Signs of the social structure of society. The social structure of society: the concept, elements and their characteristics

Ministry of Education Russian Federation

Russian International Academy of Tourism

Tula branch

Subject: sociology

"The social structure of society"

Completed by: 3rd year student

evening department

Zakhvatova G.I.

Lecturer: Vukolova T.S.

1. Introduction…………………………………………………… 3

2. The concept of the social structure of society ………………. 4

3. Social stratification …………………………………..6

4. Social mobility: ……………………………… 11

4.1. Group mobility……………………………….11

4.2. Individual mobility………………………..13

5. Features of social stratification in Russia ……..15

5.1. Prospects for the formation of the middle class………15

6. Conclusion …………………………………………………19

7. List of used literature ………………………..21

1. Introduction.

In study social phenomena and processes sociology is based on the principles of historicism. This means that, firstly, all social phenomena and processes are considered as systems with a certain internal structure; secondly, the process of their functioning and development is studied; thirdly, specific changes and patterns of their transition from one qualitative state to another are revealed. Society is the most general and complex social system. Society is a relatively stable system of connections and relations between people, formed in the process of the historical development of mankind, supported by customs, traditions and laws, based on a certain method of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual goods. The elements of such a complex social system are people whose social activity is determined by a certain social status that they occupy, social functions (roles) that they perform, social norms and values ​​adopted in this system, as well as individual qualities (social qualities of a person, motives , value orientations, interests, etc.).

Social structure means the objective division of society into separate strata, groups, different in their social status.

Any society strives to preserve inequality, seeing it as an ordering principle, without which it is impossible to reproduce social ties and integrate the new. The same property is inherent in society as a whole. Theories of stratification are called upon to reveal the basic principles of the hierarchical structure of society.

The inviolability of the hierarchical structure of society does not mean that changes do not occur within it. On different stages growth of one and reduction of another layer is possible. These changes cannot be explained by natural population growth. There is either a rise or fall of significant groups. And even the relative stability of social strata does not exclude vertical migration of individual individuals. These movements along the vertical, while maintaining the very stratification structure, we will consider as social mobility.

2. The concept of the social structure of society

Interaction in society usually leads to the formation of new social relations. The latter can be represented as relatively stable and independent links between individuals and social groups.

In sociology, the concepts of "social structure" and "social system" are closely related. A social system is a set of social phenomena and processes that are in relationships and connections with each other and form some integral social object. Separate phenomena and processes act as elements of the system.

concept "social structure of society" is part of the concept of a social system and combines two components - social composition and social ties. Social composition is a set of elements that make up a given structure. The second component is a set of connections of these elements. Thus, the concept of social structure includes, on the one hand, the social composition, or the totality of various types of social communities as the system-forming social elements of society, on the other hand, the social connections of the constituent elements that differ in the breadth of their action, in their significance in the characteristics of the social structure of society at a certain stage of development.

The social structure of society means the objective division of society into separate strata, groups, different in their social position, in their relation to the mode of production. This is a stable connection of elements in a social system. The main elements of the social structure are such social communities as classes and class-like groups, ethnic, professional, socio-demographic groups, socio-territorial communities (city, village, region). Each of these elements, in turn, is a complex social system with its own subsystems and connections. The social structure of society reflects the characteristics of the social relations of classes, professional, cultural, national-ethnic and demographic groups, which are determined by the place and role of each of them in the system of economic relations. The social aspect of any community is concentrated in its connections and mediations with production and class relations in society.

Social structure as a kind of framework for the entire system public relations, that is, as a set of economic, social and political institutions that organize public life. On the one hand, these institutions set a certain network of role positions and normative requirements in relation to specific members of society. On the other hand, they represent certain rather stable ways of the socialization of individuals.

The main principle of determining the social structure of society should be the search for real subjects of social processes.

Subjects can be both individuals and social groups different sizes, allocated for different reasons: youth, working class, religious sect, and so on.

From this point of view, the social structure of society can be represented as a more or less stable correlation of social strata and groups. The theory of social stratification is called upon to study the diversity of hierarchically arranged social strata.

Initially, the idea of ​​a stratified representation of the social structure had a pronounced ideological connotation and was intended to neutralize Marx's idea of ​​the class idea of ​​society and the dominance of class contradictions in history. But gradually the idea of ​​singling out social strata as constituent elements of society was established in social science, because it really reflected the objective differences between different groups of the population within a single class.

Theories of social stratification arose in opposition to the Marxist-Leninist theory of classes and class struggle.

3. Social stratification

The term "stratification" comes from the Latin stratum- layer, layer and facere- do. Thus, social stratification - this is the definition of the vertical sequence of the position of social strata, layers in society, their hierarchy. social stratification is a "differentiating ranking of the individuals of a given social system", it is "a way of viewing individuals as occupying a lower or higher social place relative to each other in some socially important aspects."

Thus, social structure arises over the social division of labor, and social stratification arises over the social distribution of the results of labor, i.e., social benefits.

Sociologists agree that the basis of the stratification structure is the natural and social inequality of people. However, the way inequality was organized could be different. It was necessary to isolate those foundations that would determine the appearance of the vertical structure of society.

So, for example, K. Marx introduced the only basis for the vertical stratification of society - the possession of property. Therefore, its stratification structure was actually reduced to two levels: a class of owners (slave owners, feudal lords, bourgeoisie) and a class deprived of ownership of the means of production (slaves, proletarians) or having very limited rights (peasants). Attempts to present the intelligentsia and some other social groups as intermediate strata between the main classes left the impression of ill-conceived general scheme social hierarchy of the population.

M. Weber increases the number of criteria that determine belonging to a particular stratum. In addition to the economic - the attitude to property and the level of income - he introduces such criteria as social prestige and belonging to certain political circles (parties). Under prestige was understood as the acquisition by an individual from birth or due to personal qualities of such a social status that allowed him to take a certain place in the social hierarchy.

The role of status in the hierarchical structure of society is determined by such an important feature of social life as its normative-value regulation. Thanks to the latter, only those whose status corresponds to the ideas rooted in the mass consciousness about the significance of their title, profession, as well as the norms and laws functioning in society, always rise to the “upper rungs” of the social ladder.

M. Weber's selection of political criteria for stratification still looks insufficiently substantiated. P. Sorokin speaks more clearly about this. He unequivocally points to the impossibility of giving a single set of criteria for belonging to any stratum and notes the presence in society of three stratification structures: economic, professional and political.

In the 1930s and 1940s, an attempt was made in American sociology to overcome the multidimensionality of stratification by asking individuals to determine their own place in the social structure. But this kind of research gave a different result: they showed that consciously or intuitively people feel, realize the hierarchy of society, feel the main parameters, principles that determine the position of a person in society.

So, society reproduces, organizes inequality according to several criteria: according to the level of wealth and income, according to the level of social prestige, according to the level of political power, and also according to some other criteria. It can be argued that all these types of hierarchy are significant for society, as they allow regulating both the reproduction of social ties and directing personal aspirations and ambitions of people towards acquiring socially significant statuses.

The introduction of such a criterion as the level of income led to the fact that, in accordance with it, it was possible to single out a formally infinite number of strata of the population with different levels of well-being. And the appeal to the problem of socio-professional prestige gave grounds to make the stratification structure very similar to the socio-professional one. This is how the division into: 1) the upper class - professionals, administrators; 2) mid-level technical specialists; 3) commercial class; 4) the petty bourgeoisie; 5) technicians and workers performing managerial functions; 6) skilled workers; 7) unskilled workers. And this is not the longest list of the main social strata of society. There was a danger of losing a holistic vision of the stratification structure, which was increasingly replaced by the desire of researchers to distribute individuals according to the "floors" of the social hierarchy.

