The concept of Buddhist philosophy. Fundamentals of Buddhism Philosophy

BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY is a system of rationally justified views on the world, man and knowledge, which has developed within the framework of different areas and schools of Buddhism. The leading role in the development of Buddhist philosophy was played by two Hinayana schools - Vaibhashika and Sautrantika and two Mahayana schools - Madhyamika and Yogachara.

TEACHING ABOUT THE WORLD AND MAN. The philosophical essence of the sermons of the founder of Buddhism consisted in asserting the dependence of the world on man, as well as the dynamic and changeable (anitya) nature of everything that exists, including man. The Buddha believed that a person does not consist of a body and an unchanging soul (anatma-vada), as in Brahmanism, but of five groups (skandhas) of elements - dharmas that form the phenomena of the bodily and mental. Nevertheless, universal variability does not mean chaos, since it is subject to the law of dependent arising of dharmas (pratitya-samutpada). This is the picture of the world from which the Buddha derives his four noble truths, universal variability causes suffering for all living things (the first truth); suffering has its own cause - desire (the second truth); this cause can be eliminated (third truth); there is an eightfold path to the elimination of suffering (the fourth truth).

After the death of the Buddha, through the efforts of his followers, the Buddhist canon Tripitaka (Pali Tipitaka) was created, the oldest version of which was preserved in the thera-vada school (teaching of the elders). From the point of view of Theravada, everything that we observe, and ourselves, is a stream of instantly flashing elements of existence - dharmas that replace each other so quickly that it seems to us that we and the things around us are unchanged. In Theravada, the ideal of an arhat is cultivated - a perfect saint who has eradicated all the weaknesses of human nature in himself, the importance of the practice of meditation is emphasized, therefore classifications of personality types and meditation methods corresponding to each type play an important role in it.

The philosophical ideas of the Vaibhashika and Sautrantika schools are reflected in the Abhidharmakosha, a text written in the 4th century BC. n. e. Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu, who later converted to the Mahayana. The main idea of ​​Vaibhashika is that all dharmas - past, present and future - exist, but in different forms (present dharmas are manifested, past and future dharmas are unmanifested). Therefore, dharmas do not actually arise and do not disappear, but only pass from one step of existence to another. All of them are divided into composed, constantly abiding in "excitement" and filling the observed world, and uncomposed, "calmed" (primarily nirvana). Samsara (empirical existence) and nirvana (liberation from rebirth) mutually exclude each other: as long as the dharmas are in "excitement", nirvana will not come, and, on the contrary, when their "excitement" stops, the world of samsara will simply disappear. If samsara is the state of the whole world, then nirvana is the state of only a person. AND the only way to him - the eradication in oneself of a false opinion about the "self", the unchanging "I", which passes during rebirth from body to body. The Buddhist must look at himself and at the world not as "I" and the world, or, in philosophical language, subject and object, but as an impersonal flow of elements. Representatives of the Sautrantika school believed that only the dharmas of the present exist, the dharmas of the past and future are unreal. Nirvana is not some special state, but the simple absence of samsara. Mahayana philosophy, associated with the names of Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Chandrakirti, Shantarakshita, and others, continues to develop the Buddhist teachings on nirvana and samsara. If in the previous schools, which the Mahayanists united with the concept of Hinayana - "narrow path", the main thing is the opposition of these concepts, then here they are practically identified. Since every being is capable of spiritual perfection, it means that everyone has a "Buddha nature" and it must be discovered. Thus, nirvana, understood as the realization of "Buddha nature", is implicitly contained in samsara. Mahayana goes further than Hinayana in the matter of the absence of a soul, or self, in everything that exists. The world and everything contained in it, including dharma, are deprived of their own support, depend on each other, and therefore are relative, empty (shunya). Therefore, suffering is explained by the lack of meaning and value in this world, while nirvana is associated with the comprehension of its true basis - emptiness (shunyata) and with the understanding that any teaching about it is untrue. Mahayana philosophers emphasize that all concepts are relative, including relativity itself, therefore, at the highest levels of meditation, one should abandon concepts in general and comprehend the world purely intuitively.

The Vajrayana develops a fundamentally new attitude towards a person - the subject of enlightenment. If in other areas of Buddhism the human body was assessed mainly negatively, since it was considered a symbol of the passions that keep a person in samsara, then Tantrism puts the body at the center of its religious practice, seeing it as a potential carrier of higher spirituality. The realization of the vajra human body there is a real union of the absolute (nirvana) and the relative (samsara). During a special ritual, the presence of Buddha nature in a person is revealed. By performing ritual gestures (mudras), the adept realizes in his own body the nature of the Buddha; by reciting sacred incantations (mantras), he realizes the nature of the Buddha in speech; and contemplating the deity depicted on the mandala (sacred diagram or diagram of the universe), realizes the nature of the Buddha in his own mind and, as it were, becomes the Buddha "in the flesh." Thus the ritual transforms human personality into the Buddha and everything human becomes sacred.

