tao and Te, also distinguishing between the Tao of order and turmoil, ancient and modern, right and wrong, humane and inhumane, universal and individual Tao (for example, "Mengzi", "Han Feizi).

The closest students of Confucius gave the highest hypostasis of Tao (the great, all-pervading Dao Dao) a universal ontological meaning, and the founder of orthodox Confucianism, Dong Zhongshu, put forward the thesis: “The great source of Tao comes from Heaven.” In Zhong Yun, the dao of a “noble man” or “perfectly wise” is defined as a general cosmic force emanating from an individual, “establishing itself in heaven and earth”, “materializing in navas and spirits”, leading to grace. "Authenticity" constitutes the "heavenly" and its realization the "human" Tao. The one who has gained the ultimate "authenticity" is able to form a trinity with Heaven and Earth. In addition to de and qi, the concepts of "predestination", "individual nature", "[corporeal] form" most closely adjoin to Tao.

Cultivation in the Tao, from which one cannot depart even for a moment, is training (jiao). “Harmony” (he) is the all-pervading Tao of the Celestial Empire, concretized in five types of relationships: between the ruler and the subject, father and children, husband and wife, older and younger brothers, friends and comrades. This tao is carried out by means of “knowledge”, “humanity” and “courage” - the threefold all-pervading “great grace” (da de) of the Celestial Empire, which is identical to the threefold tao “Lun Yu” (XIV, 28). On everyday level the cognition and realization of the Tao is accessible even to the stupid and useless, but in its ultimate expression it contains something unknowable and unrealizable even for the "perfectly wise."

In the Mencius (4th century BC), “authenticity” is defined as the “heavenly” Tao, and “thinking” (“care” -sy) about it is defined as the “human” Tao. The Tao of the "perfectly wise" comes down to "filial piety and brotherly love." In general, Tao is a combination of man and "humanity". Heavenly Tao is predetermined, but in some ways it also depends on “individual nature”, although in general attempts to influence Tao and “predestination” are useless. In contrast to Confucius, who assessed the "middle of Tao" as insufficiency ("Lun Yu"), Mencius saw a harmonious state in the "middle Tao".

Xun Tzu, on the one hand, exaggerated the comprehensiveness of Tao, declaring the whole "darkness of things" as one of its "sides", on the other hand, he called the "perfectly wise" (sheng) "limit" of Tao. The "limit" of the human tao Xun-tzu considered "decency/etiquette" (li). Tao, which is constant in its bodily essence, is changeable, therefore it is indefinable in one of its sides. Through the great Tao all things are changed, transformed and formed. Following the Tao involves the curbing of passions, the individual accumulation of "grace", its preliminary identification and knowledge. The latter is carried out by the “heart”, filled with emptiness, concentration and peace. Knowledge of the Tao makes it possible to "weigh" (heng) all the darkness of things. In Mo Tzu, the interpretation of Tao differs little from that of early Confucianism.

Opposing the Confucian theory of Tao was developed in Taoism. Its main feature is the emphasis on the "heavenly" rather than the "human" hypostasis of Tao. If the Confucians proceeded from its verbal-conceptual expressibility and even self-expressibility, actively using such meanings of Tao as “saying”, “saying”, “teaching”, then the founders of Taoism declared the verbal-conceptual inexpressibility of the highest Tao. In early Taoism, the paired categories of Tao and Te came to the fore, to which the main Taoist treatise "Tao Te Ching" is devoted. Tao is presented in it in two main forms: 1) lonely, separated from everything, constant, inactive, at rest, inaccessible to perception and verbal conceptual expression, nameless, generating “absence / non-existence”, giving rise to Heaven and Earth, 2) all-encompassing, all-pervading, like water; changing with the world, acting, accessible to “passage”, perception and cognition, expressed in the “name / concept”, sign and symbol, generating “presence / being”, which is the ancestor of the “darkness of things”. In addition, the just (“heavenly”) and vicious (“human”) Tao are opposed to each other, and the possibility of deviations from the Tao and its absence in the Celestial Empire is also recognized. As a “beginning”, “mother”, “ancestor”, “root”, “rhizome”, Tao genetically precedes everything in the world, including the “lord”; is described as an undifferentiated unity (“mysterious identity” containing all things and symbols in the state of “pneuma” and seed), i.e., a “thing” that manifests itself in the form of an objectless (objectless) and formless symbol, which in this aspect is empty - all-encompassing and equal to the all-pervading “absence / non-existence”. At the same time, "absence/non-existence" and, consequently, Tao is interpreted as an active manifestation ("function" - yun) of "presence/existence". The genetic superiority of "absence/non-existence" over "presence/being" is removed in the thesis of their mutual generation. Tao in "Tao Te Ching" is a genetic and organizing function of the unity of "presence/being" and "absence/non-existence", subject and object. The main pattern of Tao is reversal, return, i.e., movement in a circle, characteristic of the sky, which was thought to be round. As following only its own nature, Tao opposes the dangerous artificiality of "tools" and the harmful supernaturalness of spirits, at the same time determining the possibility of both. "Grace" is defined in the "Tao Te Ching" as the first stage of the degradation of Tao, on which a thing born of Tao is formed. The fullness of "grace" means "the fullness of the seed."