In our opinion, when developing the most general idea of ​​the social hierarchy of society, it is sufficient to single out three main levels: higher, middle, and lower. The distribution of the population over these levels is possible on all grounds of stratification, and the significance of each of them will be determined by the values ​​and norms prevailing in society, social institutions and ideological attitudes. In modern Western society, which values ​​freedom, the degree of which, alas, is determined not only by political and legal acts, but also by the thickness of the wallet that provides wider access, for example, to education and, consequently, to a prestigious status group, criteria are brought to the fore, providing this freedom: material independence, high income, etc.

As noted above, the root cause of the hierarchical structure of society is social inequality generated by the objective conditions of the life of individuals. But each society strives to organize its own inequality, otherwise people, driven by a sense of injustice, will destroy in righteous anger everything that in their minds is associated with the infringement of their interests.

The hierarchical system of modern society is devoid of its former rigidity. Formally, all citizens have equal rights, including the right to occupy any place in the social structure, to rise to the top rungs of the social ladder or to be “below”. The sharply increased social mobility, however, did not lead to the "erosion" of the hierarchical system. Society still maintains and guards its own hierarchy.

It has been observed that the profile of the vertical section of society is not constant. K. Marx at one time suggested that its configuration would gradually change due to the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few and the significant impoverishment of the bulk of the population. The result of this trend will be the emergence of serious tension between the upper and lower layers of the social hierarchy, which will inevitably result in a struggle for the redistribution of national income. But the growth of wealth and power of the top is not unlimited. There is a "saturation point" beyond which society cannot move without the risk of a major catastrophe. As this point is approached, processes begin in society to contain the pernicious trend, either reforms are carried out to redistribute wealth through the taxation system, or deep revolutionary processes begin, in which broad social strata are involved.

The stability of society is linked to the profile of social stratification. Excessive "stretching" of the latter is fraught with serious social cataclysms, uprisings, bringing chaos, violence, hindering the development of society. The thickening of the stratification profile, primarily due to the “truncation” of the top of the cone, is a phenomenon that is repeated in the history of all societies. And it is important that it be carried out not through uncontrolled spontaneous processes, but through a consciously pursued state policy.

The described process has reverse side. Compaction of the stratification profile should not be excessive. Inequality is not only an objective reality of social life, but also an important source of social development. Equation in income, in relation to property. The authorities deprive individuals of an important internal stimulus to action, to self-realization, self-affirmation, and society - the only energy source of development.

The idea that the stability of the hierarchical structure of society depends on the proportion and role of the middle stratum or class seems fruitful. Occupying an intermediate position middle class performs a kind of connecting role between the two poles of the social hierarchy, reducing their confrontation. The larger (in quantitative terms) the middle class, the more chances it has to influence the policy of the state, the process of forming the fundamental values ​​of society, the worldview of citizens, while avoiding the extremes inherent in opposing forces.

4. Social mobility

Social mobility - this is a mechanism of social stratification, which is associated with a change in the position of a person in the system of social statuses. If a person's status is changed to a more prestigious, better one, then we can say that upward mobility has taken place.

However, a person as a result of job loss, illness, etc. can also move to a lower status group - in this case, downward mobility is triggered.

In addition to vertical movements (downward and upward mobility), there are horizontal movements, which are made up of natural mobility (transition from one job to another without changing status) and territorial mobility (moving from city to city).

4.1. group mobility

Group mobility introduces major changes in the stratification structure, often affects the ratio of the main social strata and, as a rule, is associated with the emergence of new groups whose status no longer corresponds to the existing hierarchy system.

For example: by the middle of the twentieth century, managers became such a group. large enterprises. It is no coincidence that on the basis of a generalization of the changed role of managers in Western sociology, the concept of a “revolution of managers” is being formed, according to which the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, supplementing and even displacing the class of owners somewhere.

Group movements along the vertical are especially intense during the restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups promotes massive movement up the hierarchical ladder. The fall in the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provoke not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal strata, uniting people who are losing their usual position in society, losing the achieved level of consumption. Socio-cultural values ​​and norms that previously united them and predetermined their stable place in the social hierarchy are “washed out”.

During periods of acute social cataclysms, a radical change in socio-political structures, an almost complete renewal of the highest echelons of society can occur.

Economic crises, accompanied by a massive decline in the level of material well-being, rising unemployment, a sharp increase in the income gap, become the root cause of the numerical growth of the most disadvantaged part of the population, which always forms the base of the pyramid of the social hierarchy. Under such conditions, the downward movement does not involve individuals, but entire groups. The fall of a social group may be temporary, or it may become permanent. In the first case, the position of the social group "corrects", it returns to its usual place as it overcomes economic difficulties. In the second, the descent is final. The group changes its social status and begins a difficult period of its adaptation to a new place in the social hierarchy.

So, mass group movements along the vertical are connected, Firstly, with deep serious changes in the socio-economic structure of society, causing the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to win a place in the social hierarchy corresponding to their strength and influence. Secondly, with the change of ideological guidelines, value systems and norms, political priorities. In this case, there is a movement "upward" of those political forces that were able to catch changes in the mindset, orientations and ideals of the population.

4.2 Individual social mobility.

In a steadily developing society, vertical movements are not of a group, but of an individual nature. That is, it is not economic, political or professional groups that go up and down the steps of the social ladder, but their individual representatives, more or less successful, striving to overcome the attraction of the usual socio-cultural environment. The fact is that an individual who has set off on a difficult path “upstairs” goes on his own. And if successful, he will not only change his position in the vertical hierarchy, but also change his social professional group. The range of professions with vertical structure, as, for example, in the artistic world - stars with millions of dollars, and artists who live by odd jobs; limited and of no fundamental importance to society as a whole. The worker who has successfully proved himself in the political arena and made a career, rising to the ministerial portfolio, breaks with his place in the social hierarchy and with his professional group. A ruined entrepreneur falls "down", losing not only a prestigious place in society, but also the opportunity to engage in his usual business.

In society, social institutions regulate the vertical movement, the uniqueness of culture, the way of life of each layer, allow each nominee to be tested "for strength", for compliance with the norms and principles of the stratum in which he falls. Thus, the education system provides not only the socialization of the individual, its training, but also plays the role of a kind of "social elevator", which allows the most capable and gifted to rise to the "higher floors" of the social hierarchy. Political parties and organizations form the political elite, the institution of property and inheritance strengthens the class of owners, the institution of marriage makes it possible to move even in the absence of outstanding intellectual abilities.

However, using the driving force of some social institution to rise "up" is not always enough. In order to gain a foothold in a new stratum, it is necessary to accept its way of life, organically fit into its socio-cultural environment, build one's behavior in accordance with accepted norms and rules. A person is often forced to say goodbye to old habits, reconsider his entire system of values, and at first control his every act. Adaptation to a new socio-cultural environment requires high psychological stress, which is fraught with loss of connection with their former social environment. A person can forever be an outcast in the social stratum where he aspired, or in which he ended up by the will of fate, if we are talking about downward movement.

The phenomenon of a person being, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called in sociology marginality .

Marginal, a marginal personality is an individual who has lost his former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual activities, and, moreover, who has turned out to be unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. His individual value system, formed in a different cultural environment, turned out to be so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules.

In the view of many people, success in life is associated with reaching the heights of the social hierarchy.

5.Features of social stratification in Russia.

The “erosion” of the middle stratum, which is possible during periods of economic crises, is fraught with serious shocks for society. The impoverishment in the conditions of price liberalization and falling production of the bulk of the Russian population sharply upset the social balance in society, led to the forefront of the demands of the lumpen part of the population, which, as experience shows, carries a large destructive charge, aimed mainly at redistribution, and not for the creation of national wealth.

5.1 Prospects for the formation of the middle class .

What are the prospects for the formation of a middle class in our country today? In many ways, they depend on the successful adaptation of the population, the formation of productive models of socio-economic behavior that are adequate to the current economic situation. The characteristics of the adaptation process are now clear. First of all, the previously dominant hopes for the state are being replaced by a significantly greater orientation of the population towards their own strengths and capabilities. Rigidly defined and organic types of socio-economic behavior give way to a variety of types of social action. The direct and direct economic and ideological control of power is being replaced by such universal regulators as money and legal norms. New ways and standards of behavior are due to various sources of formation, although they are often not corrected or stable. moral standards or legal sanctions.