V. G. Lysenko

New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010, vol. I, A - D, p. 321-322.

Hello, dear readers seekers of knowledge and truth!

As you know, knowledge of any subject begins with the study of its foundations. Therefore, we suggest that today we talk briefly about the main ideas of Buddhism: learn the most important thing about this storehouse of wisdom, go back two and a half thousand years ago, get to know Shakyamuni Buddha and study the main provisions of his philosophical heritage.

Also, this article will tell about the fundamental truths, precepts, scriptures and mark the boundaries between different schools of Buddhism.

A bit of history

The concept of "Buddhism" was introduced not by adherents of this movement, but by European figures about two centuries ago.

Today, Buddhism is known on all continents. He is especially revered in Asian countries, on Far East. But Buddhists, who number nearly half a billion people, also live in Western countries.

There are Buddhist communities in many major European cities. Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Russia - this is not the whole list of countries where Shakyamuni's legacy is revered.

Key Ideas

It is important to understand that Buddhism is not a religion in the usual sense, but rather a philosophy, a tradition, a system of views on life, the main goal of which is to achieve enlightenment.

There is no God here whose origin is transcendent and whose worship is meek. Buddha is not God, he is a man who managed to reach nirvana, and he tells his students his way.

The emphasis is on the fact that a person himself must have the desire to change, understand the nature of this world, clear the mind of vain thoughts, indulge in deep reflection, achieve harmonious relations with the outside world, get rid of passions, desires and be saved. This is called nirvana - complete liberation from suffering.

Nirvana can be achieved by observing the strict precepts of ethics, constant meditations, reading mantras, modest, ascetic behavior, as well as with the support of various bodhisattvas and buddhas - beings who have already achieved Enlightenment.

Nirvana ends the rotation of the wheel of samsara - a series of rebirths. Buddhists do not doubt the idea of ​​reincarnation, and in fact in every life people are born, get sick, die, which in itself is suffering. Coming out, you can get rid of it forever.

An important concept of the Buddhist tradition, known to many, is. Any of our actions, feelings and even thoughts is reflected in the future. They, good or destructive, will leave a karmic imprint and will inevitably lead to consequences.

The laws of cause and effect are inextricably linked with this view. Shakyamuni taught that everything has conditions of appearance and entails certain consequences.

The Buddha said: Good reason forms good result. bad reason- a bad result. My cause is my result."

Philosophy defines core values:

• Buddha is a great teacher, and also everyone who has reached the truth by his path is called a buddha;
• - doctrine, its provisions, concepts;
• Sangha is a Buddhist community that teaches the correct following of rules and immutable principles.

On the path to liberation, one must learn to resist difficulties, to brush aside the so-called "three poisons":

• ignorance, departure from the truth;
• indulgence of passions and bodily desires;
• angry, intemperate behavior.

The Buddhist tradition adheres to the main ideas:

• four noble truths;
• five commandments;
• middle way;

Truths

Shakyamuni told his disciples four noble truths:

• there is a lot of suffering in the world - dukkha;
• they have a cause behind them - desires;
• there is a way to get rid of suffering;
• this path leads to nirvana.

Commandments

• do not harm living beings, do not kill them;
• do not steal;
• dont lie;
• do not commit adultery;
• do not use intoxicants.

middle way

The Buddha bequeathed to descendants to adhere to the "middle way". This means that one should not rush to extremes from a life consisting entirely of pleasures to complete asceticism, which can harm a person. It is necessary to find a golden mean that will contribute to spiritual and physical development.

Eightfold Path

You need to go through eight stages on the road to self-improvement, the main reward in which will be the highest step - nirvana. All steps are important, they interact, so it is important to point in the right direction:

• understanding, vision of the world;
• thoughts, intentions;
• words;
• deeds;
• Lifestyle;
• efforts, efforts;
• attention, mental and sensory control;
• concentration, which is achieved by meditation.

Holy books

The main book, like the Bible for Christians, like the Koran for Muslims, for Buddhists is the Tripitaka. It is a collection of scriptures grouped into three different volumes. Hence the name, which translates as "three baskets".

• Vinaya-pitaka. Describes the rules of behavior of monks within the community, about five hundred rituals performed, gives examples from the life of the Awakened One and curious parables about some traditions.
• Sutra-pitaka. Keeps in itself over ten thousand famous sayings of the Teacher, reveals the details of his life.
• Abhidharma-pitaka. A section on the theory of philosophy, which systematizes the concepts, knowledge, fundamental principles of Dharma.