In Zhuangzi, the tendency to converge Tao with "absence / non-existence" is strengthened, the highest form of which is "the absence [of even traces of] absence" (wu). The consequence of this was the thesis, which diverged from the Tao Te Ching and then became popular, according to which the Tao, not being a thing among things, makes things things. In Chuang Tzu, the notion of the unknowability of Tao is strengthened: "The completion, in which it is not known why this is so, is called Tao." At the same time, the omnipresence of Tao is emphasized to the maximum, which not only “passes through the darkness of things”, forms space and time, but is also present in robbery and even in feces and urine. Hierarchically, Tao is placed above the “Great Limit” (tai chi), but already in “Lu-shi chun qiu” it is identified as the “ultimate seed” (ch; zhi jing) both with the “Great Limit” and with the “Great One” ( tai i). Song [Jian]-Yin [Wen] school (4th century BC; see "Guachzi") interpreted Tao as a natural state of "seed", "subtle", "essential", "spirit-like" pneuma, which it is not differentiated by either “bodily forms” or “names/concepts”, and therefore “empty non-existence” (xu wu).

In Huainanzi, "absence/non-existence" is presented as the "corporeal essence" of the Tao and the active manifestation of the darkness of things. Tao, which manifests itself in the form of "Chaos", "Formless", "One", is defined here as "contracting space and time" and non-localized between them.

Representatives of the school of military thought (bing jia) also made the concept of Tao the basis of their teachings. In Sun Tzu, Tao is defined as the first of the five foundations of military art (along with the “conditions of Heaven and Earth”, the qualities of a commander and law-fa), consisting in the unity of the volitional thoughts of the people and the leaders. Since war is seen as "the path (tao) of deceit", the tao is associated with the idea of ​​selfish selfishness and individual cunning, which was developed in late Taoism ("Yin fu jing"). According to the Wu Tzu, Tao is “that by which one turns to the base and returns to the beginning,” that which pacifies and becomes the first in a series of four general principles successful activity (the rest are “duty / justice”, “planning”, “demanding”) and “four graces” (the rest are “duty / justice”, “decency / etiquette”, “humanity”). Han Fei (3rd century BC), relying on the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism, developed the planned Xun Tzu and the most important for subsequent philosophical systems (especially Neo-Confucian) connection between the concepts of Tao and the “principle” (li): “Tao is that which makes the darkness of things such that it determines the darkness of principles. Principles are the formative culture (wen). Tao-that, thanks to which the darkness of things is formed. Following the Taoists, Han Fei recognized for Tao not only a universal formative, but also a universal generative-vivifying function. Unlike Song Jian and Yin Wen, he believed that the Tao could be represented in a "symbolic" form. The basis for the development of Chinese philosophical thought was the interpretation of Tao in the commentary part of Zhou Yi. Here appears both the binary model-dao of Heaven and Earth, creativity (Qian) and fulfillment (Kun), "noble man" and "insignificant man", and the ternary model-dao of Heaven, Earth, man, "three materials" (san cai ), "three limits" (san chi). The heavenly dao is affirmed by the forces of yin and yang, the earthly dao by “softness” and “hardness”, the human one by “humanity” and “duty/justice”. The main expression of the Tao is “change”, transformations according to the principle “this is yin, then yang”. Therefore, the attribute of Tao is “reversibility and recurrence”. Tao as "change" means "the generation of generation" (sheng sheng), or "revitalization of life", which corresponds to the Taoist definition and understanding of simply generation, or life, as "the great grace of Heaven and Earth." As "changes" Tao is hierarchically higher than the "Great Limit" - it "possesses" it, which is similar to the provisions of "Zhuangzi". In "Xi ci zhuan" (ca. 4th century BC), the opposition of "above form" tao to "under form" "tools" was first introduced. There are also indicated four spheres of realization of the Tao: in speeches, deeds, the manufacture of tool items, divination (I, 10). Confucian Yang Xiong (1st century BC - 1st century), who was influenced by both Zhou Yi and Taoism, presented Tao as the hypostasis of the “[Great] Mystery” ([tai] xuan), understood as the limit of “active manifestation” ; Tao is "penetration" into everything, "empty in form and determining the path of the darkness of things."