The lack of demand for qualified personnel or demand only if there are necessary connections deforms the chain: education - qualifications - income - long-term savings - consumption level, which ensures the formation and development of the middle class. Education does not guarantee a job with growth prospects. Work does not guarantee income: salaries for representatives of the same profession in the private and public sectors differ by an order of magnitude. Income does not guarantee status, as many sources of high income are illegal. And the inconsistency of legislation, the imperfection of the tax system turn almost any enterprise into a delinquent and force the owners of enterprises, when hiring employees, to pay attention not only to their professional and business qualities, but to factors confirming their unconditional "reliability".

Interestingly, the factor of having savings was not favored in any group. Today, only one third of the population answered positively to the question: "Do you have a certain margin of safety that will allow you to hold out if the economic situation deteriorates?" Twice as many respondents answered this question in the negative.

Studies have shown that with the growth of savings, their share in cash increases. The responses received in the course of focused interviews point to instability in the country and the unreliability of banks as the main reasons for reducing private investment potential. Respondents believe that society has not left the strip of instability, a sharp change in the principles of financial policy is not ruled out. The lack of trust in the government and its financial institutions deprives the potential middle class of the opportunity to build long-term strategies for increasing prosperity and transfers a significant part of possible savings into the sphere of consumption

In general, the data presented in the literature testify to the limited scale of adaptation processes and to crisis phenomena in the process of adaptation, and the generation of 40-50 year olds, i.e. people who are of active working age and, thanks to their experience and qualifications, who have sufficiently high social ambitions. In this group of respondents, either disillusionment with the reforms is growing or their rejection is strengthening. This generation, which usually makes up the core of the middle class - the layer of social stability - did not become such, but, on the contrary, turned into a large destabilizing group.

Poorly adapted strata in half of the cases consider their social status as average, which primarily indicates the unfulfillment of the educational and professional qualification potential in the process of adaptation: the status positions formed in the past are not confirmed by the practice of adaptation, but remain in the minds of the respondents. The “success group” is rather characterized by an underestimation of social status (about 10% of respondents consider their social status as below average). In our opinion, main reason low social self-esteem here is the fact that the methods of adaptation (for example, sources of income that form a “decent financial position”) are not prestigious by the standards previously adopted in society.

Thus, the imbalance in the relationship between status-role positions and social identity also speaks of the crisis nature of adaptation, which “results” in unstable forms. social behavior. The impossibility of the majority of the population realizing their socio-economic aspirations, raising or at least maintaining their social status will block progress in all other areas of transformation and create social tension.

One cannot ignore the political self-identification of the potential middle class, which, in principle, should reflect its orientation towards the stability of the political situation. Political self-identification consists, first of all, in the delegation of power in the form of electoral behavior. Once in the sphere of interaction between various political parties and movements, the individual must make a “conscious choice” in favor of a political organization that best expresses his interests. In conditions when the traditional political scale of the Western European type does not “work”, and rational pragmatism is not supported institutionally, the task of finding a “working” indicator of political identification arises.

The results of our research clearly indicate the presence of a social base that supports pragmatic reformers who have levers of real power. For this part of the population of the electorate, it is not so much the ideological context and populist rhetoric that is important, but the guarantee of stability and continuity of power, ensuring the preservation of the rules by which a significant part of the population has already learned to live.

This is an extremely important issue, because the success of the reforms, the creation of a new democratic society with a market mechanism largely depends on the possibilities for the formation of a middle class. According to some data, today about 15% of the employed in national economy population can be assigned to this social category, but it is likely that its social maturation to the "critical mass" will require a lot of time. Already, there has been a trend towards the formation of separate social strata classified as the middle class - businessmen, entrepreneurs, managers, certain categories of scientific and technical intelligentsia, highly skilled workers who are interested in implementing reforms. However, this trend is very contradictory, because are common socio-political the interests of various social strata, potentially forming the middle class, are not supported by the processes of their convergence according to such an important criterion as the level of income and the prestige of professions.

6. Conclusion.

Based on all of the above, we can say that the middle class in Russian society is not large enough and its boundaries are very "blurred".

The emergence of the middle class is accompanied by a change in the entire social structure of society. Traditional classes and layers lose their clear outlines, blur. A highly skilled worker can be both a member of the working class and the middle class. According to some signs, spheres of life "stronger" may be his belonging to his class, to his stratum in it, and according to other signs - to the middle class. A second social structure appears, as it were, despite the fact that the first (traditional class) structure has by no means lost its significance. Leaving aside the question of the functions of the middle class, let us dwell on the obstacles that the process of the formation of the middle class in Russia is now encountering. These obstacles are:

Insufficiency of a layer of modern highly qualified workers, specialists, managers, etc., there are relatively few of them in Russia, the quality of an employee cannot significantly exceed the quality of the material and technical base on which he works;

Lack of demand by society and what is, due to the deep economic crisis that accompanies the transition of the economy to market relations;

The low standard of living, the incomes of those groups that could in the future make up the middle class;

The instability of the statuses of most social groups, including new ones, is due not only to the crisis and transition, but also to the fact that property is not yet provided with a system of social institutions that ensure its protection and normal functioning.

The formation of the middle class, apparently, is a necessary stage in the development of a socially-oriented market economy. However, the period of its rather definite existence in the social structure of post-industrial society may turn out to be quite short. If the tendency to equalize the position of different classes, groups, strata is strong enough, then the boundaries of the middle class will gradually become less clear.

Thus, the structural formation of the middle class is possible in the presence of a consistent and complementary set of internal and external factors. The internal ones include the development of autonomous activity, a clear delineation of the range of social interests, group identification, the formation of a system of sociocultural values, norms and sanctions, and the external ones include the stabilization of socio-economic and political institutions and the ability of society to reproduce this stability, under which follows understand not the conservation of the existing order, but the predictability and openness of the actions of the authorities.

Bibliography.

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In sociological theory, the social structure of a society is understood as a set of interrelated and ordered relative to each other social groups and statuses that occupy different places in the system of social "equality - inequality" of a given society. These groups and statuses are, firstly, interconnected by political, economic and cultural relations; secondly, they are the subjects of the functioning of all social institutions of a given society.

The concept of social status (rank) characterizes the place of the individual in the system of social relations, his activities in the main areas of life and the assessment of the individual's activities by society, expressed in certain quantitative and qualitative indicators, as well as self-esteem, which may or may not coincide with the assessment of society or social group.

The social structure of society reflects two major characteristics of society: social inequality, stratification, that is, the vertical ordering of groups and statuses and social heterogeneity, differentiation, that is, the horizontal ordering of groups and statuses relative to each other. vertical, the ordering of groups and statuses is carried out on the basis of rank criteria: attitude to property, income, wealth, power, prestige, education, position. G horizontal - based on nominal criteria: gender, race, ethnicity, religion, place of residence, language, political orientation, etc.

The allocation of social groups according to rank and nominal criteria, located "higher or lower", indicates social inequality in society, located horizontally - the existence of heterogeneity (heterogeneity) in society. The totality of these criteria can be attributed both to an individual and to each social group and will determine their place in the social structure of society.

The experience of studying many societies at various stages of historical development shows that nominal criteria in a certain cultural environment can turn into ranking ones. The division of people according to rank characteristics within the framework of nominal criteria ultimately has a negative effect on people's relationships, is perceived as social injustice leads to conflicts, threatens the stability and well-being of society.

At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "social injustice" and "social inequality". Social inequality is understood as unequal access of social groups and individuals of society to social benefits. Inequality existed in all societies, even the most primitive ones. Its presence and reproduction (within certain limits) is a necessary condition for the existence and functioning of society.