Schools

The Buddhist view over the centuries has spread far beyond the borders of the homeland, drawing thousands of adherents with it. It transformed, changed, flowed from one form to another. The basis of Buddhism remains intact, but still some views on the world order may differ from one direction to another.

In one of them, for example, the personalities of the Buddha are worshiped and deified by bodhisattvas, while in another, no authority other than one's own heart may be recognized. According to one school, only monks who have accepted asceticism can become a Buddhist, the other accepts into its ranks everyone who believes sincerely.

There can be a lot of such examples, therefore it is customary to divide the main currents, which, in turn, are divided into smaller directions.

Theravada

The most ancient school that appeared shortly after Shakyamuni's parinirvana. It is considered the most strict, conservative. According to Theravadins, only a monk can achieve nirvana.

There are no special rituals, a pantheon of saints, images in the form of sculptures. Everything is based on the actions, thoughts and correct behavior of a person.

Mahayana

A school that gives hope even to lay people to break out of the circle of rebirths, which means suffering, and achieve Awakening. It is also known as the "Great Chariot".

This direction represents the images of saints - bodhisattvas, buddhas, so that they help believers in such a difficult matter.

Vajrayana

Known to many also as the "Diamond Chariot", it puts tantra at the center of dharma - the art of self-development, healing through various practices, meditation, self-control, self-awareness.

In our time, the geography of Buddhism is incredibly wide, there are several classifications of its currents, and in their enumeration, many call the average figure eighteen. Among them are Tibetan schools, for example, Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, as well as Japanese Shingon, Zen , Neo-Buddhism and many other offshoots.

Conclusion

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! The Buddhist world is amazing, we are just starting to discover it. Share this article on in social networks and let's search for the truth together.

Buddhism, along with Islam and Christianity, is considered a world religion. This means that she is not defined by the ethnicity of her followers. Anyone can profess it, regardless of race, nationality and place of residence. In the article we will briefly consider the main ideas of Buddhism.

Summary of the Ideas and Philosophy of Buddhism

Briefly about the history of the emergence of Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the most ancient religions in the world. Its origin took place as a counterweight to the prevailing Brahmanism back in the middle of the first millennium BC in the northern part. In philosophy ancient india Buddhism occupied and occupies a key place, closely intertwined with it.

If we consider the emergence of Buddhism briefly, then, according to a separate category of scientists, certain changes in life contributed to this phenomenon. Indian people. Approximately in the middle of the VI century BC. Indian society was overtaken by a cultural and economic crisis.

Those tribal and traditional ties that existed before that time began to gradually undergo changes. It is very important that it was during that period that the formation of class relations took place. There were many ascetics roaming the expanses of India, who formed their own vision of the world, which they shared with other people. So, in opposition to the foundations of that time, Buddhism appeared, which earned recognition among the people.

A large number of scholars believe that the founder of Buddhism was a real man by name Siddhartha Gautama , known as Buddha Shakyamuni . He was born in 560 BC. in a wealthy family of the king of the Shakya tribe. From childhood, he knew neither disappointment nor need, he was surrounded by boundless luxury. And so Siddhartha lived his youth, being ignorant of the existence of disease, old age and death.

The real shock for him was that he once encountered an old man, a sick man and a funeral procession while walking outside the palace. This influenced him so much that at the age of 29 he joins a group of wandering hermits. So he begins the search for the truth of being. Gautama tries to understand the nature of human troubles and tries to find ways to eliminate them. Realizing that an endless series of reincarnations is inevitable if one does not get rid of suffering, he tried to find answers to his questions from the sages.

After spending 6 years wandering, he experienced different techniques, practiced yoga, but came to the conclusion that such methods of enlightenment cannot be achieved. Effective methods he counted meditations and prayers. It was while he was spending time meditating under the Bodhi tree that he experienced enlightenment through which he found the answer to his question.

After his discovery, he spent a few more days at the site of a sudden insight, and then went to the valley. And they began to call him Buddha ("enlightened"). There he began to preach the doctrine to people. The very first sermon took place in Benares.

Basic concepts and ideas of Buddhism

One of the main goals of Buddhism is the path to nirvana. Nirvana is a state of awareness of one's soul, achieved through self-denial, rejection of the comfortable conditions of the external environment. Buddha holding for a long time in meditations and deep reflections, he mastered the method of controlling his own consciousness. In the process, he came to the conclusion that people are very attached to worldly goods, overly worried about the opinions of other people. Because of this human soul not only does not develop, but also degrades. Having reached nirvana, you can lose this addiction.