The founders of xuan xue, He Yan (late 2nd-3rd century) and Wang Bi, identified dao with "absence/non-existence". Guo Xiang, recognizing this identification, denied the possibility of generating "presence/being" from "absence/non-existence", i.e., rejected the possible creation-deistic interpretation of Tao. Pei Wei (3rd century) explicitly identified Tao with "presence/being". Wu Ge Hong, being a “form of forms”, in the form of “One”, Tao acquired two modes - “Mysterious One” (Xuan Yi) and “True One” (Zhen Yi).

In Chinese philosophy, the opposition Tao, the qi-tool, has been subjected to various interpretations. Cui Jing (7th-9th centuries) identified it with the opposition yun-ti (see lu-yong): "active manifestation" ("function") - "corporal essence" ("substance"), respectively. This opposition has become one of the most important in neo-Confucianism. Zhang Zai correlated it with a pair of de-dao, the first member of which was defined as "spirit" (shen), that is, the ability of things to mutual perception, and the second as "transformation" (hua). Zhang Zai equated the “active manifestation” of the “corporeal primordial essence” of “pneuma”, interpreted as the formless “Great Emptiness” (tai xu), “Great Harmony” (tai he) or the unity of “presence/existence” and “absence/non-existence”, with "overform to another" Tao. Tao was also described by him as an interaction of opposites (liang duan) penetrating the darkness of things, which is expressed in their mutual perception (spirit), which finds its bodily essence in individual nature. The universality of this interaction determines the possibility of its cognition.

Han Yu returned to the original Confucian meaning of Tao (opposing it to Taoist and Buddhist understanding) as following "humanity" and "duty/justice" ("Yuan Tao"). The main founders of neo-Confucian philosophy emphasized the general ontological meaning of Tao. According to Shao Yun, the "formless" and "self-returning" Tao is "the root of Heaven, Earth and the darkness of things", generating (vivifying) and shaping them. Cheng Hao, following Zhang Zai, equated Tao with “individual nature” (“Yi Shu”), and Cheng Yi distinguished them as “active manifestation” and “bodily essence”, although he also spoke about a single Tao, manifested in “predestination”, “ individual nature" and "heart". Cheng Yi expressed the regularity in the action of the Tao with the help of the category “middle and unchanging”, or “balance and constancy”. He defined "fidelity" as a "bodily essence", i.e., "a heavenly principle", and "reciprocity" as an "active manifestation", i.e., human tao ("Yi shu"). Developing the ideas of Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi identified Tao with the “principle” and the “Great Limit”, and “tools” with “pneuma”, a means of generating and revitalizing things and the forces of yin yang (“Zhu-tzu yu lei”). Although Zhu Xi defended the unity of Tao as a “bodily essence” and “active manifestation”, he was criticized by Lu Jiuyuan, who appealed to the original definition of “Xi ci zhuan” and argued that yin yang is the “above-form” Tao, and therefore, between Tao and "tools" do not have the functional difference that Zhu Xi established.

Wang Yangming, developing the ideas of Lu Jiuyuan, identified Tao with the human "heart" ("Zeng Yang-bo") and its basis - "prudence" (liang zhi).

Synthesizing the views of his predecessors, Wang Fuzhi defended the thesis about the unity of "tools" and dao as a concrete reality and its ordering principle. The result of this ordering is de. Wang Fuzhi believed that the Tao is not devoid of "form" or "symbol", but only dominates the "forms" with which everything in the world of "tools" is endowed.

Tan Sitong returned to the direct definition of "tools" and tao by the opposition ta-yun. The Celestial Empire is also a huge "tool". The susceptibility of the world of "tools" to change entails a change in the Tao. This reasoning became Tan Sitong's theoretical justification for reformism.