Social inequality is the most important characteristic society reflected in its social structure. Therefore, very often, the social structure is understood only as a hierarchical (vertical) arrangement of social groups, that is, occupying an unequal position in society. The vertical section of the social structure of society is designated by the term "social stratification" - a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality. This structure is stably supported and regulated by various institutional mechanisms, constantly reproduced and modified, which is a condition for the orderly existence of any society and a source of its development.

The hierarchically organized structure of social inequality can be represented as a division of the whole society into strata (translated from Latin - layer). Compared with simple stratification (differentiation) of groups and individuals, social stratification has two significant differences. Firstly, it represents a rank stratification, when the upper strata are in a more privileged position than the lower strata. Secondly, the upper strata are much smaller in terms of the number of members of society included in them.

All modern societies have several types of stratification, according to which groups and individuals are ranked by layers. For example, P. Sorokin believed that stratification in society can be represented by three types of structures: socio-economic, socio-political and socio-professional. This means that groups and individuals in society are divided according to the criteria of wealth and income, power and influence on the behavior of members of society, and according to criteria related to the performance of social roles (certain functions in society), which are evaluated and rewarded differently.

From the point of view of structural functionalism, stratification is based on the value orientations of members of society. At the same time, the evaluation and attribution of people to certain social strata (strata) is carried out according to the following main criteria: Firstly, qualitative characteristics that are determined by genetic status (origin, family ties); Secondly, role characteristics, which are determined by the set of roles that an individual performs in society (position, skill level, level of knowledge, and so on); Thirdly, characteristics of possession of material and spiritual values ​​(money, means of production, opportunities to influence other sectors of society, and so on).

The main criteria for the stratification of modern society are: property, income, wealth, amount of power, prestige.

Income - the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain time. Income is received in the form wages, pensions, scholarships, allowances, fees, dividends and more. Incomes are spent on maintaining life, but if they are very high, they accumulate and turn into wealth.

Wealth - accumulated income, that is, the amount of money or things (embodied money). The latter act as movable or immovable property. Usually wealth is inherited.

Power - the ability to impose one's will against the will of others. In a complex society, it is protected by laws and traditions, it allows making decisions that are vital for society, including laws. In all societies, people with some form of power (economic, political, religious) constitute an institutionalized elite.

Prestige - respect, which in public opinion enjoys a particular profession, position or occupation. The profession of a lawyer is more prestigious than the profession of a janitor, the president of a commercial bank is more prestigious than the position of an accountant. In other words, all professions, occupations and positions that exist in a given society can be placed from top to bottom on the ladder of professional prestige.

Income, power, wealth, prestige determine the total social status, that is, the position and place of the individual in the hierarchical system of society. A set of individuals with the same or similar statuses form the strata (strata) of society. There are four main historical systems of stratification: slavery, castes, estates and classes.

Slavery - historically the first system of social stratification. This is the most pronounced form of inequality, in which a part of individuals literally belongs to others as their own.

Caste - a closed community of people connected by the unity of hereditary profession and social status. Membership in a caste is due solely to birth and cannot move from one caste to another. Castes of priests, farmers, artisans, warriors, and others existed in a number of countries, but they retain special significance in modern India.

Estates - social communities in slave-owning, feudal societies, which have legally hereditary privileges and duties enshrined in customs.

The stratification system of most modern societies allows people to move freely up and down the social ladder. Such a system is called social-class stratification. Its main elements are social communities of people, which are called "classes" and "strata" (layers).

In the history of sociology, the concept of "class" was most actively used and developed in the sociology of Marxism. From the point of view of K. Marx and his followers, the very existence of classes is associated only with certain historical phases of the development of society. With the elimination of private property, as the basis of the class division of society, classes will wither away, and, accordingly, class inequality, exploitation, conflicts, struggle and antagonism between them will also die.

The main criteria for dividing society into classes are economic and production-professional features. On this basis, modern sociologists distinguish between the upper class (owners of society's economic resources), the lower class (industrial wage workers) and the middle class (or middle classes).

strata include many people with some common feature his position. As such, signs of various character can act: economic, political, cultural, production, etc. As a result, people can simultaneously belong to the same class and the same stratum. On the other hand, people belonging to different classes may find themselves in the same stratum, singled out, for example, on the basis of education or political orientation. At the same time, it should be noted that the basis for distinguishing a stratum is not any sign, but only a status one, that is, one that objectively acquires in a given society a rank character “higher-lower”, “prestigious-non-prestigious”, “better-worse”.

Thus, strata, in contrast to a class, are formed not only according to purely objective (economic or production-professional) characteristics, but also according to characteristics associated with cultural and psychological assessment. Classes are distinguished by their relation to the means of production, ways of accessing various benefits: strata are in terms of the forms and volume of goods consumed, in terms of the reproduction of the status position itself, which forms an unequal way of life among representatives of different strata (strata).

Let us now consider those ranking features that allow us to distinguish strata or rank certain social statuses in the process of evaluating them by people in various life situations, as well as the layers that are distinguished on the basis of these features and indicators.

Signs related to the economic situation of people, that is, the presence of private property, types and amounts of income, the level of material well-being;

Signs associated with the types and nature of work, the hierarchy of professional statuses, skill level, special education;

Signs associated with the scope of power;

Signs associated with social prestige, authority, that is, those positive values ​​that people attach to specific professions, positions, roles in society.

Along with this, there is a whole range of signs, the role of which in stratification can either act in a latent form, or vary from a number of circumstances, therefore it is more accurate to call them nominal stratification signs. These include:

Gender and age characteristics of people, which affects the possibilities of their implementation of various roles;

Ethno-national qualities act to the extent that they acquire generally significant importance in society;

Religious affiliation also affects stratification to the extent that religious beliefs are associated in a particular society with the role and status positions of people;

Cultural and ideological positions acquire stratification significance in cases where, dividing people into different groups, they stimulate unequal social actions of representatives of these groups, which acquire a different rank character in society;

Signs related to the place of residence, the most significant in this regard is the division into residents of the city and the village, the center and the province;

Signs determined by the nature of family relations, family ties.

Along with the above, there are a number of special features that make it possible to single out strata with a specific status value. These signs and layers are as follows:

Marginal position in society; accordingly, the unemployed, the disabled, pensioners, persons without a place of residence and a certain type of occupation, and others are singled out;

Illegal behavior: ITU contingent, representatives of the criminal world, mafia groups and others.

All the selected features, being important in the division of roles according to a hierarchical principle, do not exhaust the entire list of characteristics associated with these processes. Therefore, to characterize a stratum (layer) by one or two signs means an extreme simplification of the stratification of society. The multidimensional approach makes it possible to display an extremely complex interweaving of features that affect social stratification.

Among the models of stratification in Western sociology, the most famous is the model of W.L. Warner. From his point of view, six social classes are distinguished in modern society (the term "social class" is identical to the term "multidimensional stratum", that is, a stratum identified on the basis of many stratification features).

Firstly, upper upper class. It is made up of representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties, with very significant resources of power, wealth and prestige throughout the country.

Secondly, the lower upper class, which is made up of bankers, prominent politicians, owners of large firms who have reached the highest status in the course of competition or due to various qualities. They cannot be accepted into the higher upper class, either because they are considered upstarts, or because they do not have sufficient influence in all areas of the activity of this society.

Third, the upper middle class includes successful businessmen, prominent lawyers, doctors, company managers, pop stars, cinema, sports, and the scientific elite. They enjoy high prestige in their fields of activity. Usually representatives of this class are people who are said to be "the wealth of the nation."

Fourth, lower - the middle class, which is made up of representatives of small and medium-sized businesses, farmers, employees - intellectuals, engineering and technical workers, administrative staff, teachers, scientists, part of the service sector workers, highly skilled workers, etc.

Fifth, upper - lower class, which is mainly wage workers who create surplus value. This class throughout its existence struggled to improve the conditions of life.