The essential four truths underlying Buddhism are:

1. There is the concept of dukkha (suffering, anger, fear, self-flagellation and other negatively colored experiences). Everyone is affected by dukkha to a greater or lesser extent.
2. Dukkha always has a cause that contributes to the appearance of addiction - greed, vanity, lust, etc.
3. Addiction and suffering can be overcome.
4. It is possible to be completely free from dukkha through the path leading to nirvana.

The Buddha was of the opinion that it is necessary to adhere to the "middle way", that is, each person must find the "golden" mean between the well-to-do, satiated with luxury, and the ascetic, devoid of all the benefits of humanity, way of life.

There are three main treasures in Buddhism:

1. Buddha - he can be both the creator of the teaching himself, and his follower who has achieved enlightenment.
2. Dharma is the teaching itself, its foundations and principles, and what it can give to its followers.
3. Sangha is a community of Buddhists who adhere to the laws of this religious teaching.

In order to achieve all three jewels, Buddhists resort to fighting three poisons:

• removal from the truth of being and ignorance;
• desires and passions that contribute to the emergence of suffering;
• intemperance, anger, inability to accept anything here and now.

According to the ideas of Buddhism, every person experiences both bodily and mental suffering. Sickness, death and even birth are suffering. But such a state is unnatural, so you need to get rid of it.

Briefly about the philosophy of Buddhism

This doctrine cannot be called only a religion, in the center of which is God, who created the world. Buddhism is a philosophy, the principles of which we will briefly discuss below. The teaching involves assistance in directing a person to the path of self-development and self-awareness.

Buddhism has no idea of ​​what exists eternal soul atoning for sins. However, everything that a person does and how, finds its imprint - it will definitely return to him. This is not divine punishment. These are the consequences of all actions and thoughts that leave traces on one's own karma.

In Buddhism, there are basic truths revealed by the Buddha:

1. Human life is suffering. All things are impermanent and transitory. When it arises, everything must be destroyed. Existence itself is symbolized in Buddhism as a flame that devours itself, and fire can only bring suffering.
2. Suffering comes from desire. Man is so attached to the material aspects of existence that he craves life passionately. The more this desire is, the more he will suffer.
3. Getting rid of suffering is possible only with the help of getting rid of desires. Nirvana is a state upon reaching which a person experiences the extinction of passions and thirst. Thanks to nirvana, a feeling of bliss arises, freedom from the transmigration of souls.
4. To achieve the goal of getting rid of desire, one should resort to the eightfold path of salvation. It is this path that is called the "middle" one, which allows you to get rid of suffering by refusing to go to extremes, which is somewhere between the torture of the flesh and the indulgence of physical pleasures.

The Eightfold Path of Salvation suggests:

• right understanding - the most important thing to do is to realize that the world is full of suffering and sorrow;
• right intentions - you need to take the path of limiting your passions and aspirations, the fundamental basis of which is human egoism;
• correct speech- it should bring good, so you should watch your words (so that they do not exude evil);
• right deeds - one should do good deeds, refrain from non-virtuous deeds;
• the right way of life - only a worthy way of life, not harming all living things, can bring a person closer to getting rid of suffering;
• right efforts - you need to tune in to good, drive away all evil from yourself, carefully following the course of your thoughts;
• right thoughts - the most important evil comes from our own flesh, getting rid of the desires of which you can get rid of suffering;
• correct concentration - the eightfold path requires constant training, concentration.

The first two stages are called prajna and suggest the stage of attaining wisdom. The next three are the regulation of morality and right conduct (sila). The remaining three steps represent the discipline of the mind (samadha).

Directions of Buddhism

The very first who supported the teachings of the Buddha began to gather in a secluded place for the period while it was raining. Since they renounced any property, they were called bhiksha - "beggars". They shaved their heads, dressed in rags (mostly yellow) and moved from place to place.

Their life was unusually ascetic. When it rains, they hide in caves. They were usually buried where they lived, and on the site of their graves a stupa was built (structures-crypts of a domed shape). Their entrances were made blindly immured and buildings of various purposes were built around the stupas.

After the death of the Buddha, a convocation of his followers took place, who canonized the teaching. But the period of the greatest flourishing of Buddhism can be considered the reign of Emperor Ashoka - III century BC. BC.

Can be distinguished three main philosophical schools Buddhism , formed in different periods of the existence of the doctrine:

1. Hinayana. The monk is considered the main ideal of the direction - only he can get rid of reincarnations. There is no pantheon of saints who could intercede for a person, there are no rituals, the concept of hell and paradise, cult sculptures, icons. Everything that happens to a person is the result of his actions, thoughts and lifestyle.
2. Mahayana. Even a layman (of course, if he is pious), along with a monk, can achieve salvation. There is an institution of bodhisattvas, who are saints who help people on the path to their salvation. The concept of paradise, the pantheon of saints, images of buddhas and bodhisattvas also appear.
3. Vajrayana. It is a tantric teaching based on the principles of self-control and meditation.