In general, in the historical development of the two main concepts of Tao-Confucian and Taoist, opposite trends can be traced. In the first, there is an ever greater connection with "presence/being", universalization and objectivization, a movement from ontologized ethics to "moral metaphysics" (new Confucianism, especially in the person of May Zongsan). In the second, there is an ever greater connection with “absence / non-existence”, concretization and subjectivization, up to the connection of Tao with the idea of ​​​​an individual egoistic breakthrough “to heaven”, i.e., the “path” as an ingenious loophole, on which the search for personal immortality in late Taoism.

Lit.: Tao and Taoism in China. M., 1982; From Magical Power to Moral Imperative: The Category of De V Chinese culture. M., 1998; TorchinovE. And Taoism. SPb., 1998.

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Confucius is a serious contender for the title of the most influential person in history, and fortunately, he left us a legacy of his philosophy, vague and boring. The collection of well-behaved clichés, eccentric aphorisms and semi-mysterious anecdotes he left was to become the ideal philosophy of civil servants. This was his main goal. Unlike other sages, Confucius did not want his students to become impoverished wanderers, and their enlightenment remained fruitless. To make good government officials out of his students - that's what he dreamed of. And the result exceeded the wildest expectations. For more than two thousand years, the teachings of Confucius dictated the rules of conduct and gave food for thought to officials, school teachers, ministers and administrators, forming a kind of conformist worldview inherent in the Chinese empire. It was here that the winged “May you live in an era of change!” was born. In Confucian China, a measured existence was revered as happiness. Not surprisingly, many had a desire to break this habitual monotony. However, for the most insignificant deviation from the rules of the recalcitrant, retribution awaited - in best case managed to get off with just castration. That is why the courtiers of many hot-tempered Chinese rulers spoke in squeaky, childish voices to the end of their days. Before the communist revolution of 1949, Confucianism was almost synonymous with the Chinese way of life. The attitude towards Confucianism in the era of Mao was difficult. Confucius was declared to be a representative of the class of "landlords and capitalists", although in fact he was neither one nor the other. For most of his life, the philosopher was unemployed, constantly suffering from a lack of funds, had, as they say, neither a stake nor a yard. During the cultural revolution of 1960, the Red Guards tried to eradicate the last remnants of Confucianism from the thinking of their compatriots. At the same time, Chairman Mao, on occasion, encouraged his comrades with the sayings of Confucius. All this emphasizes the influence of Confucianism, rooted in the depths of the Chinese mentality and continuing to exist, only outwardly covered with a layer of Marxism.

Confucianism has always been widespread among the Chinese from Taiwan to the scattered Chinatowns around the world. The sayings of Confucius pass from generation to generation, his teachings today have a great cultural significance. Confucius is in China what Shakespeare is in the English or Goethe is in the Germans.

It is all the more surprising that Confucius himself did not succeed in life. At least he thought so (and who are we to object so wise man). The philosopher believed that he did not achieve his intended goals, by the end of his life disappointment became his lot.

"Confucius" is the Latinized form of the name "Kung Fu Tzu" (which means "teacher Kung"). DAO (Chinese, lit. - the way), one of the main categories of Chinese philosophy. In Confucianism - the path of a perfect ruler, moral perfection, a set of moral and ethical standards. In Taoism - the regularity of existence, its generative and organizing principle. The world is the "embodiment" of the Tao. The sage, following the Tao, renounces goal-setting activity (wu wei, "non-action"), achieves unity with nature and perfection. In the tradition of the "Book of Changes" ("Yijing"), dao is a pattern of alternating yin-yang forces. Appeared in Ser. 1st millennium BC e. based on shamanistic beliefs. The philosophy of Taoism is characterized by naturalism, the beginnings of primitive dialectics, and elements of religious mysticism. The main representatives are Lao Tzu, Zhuang Tzu. At the beginning of N. e. Taoism took shape as a developed religion. By the 12th century The Tao Zang, a collection of Taoist literature, was created. The goal of adherents of Taoism is to achieve unity with the fundamental principle of the world - Tao, and through alchemy and psychophysical exercises to gain immortality. In some periods, he enjoyed the patronage of the authorities. There are followers of Taoism in China People's Republic where there is an Association of Taoist believers.