At sixth, lower - the lower class, it is made up of the unemployed, the homeless, and other representatives of marginalized groups of the population.

The main part (up to 60-70% of the population) of a modern developed society is the "middle class". Its qualitative criteria are reduced to the level of income, standards of consumption, level of education, possession of material and intellectual property, and the ability to work in a highly skilled manner. For representatives of this class, a very important point is the economic, social and political stability in society, the basis of which they are.

In every society there are social statuses associated with the performance of unpleasant, dangerous, dirty, non-prestigious activities. In these cases, society uses various additional methods of reward to fill in statuses: money, prestige, honor, etc. If, with the help of rewards, it is not possible to solve the problem of filling unattractive statuses, a system of coercion and restrictions in education, culture, discrimination work.

At the same time, society provides opportunities for the promotion of representatives of the lower class to a higher one. This allows avoiding the aggravation of social conflicts and ensures its sustainable development. Society also seeks to get rid of the root cause of such inequality. Thus, in many countries there is a decrease in the number of unattractive statuses due to mechanization and automation, as well as by changing social policy regarding prestige and reward.

1. The concept of the social structure of society.

2. Social statuses and roles.

3. Social groups, communities, institutions, organizations.

4. Classification and stratification of society.

5.Features of the development of the social structure of Ukrainian society.

The social structure of society- a set of elements of society and the relationship between them. The elements of the social structure are the social statuses and roles of the individual, social groups and communities, social institutions and organizations.

social status- this is the position of a person in society (son, daughter, student, student, worker, teacher, technologist, man, woman, pensioner ...) Each status corresponds to a certain social role.

social role- this is a certain behavior and mode of action of a person that correspond to the norms accepted in society and the position of a person in society, his status.

Society consists of many statuses filled with people. The higher the level of development of a society, the more statuses (professional, marital, political, religious, economic, etc.)

social group- this is a certain association of people who have common natural and social characteristics and are united by common interests, values, norms, traditions, a system of certain relations.

The main types of social groups:

Small - family, class, student group, brigade, company, platoon ...

Medium - residents of Kramatorsk, Donetsk region, factory workers ...

Large - social strata, professional groups, men, women, youth, pensioners ...

Social community - it is a really existing set of individuals on the scale of the country, the state and the planet as a whole. For example, nations, ethnos, fans, fans, crowd, public, fighters for world peace, participants in broad political and environmental movements ... Social groups are part of social communities.

Social institution - it is a form of organized activity of people, it is a complex of formal and informal norms, rules, principles that regulate various spheres of human activity.

Social institutions modern society: the institution of the family, the institution of the presidency, the institution of politics, economics, education, religion ... Social institutions are symbols of order and organization in society.

Social organizations- these are any organizations and enterprises in society that have specific goals and functions (factory, bank, restaurant, school ...)

The most relevant today is division of society into classes (classification) and strata (stratification).

Classes - these are large social groups whose members are similar or different in relation to the means of production, in terms of their role in public organization labor, size and form of income.

1. Workers - people employed in industrial production, creators of wealth.

2.Workers Agriculture- people who produce crop and livestock products.

3. Employees - people providing services (transport, communications, medicine, housing and communal services, catering, military, civil servants ...).

4. Intelligentsia - people who produce spiritual values ​​(science, culture, education ...).

5. Entrepreneurs.

6. Clergy.

The classification shows a horizontal section of society.

The division of society into classes was opposed by Western sociology of the twentieth century. strata (stratification)- these are the strata of society that are formed according to certain characteristics:

1. Wealth, income and its size.

2. Power and influence.

3. The prestige of the profession.

4. Education.

In accordance with these characteristics, society is divided into the upper stratum, the middle stratum and the lower stratum. Stratification shows a vertical section of society, indicating the inequality of people. But inequality is an important source of social development.

Social mobility - it is the transition of people from one stratum and groups of society to another. Distinguish between vertical and horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is movement at one level of the social structure (turner 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 categories)

Vertical mobility is different movements "up" - "down" in the social structure (worker - engineer - plant manager - minister-prisoner).

Features of the development of the social structure of Ukrainian society:

1. Significant social stratification and the formation of "new rich" and "new poor".

2. Unformed middle class (in Ukraine - 15%, in the USA - more than 80% of the population).

3. Significant redistribution of employment among the sectors of the economy.

4. High social mobility and instability of the social structure as a whole.

5.Mass marginalization of society (loss of the norms and values ​​of morality, the meaning of life, one's place in society).

SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION OF SOCIETY

The concept of social structure and stratification.

Theories of social structure and social stratification, their main differences.

Historical systems of social stratification.

Social mobility: concept, types, types.

The social structure of modern Belarusian society

concept social structure and stratification.

People differ among themselves in many ways: gender, age, skin color, religion, ethnicity, etc. But these differences become social only when they affect the position of a person, a social group on the ladder of the social hierarchy. Social differences determine social inequality, which implies the existence of discrimination on various grounds: skin color - racism, gender - sexism, ethnicity - ethno-nationalism, age - ageism.

Between people in society there are differences of a social, biological, psychological nature. Social differences are called differences that are generated by social factors, such as: division of labor, lifestyle, functions performed, level of prosperity, etc. Modern society is characterized by the multiplication (growth) of social differences. Society is not only extremely differentiated and consists of many social groups, classes, communities, but also hierarchized: some layers have more power, more wealth, have a number of obvious advantages and privileges compared to others. Therefore, we can say that society has a social structure.

social structure- this is a stable set of elements, as well as connections and relationships that groups and communities of people enter into regarding the conditions of their life .

The initial element of the social structure of society is a person. The main elements of the social structure are:

Social communities (large and small groups).

professional groups.

Socio-demographic groups (societies distinguished by gender and age),

Socio-territorial communities (these are aggregates of people permanently residing in a certain territory, formed on the basis of socio-territorial differences, having a similar lifestyle),

Socio-ethnic groups (races, nations, nationalities, tribes),

Social classes and social strata (these are aggregates of people who have common social characteristics and perform similar functions in the system of social division of labor).

Classes stand out in connection with the attitude to the ownership of the means of production and the nature of the appropriation of goods. Social strata (or strata) are distinguished on the basis of differences in the nature of work and lifestyle (it is the differences in lifestyle that are most obvious).

The largest unit in the social structuring of society is the class. In sociology, there are various definitions of this concept. V. Lenin gave the best definition of classes, showing that classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in the system of production, in their attitude to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, in the methods of obtaining and the size of that share of social wealth which they have.

The social class structure of society is always mobile. Some classes and social groups disappear, new ones appear. At the same time, there is always a class in society that performs the functions of a leader. In the context of the scientific, technological and information revolution, the emerging transition to a post-industrial society, those social groups become such, in which the potential for a qualitative breakthrough in the development of society accumulates. One can definitely say that with the development of society, its social structure becomes more and more complicated and individual groups of people are, as it were, at the junctions of different classes and social groups.

Important elements of the social structure of society are social communities and groups. Unlike mass communities, social groups are characterized by: stable interaction, which contributes to the strength and stability of their existence; relatively a high degree unity and cohesion, the ability to enter into broader social ranks as structural units.

Sociologists define a social group as a set of people who interact with each other in a certain way, are aware of their belonging to this group and are considered members of it from the point of view of other people.

There are the following types of social groups:

aggregation- a certain number of people gathered in a certain physical space and not performing conscious interactions (queuing in a store, fellow travelers on a train). It happens that the whole aggregation can become a group.

Big a group is a collection of people united by a common feature that determines its existence as a relatively independent stable entity, all members of which cannot enter into direct communication due to their large number. Large groups are represented by states, nations, nationalities, parties, classes, and other social communities distinguished by professional, economic, religious, cultural, educational, age, gender, and various other characteristics. Through these groups, the impact of the ideology of society on the psychology of their constituent people is indirectly carried out.