So, the main idea of ​​Buddhism is that human life is suffering and one should strive to get rid of it. This teaching continues to spread steadily around the planet, gaining more and more supporters.

In our series of articles about Nepal, there are several materials dedicated to Buddhist shrines (for example, stupa), which are important tourist attractions in the country. Many tourists like to visit these places, but Russians know very little about Buddhism, and they simply do not understand much. This small series of articles will give you some knowledge about this religion and make your excursions more interesting.

Key points about Buddhism

The first thing to know is that Buddhism is not a religion in the traditional sense of the word by Russians. Rather, it would be more accurate to call Buddhism an ideology.

Buddhists do not believe in the existence of God, the supreme being and creator of the universe. Of course, in Buddhist cosmology one can find "devas", who are sometimes called "gods". But this notion is wrong. Devas did not create this world and do not decide the fate of people. We can say that they are just people, but from an alternate reality.

You ask: "Who is the Buddha?". He's just a man, a great teacher and real historical character who lived about 2500 years ago. His name is Siddhartha Gautama, he was a prince of one of the Indian principalities.

Therefore, the question is: “Do you believe in Buddha?” sounds as awkward as "Do you believe in Julius Caesar?" or “Do you believe in Ivan the Terrible?”.

Let us dwell in detail on the essence of the concept of Buddha, since most people associate it with Shakyamuni Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), but this is not entirely true. The word "buddha" is translated as "enlightened" or "awakened" and it refers to any person who has attained enlightenment. There were many such living beings, and they were all buddhas.

It is customary to write only the Great Buddhas with a capital letter, and all the rest with a small letter. Among the Great Ones there is the Badda of the Present - these are Shakyamuni and several Great Buddhas of the past. Past Greats according to the canons of different schools from 6 to 21.

Branches of Buddhism

Buddhism has three main branches: Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana.

It is correct to call them the word “flow”, and they should not be associated with the division of churches in Christianity, which many do.

The division of churches among Christians (Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant) is, first of all, an organizational division. Buddhists do not have churches and generally a single organization.

The currents differ in the details of ideology, the list of revered bohitsatvas, views on the processes of purification of the mind and enlightenment.

The well-known Dalai Lama is not the leader of all Buddhists, much less similar to the Pope. His name is Tenjin Gyamtsho, and he is the main Buddhist teacher for Tibetans and Mongols. For example, in neighboring China, Buddhists do not recognize him, but respect him.

The Vajrayana is a very small movement, which many consider integral part Mahayana. It is derived from the word "vajra", which translates as "diamond". There is a sacred object with this name. It can be seen in Nepal near the stupa in Kathmandu.

The relationship of schools of Buddhism

They have always been exceptionally peaceful. Buddhism is generally a very peaceful religion, forbidding any harm to living beings.

Distribution of schools by region

Theravada (or Mahayana or the Little Vehicle) is considered the most ancient school and is often awarded the epithet "orthodox Buddhism". Theravada is widespread in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The number of followers of Theravada is estimated at 100-200 million people.

Mahayana (or Great Vehicle) is much more widespread. This scale of Buddhism is common in Tibet, China, Japan and Korea.

The number of Mahayana followers is much more difficult to estimate, since there is no exact data on the percentage of believers in China. Approximately the number of followers is estimated at 500,000,000 people.

And a separate large branch is the schools of Buddhism in China, many of which are difficult to rank anywhere.

Basic concepts of the philosophy of Buddhism

There are a lot of them, we will dwell on each of them a little, and in the following articles we will describe them in detail.

Karma. It is a fundamental principle that explains the causes and consequences of all actions and events that happen to us. Briefly, the principle of karma can be characterized by the phrase "as you sow, so shall you reap."

incarnations. The principle of rebirth of some living beings in others. This doctrine differs slightly from the principle of "transmigration of souls", as it does not recognize the existence permanent soul, as, for example, the “atman” of the Hindus. Karma as a result of reincarnation passes from one living being to another.

Four noble truths. They were formulated by the Buddha Shakyamuni and are the basis of the ideology of Buddhism. Their translation into Russian is very inaccurate, since there is a serious difference in concepts between languages. In one of the following articles we will talk about this in detail.

We will present four noble truths, but please do not take them too literally.

1. Our whole life is dissatisfaction and suffering.

2. The cause of suffering is thirst.

3. Cessation of suffering - the destruction of thirst.

4. The way is the eightfold path.

As you have noticed, these definitions are very general, they can and should be deciphered, which we will do in one of the following articles.