The direct conductor of the influence of society and large social groups on the individual is small group. It is a small association of people (from 2-3 to 20-30 people) engaged in some common cause and in direct relationship with each other. A small group is a small number of directly contacting individuals who carry out joint activities. Small groups are characterized by the following features: small and stable composition (as a rule, from three to thirty people); spatial proximity of group members; stability and duration of functioning, intensity of interpersonal interactions; a high degree of coincidence of group values, norms and rules of behavior; a developed sense of belonging to a group; informal control and information saturation of communication.

According to the nature of interaction, social groups are divided into primary and secondary. Under primary a social group is understood as a group in which interaction is direct, interpersonal in nature and involves mutual support. The concept of "primary group" was introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist and social psychologist Charles Cooley (1864-1929) in relation to the family, where the individual receives the first experience of social communication. Later, this term was used by sociologists in the study of any group in which close personal relationships have developed (a group of friends, peers, neighbors, etc.). The primary group is a kind of initial link between the individual and society. As secondary a group acts, the interaction in which is due to the achievement of a specific goal and is of a formal business nature. In such groups, the main importance is given not to the personal qualities of the group members, but to their ability to perform certain roles and functions. Secondary groups have an institutionalized system of relations, and their activities are regulated on the basis of formalized rules. Examples of such groups are industrial and economic organizations, trade unions, educational teams, political parties, etc.

In addition, the groups are divided into conditional (nominal) and real. conditional, or nominal- these are groups that are distinguished, as a rule, for the purposes of sociological research on the basis of random signs that do not have special social significance. For example, the nominal group would be a population of single mothers, or a population of people who know how to use a computer. In contrast to the nominal groups, there are real. They are really existing associations of people that fully meet the definition of a small group.

Formal and informal(another name - official and unofficial). formal group- this is a group with a legal status, interaction in which is determined by a system of formalized norms and rules. These groups have a normatively fixed hierarchical structure and act in accordance with the established administrative and legal order. informal group is a non-legal group that arises on the basis of interpersonal interactions. Such groups are deprived of official regulation and are held together by a commonality of views and interests of individuals. These groups are usually led by informal leaders.

Small groups can be reference And non-referential. A reference group is any real or conditional (nominal) small group to which a person voluntarily classifies himself or of which he would like to become a member. Otherwise, this group can be called a reference group. In the reference group, the individual finds role models for himself. Its goals and values, norms and forms of behavior, thoughts and feelings, judgments and opinions become significant models for him to follow and follow. A non-reference group is considered to be such a small group, the psychology and behavior of which are alien to the individual or indifferent to him.

All natural groups can be divided into highly developed And underdeveloped. Underdeveloped groups are characterized by the fact that they do not have sufficient psychological community, well-established business and personal relationships, an established structure of interaction, a clear distribution of responsibilities, recognized leaders, and effective teamwork. The latter are socio-psychological communities that meet all the requirements listed above. Underdeveloped, by definition, are, for example, conditional and laboratory groups (the latter often only at the first stages of their functioning). Collectives stand out among the highly developed groups. In a team, interpersonal relationships are based on mutual trust of people, openness, honesty, decency, mutual respect, etc.

In order to call a social group a collective, it must meet a number of very high requirements: successfully cope with the tasks assigned to it (be effective in relation to its main activity), have high morals, good human relations, create an opportunity for each of its members to develop as personality, to be capable of creativity, i.e. how a group can give people more than the sum of the same number of individuals working individually can give.

The concept of social stratification.

The social structure reflects the “vertical section” of society, however, all the constituent elements in society are located in a certain hierarchy, it is reflected by social stratification (“horizontal section”). The term "stratum" was borrowed from geology (layer earth's crust), and was first used in sociology by Pitirim Sorokin in the 1920s.

Social stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society in a certain historical period.

The concept of "stratification" is different from the term "stratification". Stratification means rank stratification, i.e. the upper strata are in a privileged position in comparison with the lower ones. In addition, as a rule, the upper strata are much smaller in number than the lower ones. However, in a modern developed society, this proportion is broken, and the middle class prevails in the social structure.

Rice is a pyramid and a rhombus. Pyramid of the Commonwealth.

Stratification implies that certain social differences between people acquire the character of a hierarchical ranking. In the most general way inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption.

In the theory of stratification, the problem of equality - inequality is constantly discussed. At the same time, under equality understand:

1. personal equality;

2. equality of opportunities to achieve the desired goals (equality of chances);

3. equality of living conditions (welfare, education, etc.);

4. equality of results.

Inequality, obviously, implies the same four types of human relationships, but with the opposite sign. In the real practice of studying social life, sociologists pay special attention to the distribution of income and wealth, differences in the duration and quality of education, participation in political power, ownership of property, and the level of prestige.

Consider now main inequality components.

Let's start with the concept "power". The classic definition of power was proposed by Max Weber. Power is any possibility to carry out (to exercise) one's own will within the given social relations, even in spite of resistance and regardless of what this possibility is based on.

Power relations mean that there are such interrelations between social subjects in which one subject acts as an object of action of another subject, or rather turns (imposes) another subject into an object of its action. In the structure of power relations, the key role belongs to the disposal of resources, which allows the ruling subject to subjugate other people.

"Property" - this is the main economic relationship between individual and group participants in the production process, mediated by their relationship to the means of production, one of the most important social institutions. Ownership can be private, group, public, its forms are very diverse. But in any case, property relations reveal who decides: where, what and how to produce; how to distribute what is produced; whom and how to reward, stimulate for work, creativity and organizational and managerial activities. In other words, property is actually revealed as a process of disposal, possession and appropriation. This means that property is a form of economic power.

As a rule, along with power and property, the third indispensable component of measuring inequality is social prestige . This concept reveals a comparative assessment by society, a community or some other group and its members of the social significance of various objects, phenomena, activities in accordance with the prevailing social norms and values ​​generally accepted in a given culture, a given community. On the basis of such an assessment, the place of a group or individual in the social hierarchy of prestige is determined. They are endowed with a certain honor, privileges, power, special symbols, etc. Prestige ratings are one of the most effective regulators of social behavior. At least since the 1920s, the prestige of professions in various societies and, on its basis, professional inequality has been especially widely studied.

Education is the fourth component of inequality.

In sociology, scientists offer different stratification criteria. R. Dahrendorf introduces "authority" into the basis of stratification, and on this basis divides the whole society into managers and managed. The American scientist L. Warner determined the social positions of all people according to 4 parameters: 1) income; 2) professional prestige; 3) education; 4) ethnicity. B. Barber stratified society according to 6 indicators: the prestige of the profession, power, wealth, education, religious purity, ethnicity. The French scientist A. Touraine believed that in modern society stratification takes place not in relation to property, power, prestige, but in terms of access to information.

Modern scientists have come to the conclusion that when analyzing the social stratification of society, it is advisable to use several criteria. Thus, use multilevel stratification, which, unlike single-level, represents the division of society according to two or more criteria. The differentiation of people (or social groups) in society into social strata is characterized by inequality in income, education, profession, participation in power structures, etc. Sociologists take into account the following features of stratification.

1. In the process of stratification, people are differentiated into hierarchically formed groups (layers, classes, strata).

2. Social stratification divides people not only into upper and lower strata, but also into a privileged minority and an infringed majority.

3. When stratifying, the possibility of movement is taken into account.

Modern society can be differentiated (structured) according to various criteria.

Society differentiation criteria:

ethno-national,

worldview,

Religious-confessional,

educational,

spiritual and cultural,

Value-oriented (religious, secular morality).

Economic (ownership of capital, level of personal income and consumption);

Ideological and political (involvement in the management of society, involvement in the processes of redistribution of social wealth).

A number of Western sociologists distinguish 3 classes in the social structure of society: top class(usually 1-2% of the population, these are the owners of big capital, the highest bureaucracy, the elite); lower class(low-skilled and unskilled workers with low levels of education and income); middle class(set of groups of independent and wage labor occupying a middle, intermediate position between the higher and lower layers in most status hierarchies and having a common identity). The middle class in developed countries is 60% of the population (for example, in the USA). According to some sociologists, in Belarus it is no more than 20%.