Enlightenment. A state of mind that has been cleansed of negative thoughts, emotions, and urges to see all things as they really are and achieve nirvana.

Nirvana. A condition that cannot be described in human language. Therefore, we will not describe it.

Samsara. Or the wheel of life. This is the state in which all living beings arrive, except for enlightened minds.

In the following articles, we will cover all this in detail. .

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time; do not acquire; do not use things that have a strong smell or intense color. In addition to the ten basic vows, there were many (up to 250) more

minor prohibitions and restrictions aimed at ensuring a righteous life for the monks. It is clear that the exact observance of them was a considerable psychological burden, which was not easy to endure. Often there were violations - the monk "sinned". For the purpose of purification, twice a month, on the new moon and full moon, the monks gathered for mutual confessions. Depending on the severity of the “sin”, sanctions were also applied, most often expressed in the form of voluntary repentance.

With the spread of monastic communities in India, female sanghas also appeared. They were organized on the model of men's, but all the main ceremonies in them (reception, ordination, confessions, sermons) were carried out by monks specially appointed for this from the nearest male sangha. Monks' visits to the convent were strictly regulated: it was strictly forbidden to cross the threshold of a nun's cell. The few and rare women's monasteries were located, unlike men's, not in deserted and remote places, but close to settlements.

The rules of life for the monks were regulated by the Vinayapi-taki texts, important part Tripitaka. In addition to it, the Buddhist canon included Sutrapitaka, which expounded the essence of the doctrine, and Abidharmapitaka (religious and philosophical texts). All these texts were highly valued by Buddhists, carefully preserved and copied by monks, kept in archive libraries at the largest and famous monasteries. In India in the first centuries of our era, one of the most famous such centers was the Nalanda Monastery, where Buddhist pilgrims flocked from all over, including from China, in order to gain wisdom, get an education, copy and take with them to their countries the sacred texts of the Buddhist canon.

Fundamentals of Buddhism Philosophy

The philosophy of Buddhism is deep and original, although it is based on the general worldview principles and categories developed by the theoreticians of ancient Indian thought even before it arose. First of all, Buddhism denies the reality of the phenomenal world, which is quite natural and logical not only in the History of the Religions of the East, because this kind of denial was the general norm for almost all ancient Indian philosophy, but also because in this denial and is the quintessence of Buddhism as a doctrine: the phenomenal world is the source of suffering; salvation from them lies in leaving this world for the world of higher reality and absolute constancy, i.e., for nirvana.

So, the phenomenal world around us and all of us as part of it is nothing more than a kind of illusion, although this illusion exists objectively. The fact is that a person perceives the world as if through the prism of his sensations, but these sensations are not the result of the subjective ideas of the individual, but a completely objective fact, a consequence of the excitement of dharmas, particles of the universe. The word "dharma" (in Pali - dhamma) in Buddhism has many meanings. They call both the doctrine as a whole, and the Buddhist law, and, finally, the first particles of the universe. These particles are somewhat reminiscent of the elements of the spiritual principle of purusha in the Samkhya system, but they are distinguished by greater internal capacity and diversity. Among them are the dharmas of pure consciousness, the dharmas of the senses (rupa), i.e., those associated with visual, auditory and other perceptions and sensations of a person, the dharmas of the psyche that give rise to emotions, and some others. In total such dharmas in ordinary person, according to various schools of sects of Buddhism, 75-100, or even more.

Everything living in the world consists of dharmas, more precisely, of living moving dharmas. Life, in the strict sense of the word, is a manifestation of the beginningless and almost eternal agitation of dharmas, which constitutes its objective content. Understanding this and trying to calm your waving dharmas is what it means to take life into your own hands and ultimately

to achieve the goal, that is, to achieve Buddhahood, to plunge into nirvana. But how to do that? Any creature, including man, is born, lives and dies. Death is decay

of this complex of dharmas, birth means its restoration, but already in a different, new form. This is what the cycle of life boils down to, the cycle of endless rebirths, which, according to legend, was explained by the Buddha himself in his third sermon addressed to his disciples in Benares. The essence of the sermon is in the teaching about the twelve links-nidans of the cycle of being, the wheel of life. It all starts with the first key link - with avidya, ignorance that obscures the mind. Avidya entails actions caused by ignorance, actions give rise to habitual stereotypes of behavior, focused on the attitudes prevailing in society. Stereotypes form a certain consciousness, in accordance with which forms and categories-names are created, which become objects of perception of the sense organs. Steady contacts arise between the sense organs and forms-categories, as a result of which feelings appear, then desires, passions, a thirst for life. It is this thirst for life that leads to ever new rebirths, the consequence of which is inevitably the old age and death of all that is born.

Thus, the cycle of life begins with ignorance and ends with death. It is determined by the constant agitation of dharmas. Only one who overcomes avidya can calm the turbulent dharmas. Actually, this is what Buddhist monks have always been busy with, this is what they were filled with and led to this by the eight-step path of comprehending the truth and approaching nirvana. The most zealous of the monks sometimes reached the highest stage of holiness, and even were ranked among the holy arhats who had reached or almost reached the state of Buddha and nirvana.

Why did only a few, a few, achieve such a high sacred status? Is it just because of a lack of zeal? No. The thing is that not everyone is able to perceive and even more so to realize the teachings of the Buddha in all its fullness and completeness. They are not able to, because this requires an unclouded consciousness, which is far from being the case for everyone. Why? And here, at this point from the field of philosophy, we move into the sphere of ethics and, in particular, we turn to the central point of all ancient Indian ethics - to the problem of karma and all that it was made up of.

Ethics of Buddhism

In the previous chapter it was already said that the doctrines opposed to Brahmanism made a conscious emphasis on ethics, on the social and moral aspects of people's behavior. Of course, the idea of ​​karma itself as an ethical norm existed before, even being one of the foundations of ancient Indian religious thought, including Brahmanism. But Buddhism, like Jainism, sharply strengthened precisely the ethical moment in its doctrine, turning ethics into the foundation of the entire system of ideas and norms of behavior. To overcome avidya, that is, to comprehend Buddhist knowledge, just meant to accept a rigidly fixed ethical standard as the basis for the foundations of everyday existence. First of all, this concerned religiously active adherents of Buddhism, that is, monks who consciously and purposefully aspired to nirvana. In the early version of Buddhism (Hinayana, or "Narrow Path to Salvation", "Small Path"), it was they who initially constituted the main contingent of supporters and followers of Gautama Shakyamuni. At least in India, before moving to other countries (Ceylon, Indochina) at the turn of our era, Hinayana Buddhism was the teaching of monks and, above all, for them, which noticeably limited its possibilities, despite the active support of such omnipotent rulers as Ashoka.

The code of conduct of a Buddhist monk who longed to achieve nirvana was reduced mainly to the observance of strict ethical standards. And the first five basic vows (identical to those that the Jains had), and all other prohibitions and restrictions came down mainly to this. What was the meaning of such a broad and strict adherence to the path of ethical recommendations and prohibitions? As already mentioned, in the law of karma. If for

Jain karma was a sticky matter (which in no way removed its ethical content and did not lower the high ethical standard of Jainism), then Buddhists, like the entire ancient Indian tradition, considered karma as the sum of the virtues and vices of a given individual, not only in his current life, but and throughout all his previous incarnations. Actually, it was this sum, made up of the known (current life) and the multitude of unknowns (past rebirths), that gave the very result that

V Ultimately, it determined the readiness of a given individual to achieve nirvana, i.e., that degree of uncomplicated consciousness, which contributed to or hindered the perception and, even more so, the realization of the Buddha’s teaching in its entirety and completeness, up to the achievement of the ultimate goal of a zealous monk.

The Buddhist concept of karma bore the imprint of Buddhism's emphasis on ethical standard: karma was understood not so much as actions in general, but as conscious actions or even intentions, moral (kusala) and immoral (akusala). There was a thoroughly developed systematization of various types of consciousness that contributed to the birth of both positive and negative (harmful) karma. Among them

V as the peak, several types of the final, unearthly consciousness, the consciousness of wisdom, are distinguished, the goal of which, like that of the Jains, is to get rid of karma altogether and thereby ensure the possibility of achieving nirvana.

The law of karma, as interpreted by the Buddhists, played a huge role in reinforcing the ethical standard of the lay people who supported Buddhism. Let them not take the path of monks and do not strive for nirvana - each in his own time. But let everyone be well aware that in today's life he can and must lay the foundation for his future karma, and one, having which, in subsequent rebirths, he could expect to have an unclouded consciousness and real chances to nirvana. And for this, everyone must develop and cultivate in themselves such forms of consciousness and behave in such a way that positive karma increases and negative karma weakens. Actually, this was not a discovery of Buddhism. But Buddhism put a sharp emphasis on this. Suffice it to say that the Buddhists - like the Jains - strictly observed the principle of ahimsa. And not only ahimsa, but also the principle of non-causing evil and even non-resistance to evil by violence became one of the leading ethical postulates of Buddhism, as well as later of Hinduism.

As in Jainism, the ethics of early Buddhism in its original form of Hinayana was, despite its quite tangible social resonance, largely individual, even in in a certain sense selfish: everyone behaved towards everyone else and towards society as a whole well only because it was necessary for himself, for the improvement of his karma and for the final liberation from it. The situation changed somewhat with the formation in the north of India of a new direction of doctrine, Mahayana Buddhism (“Wide Path to Salvation”).