Within the distinguished classes, differentiation is also possible. For example, within the middle class there are upper middle(owners of middle capital, middle-level administrative and political elite, representatives of higher intellectual professions); average average(representatives of small business, farmers, businessmen, persons of “liberal professions”); lower middle(the average composition of the provision of education, health care and social services, workers of mass trade and service professions, highly skilled workers).

The social structure can have a "pyramidal" or "diamond" shape. With a pyramidal form of social structure, the middle class in society is quite small, but a significant part of society belongs to the lower strata. With a diamond structure, the middle class is large. It is believed that the larger the middle class, the more stable the society.

Some sociologists study the social structure from the point of view of status and role differences that affect the content and direction of social relations. Others analyze the social structure on the basis of various models of social relations, from which role differences between people are derived. If perceived social structure as a set of different in size, social position in the system of social relations relatively stable forms of social groups, communities, their social positions and interactions between them, then it becomes possible to determine such elements as: individuals, norms, values, social statuses, roles, positions and etc.

Theories of social inequality are divided into two principal directions: functionalist and conflictological (Marxist).

Functionalism, in the tradition of E. Durkheim, derives social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, sex and age) and organic (arising as a result of training and professional specialization).

Since stratification is seen as a product of the division of labor, functionalists believe that social inequality is determined primarily by the significance and prestige of the functions performed for society.

If stable societies of the modern type are analyzed from this angle, this conclusion will be confirmed to a high degree. Indeed, the profession has become the defining criterion of social stratification, and the professional status of an individual or social group is closely related to such stratification bases as income (property), power (position in the management system) and prestige (recognition of the social significance of this work). Therefore, education is seen as a source of increment of the social capital of the individual, the opportunity to get a good profession, to provide a higher standard of living, to acquire a new status.

Marxism focuses on the problems of class inequality and exploitation. In a corresponding way, conflictological theories usually emphasize the dominant role in the system of social reproduction of differentiating (dividing society into groups and layers) relations of property and power. This logic of describing inequality is well applicable to dynamic transitive societies undergoing revolutions and reforms, since the redistribution of the social structure and the change in the general “rules of the game” are always associated with the institutions of power - property. The nature of the formation of elites and the nature of the overflow of social capital (forced or trust, exploitative or equivalent) depend on who gets control over significant social resources and on what conditions.

The modern understanding of conflict was laid down by Dahrendorf and Koser.Dahrendorf believed that conflict is a natural result of any system of government. The essence of social conflict lies in the difference in social positions and roles in society: some have power and the right to govern, while others do not have such privileges. As a result, the aggravation of contradictions within society can be due to a number of reasons: the disproportion in the distribution of power and the lack of free channels for the redistribution of power.

However, conflicts in society can be regulated and managed. To do this, there are social institutions that develop rules of conduct for the conflicting parties. Overcoming the conflict is divided into several stages: awareness of their interests by opposing groups, unification and redistribution of power. The result of any conflict situation is social changes in society.

Koser criticized Dahrendorf for not attaching due importance to the positive functions of conflict. According to Coser, conflict performs integrative and adaptive functions in the social system.. Like Simmel, Koser believed that conflict contributed to the stability and vitality of the organization. Conflict can help to sharpen the demarcation between groups, help to centralize decision-making, strengthen group unity, and increase social control.

Types of stratification systems.

There are many stratification criteria by which any society can be divided. The nature of social stratification and the way it is established in their unity form what we call the stratification system.

Exists nine types of stratification systems.

Based on the first type physical-genetic stratification system- lies the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or group is determined by gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity. Accordingly, the weaker, those with physical disabilities are considered defective and occupy a humbled social position. Inequality is also affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or its actual use, and then it is fixed in customs and rituals. This "natural" stratification system dominated the primitive community, but continues to be reproduced to this day. It is especially strong in communities struggling for physical survival or expansion of their living space.

The second stratification system - slaveholding- is also based on direct violence. But inequality here is determined not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. Certain social groups are completely deprived of these rights and, moreover, along with things, are turned into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and thus fixed in generations. Examples of slaveholding systems are quite varied. This is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens, and servility in Rus' during the Russkaya Pravda, this is plantation slavery in the south of the North American United States before the civil war of 1861-1865, and, finally, the work of prisoners of war and deported persons on German private farms during the Second World War. The methods of reproduction of the slave-owning system are also characterized by considerable diversity. Ancient slavery was maintained mainly by conquest. For early feudal Rus', debt, enslavement was more characteristic. The practice of selling one's own children into slavery without being able to feed them existed, for example, in medieval China. In the same place, various kinds of criminals (including political ones) were turned into slaves. This practice was practically reproduced much later in the Soviet GULAG (although private slavery was carried out here in hidden non-legal forms).

The third type of stratification system - caste. It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are reinforced by the religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the special functions of each caste in the system of division of labor. There is a clear list of occupations that members of this caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural. Since the position in the caste system is inherited, the possibilities of social mobility are extremely limited here. And the stronger caste is expressed, the more closed this society turns out to be. A classic example of a dominating society caste system but India is rightfully considered (legally this system was abolished here only in 1950). Today, although in a smoother form, the caste system is reproduced not only in India, but, for example, in the clan system of the Central Asian states. Obvious features of caste were affirmed in the middle of the twentieth century by the policy of fascist states (the Aryans were given the position of the highest ethnic caste, called to dominate the Slavs, Jews, etc.). The role of binding theological doctrines in this case is assumed by the nationalist ideology.

With the advent of people, their unification into tribes and clans began, from which, thousands of years later, peoples and societies were formed. They began to populate and explore the planet, initially leading a nomadic lifestyle, and then, having settled in the most favorable places, they organized a social space. Further filling it with objects of labor and life of people became the beginning of the emergence of city-states and states.

For tens of thousands of years, a social society has been formed and developed in order to acquire the features that it has today.

Definition of social structure

Each society goes through its own path of development and formation of the foundations of which it consists. To understand what a social structure is, it should be taken into account that this is a complex relationship of elements and systems functioning in it. They constitute a kind of skeleton on which society stands, but at the same time it tends to change, depending on conditions.

The concept of social structure includes:

• elements that fill it, that is, various types of communities;
• social ties affecting all stages of its development.

The social structure consists of a society divided into groups, layers, classes, as well as into ethnic, professional, territorial and other elements. At the same time, it is a reflection of the relationship between all its members, based on cultural, economic, demographic and other types of ties.

It is people who, by creating not arbitrary, but permanent relationships with each other, form the concept of social structure as an object with established relationships. Thus, a person is not completely free in his choice, being part of this structure. He is limited by the social world and the relations that have developed in it, into which he constantly enters. various fields its activities.

The social structure of a society is its framework, within which there are various groups that unite people and put forward certain requirements for their behavior in the system of role relations between them. They may have some limits that must not be violated. For example, a person, working in a team where they did not impose strict requirements on the appearance of employees, having got to another job where they are, will fulfill them, even if he does not like it.

The distinctive features of the social structure are the presence of real subjects that create certain processes in it. They can be both separate individuals and various sections of the population and social communities, regardless of their size, for example, the working class, a religious sect or the intelligentsia.

The structure of society

Each country has its own social system with its own traditions, norms of behavior, economic and cultural ties. Any such society has a complex structure based on the relationship of its members and the relationship between castes, classes, layers and strata.

It is made up of large and small social groups, which are usually called associations of people united by common interests, work activities or the same values. Large communities are distinguished by the amount of income and methods of obtaining it, by social status, education, occupation or other characteristics. Some scholars refer to them as "strata", but more common are the concepts of "stratum" and "class", such as workers, who make up the largest group in most countries.

Society at all times had a clear hierarchical structure. For example, 200 years ago in some countries there were estates. Each of them had their own privileges, property and social rights, which were enshrined in law.