Mahayana Buddhism

Buddhism as a doctrine has never been something unified and integral, coming out almost ready-made from the lips of a great teacher, as the legendary traditions say. Even if, with reservations, the reality of the figure of this teacher, Gautama Shakyamuni, is recognized (as was the case, in particular, with Jina, Zoroaster and Jesus), then there is no reason to take on faith the legends associated with the legendary founder. Quite the contrary: there is a lot to be said for the fact that the general principles of the doctrine took shape gradually, on the basis of contradictory components and in various variants, which; later they were reduced to something single and integral, although at the same time there were always disagreements and contradictions within the already established doctrine, which often eventually led to the emergence of semi-autonomous and even completely independent trends and sects.

Buddhism, as far as it is known, has always been torn apart by contradictions between various schools, sects, and trends. Ashoka himself had to intervene in these disputes (in

in particular, at the Third All-Buddhist Council) and to calm the disputing parties. Disputes continued after the Third Council, and they reached the highest intensity within the framework of the doctrine, apparently, at the Fourth Council, convened at the turn of the 1st century. the famous ruler of the North Indian Kushan kingdom Kanishka, a zealous Buddhist and patron of Buddhism. It was at this council that the split between supporters of different directions was formalized, and the supporters of the prevailing direction, headed by the famous Buddhist theorist Nagarjuna, laid the foundations for the independent existence of Mahayana Buddhism.

Of course, Mahayana Buddhism did not emerge in a vacuum. Some experts even believe that the first Mahayanistic sutras are not much older than the Hinayani sutras, so that they can be considered almost simultaneous. However, the point is not at all how ancient those sutras were, which later became part of the Mahayanistic canon. It is more important to note the new that entered the Mahayana precisely when this direction of Buddhism finally took shape as an independent teaching. The new one was sent

V the direction of bringing the doctrine closer to the world, greater familiarization with it of the laity who supported the religion, and finally, turning it into a religion close and understandable to people. Precisely religion, and not teaching, achieves liberation and salvation for a few zealous ascetics. In particular, it was recognized that the piety and alms of a layman are comparable to the merits of a monk and can also noticeably bring him closer, regardless of karma or, having a corresponding effect on it, to the alluring shore of salvation, to nirvana. But the main thing in the Mahayana came down not just to a further strengthening of the emphasis on the ethical norm that was noticeable in Buddhism and previously emphasized, but to a significant change in the very nature of this norm. From individual egoistic ethics in the Mahayana turns into altruistic ethics, which was completely uncharacteristic of the Indian tradition, but very characteristic of many other religions, in particular Christianity.

This found its manifestation in the institution of holy ascetics - bodysatvas, introduced into use and placed very highly by Mahayana Buddhism. Bodhisattva is, ultimately, the same zealous Buddhist monk striving for nirvana. But in the sacred plane, the Bodhisattva is placed above the Hinayana Arhat, who has already reached or almost reached Nirvana. The Bodhisattva has almost reached nirvana. Moreover, he is almost a Buddha who has already plunged into this nirvana (it is far from accidental that the status of some buddhas, for example Maitreya, sometimes seems to fluctuate between a buddha and a bodhisattva - this is both at the same time). Why? The fact is that becoming a Buddha and going into nirvanic non-existence for a body sativa is only the last and logically prepared step. But a bodysattva consciously does not take this step, does not leave people. He stays with them in the world of samsara in order to help them, ease their suffering, and lead them along the path of salvation. And although this task is by no means easy, it is facilitated by the fact that in the Mahayana the problem of karmic clouding of consciousness fades into the background, but the fundamental possibility of achieving Buddhahood is put forward for almost everyone, because

V each living person has the original essence of a Buddha.

Another fundamentally important innovation of the Mahayana was the developed concept of heaven and hell. As for hell, the ideas of the underworld were quite well known both in Middle Eastern mythology and Indo-Iranian. In India, the first man Yama (a variant of the ancient Iranian Yima), who turned out to be the first of the dead and subsequently deified, was considered the lord of hell. Moreover, there is reason to believe that it was from the Indo-Iranian and even primarily Iranian-Zoroastrian ideas that the concept of hell in the New Testament was subsequently borrowed, which turned out to be very connected among Christians with the element of fire - the very element of the Zoroastrians that was called overcome all evil. And although among the Zoroastrians the fire was not supposed to be defiled by contact with evil spirits, including corpses, among Christians, and later in Islam, hell is primarily fiery hell, roasting, etc. However, in India, even taking into account the existence in ancient Indian the mythology of the underworld and the Pit, developed