The hierarchical division in such a society operates vertically, passing through all types of connections - politics, economics, culture, professional activity. As it develops, groups and estates change in it, as well as the internal interconnection of their members. For example, in medieval England, an impoverished lord was more respected than a very rich merchant or merchant. Today, ancient noble families are honored in this country, but successful and wealthy businessmen, athletes or people of art are more admired.

Flexible social system

A society in which there is no caste system is mobile, since its members can move from one layer to another both horizontally and vertically. In the first case, the social status of a person does not change, for example, he simply moves from one position to a similar one in another job.

Vertical transition implies an increase or decrease in social or financial status. For example, a person with an average income occupies a leadership position, which gives incomes much higher than before.

In some modern societies, there are social inequalities based on financial, racial or social differences. In such structures, some layers or groups have more privileges and opportunities than others. By the way, some scientists believe that inequality is a natural process for modern society, as a large number of people are gradually emerging in it, distinguished by outstanding abilities, talents and leadership qualities, which become its basis.

Types of social structures of the ancient world

The formation of society throughout the history of human development directly depended on the division of labor, the level of development of people and the socio-economic relations between them.

For example, during the primitive communal system, the social structure of society was determined by how useful the representatives of a tribe or clan were to the rest of its members. The sick, the elderly and the crippled were not kept unless they could make at least some feasible contribution to the welfare and security of the community.

Another thing is the slave system. Although it was divided into only 2 classes - slaves and their owners, the society itself was made up of scientists, merchants, artisans, the army, artists, philosophers, poets, peasants, priests, teachers and representatives of other professions.

For example Ancient Greece, Rome and a number of countries of the East, one can trace how the social society of that time was formed. They had well-developed economic and cultural ties with other countries, and the strata of the population were clearly divided into representatives of various professions, into freemen and slaves, into those in power and lawyers.

Types of social structures from the Middle Ages to the present day

What is the social structure of feudal society can be understood by tracing the development European countries of that period. It consisted of 2 classes - the feudal lords and their serfs, although society was also divided into several classes and representatives of the intelligentsia.

Estates are social groups that occupy their position in the system of economic, legal and traditional ties. For example, in France there were 3 classes - the secular (feudal lords, nobility), the clergy and the largest part of society, which included free peasants, artisans, merchants and merchants, and later - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The capitalist system, especially the modern one, has a more complex structure. For example, the concept of the middle class arose, which used to include the bourgeoisie, and today it includes merchants, and entrepreneurs, and highly paid employees and workers, and farmers, and small businesses. Membership in the middle class is determined by the income level of its members.

Although this category includes a large part of the population in highly developed capitalist countries, representatives of big business have the greatest influence on the development of the economy and politics. Separately, there is a class of intelligentsia, especially creative, scientific, technical and humanitarian. Thus, many artists, writers and representatives of other intellectual and creative professions have an income characteristic of big business.

Another type of social structure is the socialist system, which should be based on equal rights and opportunities for all members of society. But an attempt to build in Eastern, Central Europe and in Asia, advanced socialism has led many of these countries into poverty.

A positive example is the social system in such countries as Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and others, which are based on capitalist relations with full social protection of the rights of its members.

Components of social structure

To understand what a social structure is, you need to know what elements are included in its composition:

1. Groups of people who share common interests, values, professional activity or goals. More often they are perceived by others as communities.
2. Classes are large social groups that have their own financial, economic or cultural values based on their code of honor, behavior and interaction of their representatives.
3. Social strata are intermediate and constantly changing, emerging or disappearing social groups that do not clearly have expressed connection with the means of production.
4. Strata are social groups limited by some parameter, such as profession, status, income level, or other attribute.

These elements of the social structure determine the composition of society. The more of them, the more complex its design, the more clearly the hierarchical vertical is traced. The division of society into various elements is noticeable in the attitude of people towards each other, depending on the criteria inherent in their class. For example, the poor do not like the rich because of their financial superiority, while the latter despise them for their inability to earn money.

Population

System various kinds communities with strong internal ties between their members - this is what the social structure of the population is. There are no rigid criteria that separate people in them. These can be both main and non-main classes, layers, layers within them and social groups.

For example, before the advent of Soviet power to Ukraine, most of its population was made up of artisans and individual peasants. A third were landowners, wealthy peasants, merchants and workers, while there were very few employees. After collectivization, the population of the country already consisted of only three layers - workers, employees and peasants.

If we consider the historical stages of development of countries, then the absence of a middle class, namely entrepreneurs, small businesses, free artisans and wealthy farmers, led them to impoverishment and a sharp economic contrast between the strata of society.

The formation of "middle peasants" contributes to the rise of the economy, the emergence of a whole class of people with a completely different mentality, goals, interests and culture. The poorer stratum thanks to them receives new types of goods and services, jobs and higher wages.

Today, in most countries, the population consists of the political elite, the clergy, technical, creative and humanitarian intelligentsia, workers, scientists, farmers, entrepreneurs and representatives of other professions.

The concept of a social system

If for the sages who lived 2500 years ago, this term meant the orderliness of life in the state, today the social system is a complex formation, which includes the primary subsystems of society, for example, economic, cultural and spiritual, political and social.

• The economic subsystem implies the regulation of human relations in solving such issues as the production, distribution, use or exchange of material goods. It must solve 3 tasks: what to produce, how and for whom. If one of the tasks is not fulfilled, then the entire economy of the country collapses. Since the environment and the needs of the population are constantly changing, the economic system must adapt to them in order to satisfy the material interests of the whole society. The higher the standard of living of the population, the more needs it has, which means that the economy of this society functions better.
• The political subsystem is associated with the organization, establishment, operation and change of power. Its main element is the social structure of the state, namely its legal institutions, such as courts, prosecutors, electoral bodies, arbitration and others. The main function of the political subsystem is to ensure social order and stability in the country, as well as the rapid solution of the vital problems of society.
• The social (public) subsystem is responsible for the prosperity and well-being of the population as a whole, regulating the relationship between its various classes and strata. This includes health care, public transportation, utilities and domestic services.
• The cultural and spiritual subsystem is engaged in the creation, development, dissemination and preservation of cultural, traditional and moral values. Its elements include sciences, arts, upbringing, education, morality and literature. Its main duties are the education of young people, the transfer of the spiritual values ​​of the people to a new generation, and the enrichment of the cultural life of people.

Thus, the social system is a fundamental part of any society, which is responsible for the uniform development, prosperity and security of its members.

Social structure and its levels

Each country has its own territorial divisions, but in most of them they are approximately the same. In modern society, the levels of social structure are divided into 5 zones:

1. State. It is responsible for making decisions concerning the country as a whole, its development, security and international position.
2. Regional social space. Applies to each region separately, taking into account its climatic, economic and cultural characteristics. It may be independent, or it may depend on the higher state zone in matters of subsidies or budget redistribution.
3. The territorial zone is a small subject of the regional space, which has the right to elections to local councils, to form and use its own budget, to resolve issues and tasks at the local level.
4. Corporate zone. It is possible only in a market economy and is represented by farms leading their own labor activity with the formation of the budget and local government, such as shareholders. It is subject to territorial or regional zones according to laws formed at the state level.
5. Individual level. Although it is at the bottom of the pyramid, it is its basis, since it implies the personal interests of a person, which are always above the public. The needs of an individual can have a wide range of desires - from a guaranteed decent salary to self-expression.

Thus, the formation of a social structure is always based on the elements and levels of its components.

Changes in the structure of society

Each time countries have moved to a new level of development, their structure has changed. For example, the change in the social structure of society during the times of serfdom was associated with the development of industry and the growth of cities. Many serfs went to work in factories, moving into the class of workers.

Today, such changes concern wages and labor productivity. If 100 years ago physical work paid higher than the mental one, today the opposite is true. For example, a programmer can earn more than a highly skilled worker.