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Signs and elements of social institutions. The structural components of social institutions are

social institution or public institution- a form of organization of joint life activity of people, historically established or created by purposeful efforts, the existence of which is dictated by the need to meet the social, economic, political, cultural or other needs of society as a whole or part of it. Institutions are characterized by their ability to influence people's behavior through established rules.

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Subtitles

History of the term

Types of social institutions

The need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of family and marriage).
The need for security and order (the state).
The need to obtain means of subsistence (production).
The need for the transfer of knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation (institutions of public education).
Needs in Solving Spiritual Problems (Institute of Religion).

Basic information

The peculiarities of its word usage are further complicated by the fact that in the English language, traditionally, an institution is understood as any well-established practice of people that has the sign of self-reproducibility. In such a broad, not highly specialized, sense, an institution can be an ordinary human queue or English language as a centuries-old social practice.

Therefore, in Russian, a social institution is often given a different name - “institution” (from Latin institutio - custom, instruction, instruction, order), understanding by it the totality of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and life, passed down from generation to generation, changing depending on the circumstances and serving as an instrument of adaptation to them, and under the "institution" - the consolidation of customs and orders in the form of a law or institution. The term "social institution" has absorbed both "institution" (customs) and the "institution" itself (institutions, laws), as it combines both formal and informal "rules of the game".

A social institution is a mechanism that provides a set of constantly repeating and reproducing social relations and social practices of people (for example: the institution of marriage, the institution of the family). E. Durkheim figuratively called social institutions "factories for the reproduction of social relations." These mechanisms are based both on codified codes of laws and on non-thematized rules (non-formalized “hidden” ones that are revealed when they are violated), social norms, values and ideals that are historically inherent in a particular society. According to the authors of the Russian textbook for universities, “these are the strongest, most powerful ropes that decisively determine the viability [of the social system]”

Spheres of life of society

There are a number of spheres of the life of society, in each of which specific social institutions and social relations are formed:
− Economic- relations in the production process (production, distribution, exchange, consumption of material goods). Institutes related to economic sphere: private property, material production, market, etc.
− Social- relations between different social and age groups; activities to ensure social guarantees. Institutes related to social sphere: education, family, health care, social security, leisure, etc.
− Political- relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties, as well as between states. Institutions related to the political sphere: state, law, parliament, government, judiciary, political parties, army, etc.
− Spiritual- relations that arise in the process of the formation of spiritual values, their preservation, distribution, consumption, and transfer next generations. Institutions related to the spiritual sphere: religion, education, science, art, etc.

− Kinship institution (marriage and family)- associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, the socialization of young people.

institutionalization

The first, most commonly used meaning of the term "social institution" is associated with the characteristics of any kind of ordering, formalization and standardization of social ties and relations. And the process of streamlining, formalization and standardization is called institutionalization. The process of institutionalization, that is, the formation of a social institution, consists of several successive stages:

the emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized action;
formation of common goals;
the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;
the emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;
institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, that is, their adoption, practical application;
the establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, the differentiation of their application in individual cases;
creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception;

So, the end of the process of institutionalization can be considered the creation in accordance with the norms and rules of a clear status-role structure, socially approved by the majority of participants in this social process.

The process of institutionalization thus involves a number of points.

One of the necessary conditions for the emergence social institutions serves a corresponding social need. Institutions are designed to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet certain social needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race and the upbringing of children, implements relations between the sexes, generations, etc. The Institute higher education provides training work force, enables a person to develop his abilities in order to realize them in subsequent activities and ensure his existence, etc. The emergence of certain social needs, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction, are the first necessary moments of institutionalization.
A social institution is formed on the basis of social ties, interactions and relationships of specific individuals, social groups and communities. But it, like other social systems, cannot be reduced to the sum of these individuals and their interactions. Social institutions are supra-individual in nature, have their own systemic quality. Consequently, a social institution is an independent public entity that has its own logic of development. From this point of view, social institutions can be considered as organized social systems characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of their elements and a certain variability of their functions.

First of all, we are talking about a system of values, norms, ideals, as well as patterns of activity and behavior of people and other elements of the sociocultural process. This system guarantees similar behavior of people, coordinates and directs their certain aspirations, establishes ways to satisfy their needs, resolves conflicts that arise in the process of Everyday life, provides a state of balance and stability within a particular social community and society as a whole.

In itself, the presence of these socio-cultural elements does not yet ensure the functioning of a social institution. In order for it to work, it is necessary that they become the property inner world personalities, were internalized by them in the process of socialization, embodied in the form social roles and statuses. Internalization by individuals of all socio-cultural elements, the formation on their basis of a system of personality needs, value orientations and expectations is the second most important element of institutionalization.

The third most important element of institutionalization is the organizational design of a social institution. Outwardly, a social institution is a set of organizations, institutions, individuals equipped with certain material resources and performing a certain social function. Thus, the institution of higher education is driven by the social corps of teachers, service personnel, officials who operate within the framework of institutions such as universities, the ministry or the State Committee for Higher Education, etc., who for their activities have certain material assets (buildings, finances, etc.).

Thus, social institutions are social mechanisms, stable value-normative complexes that regulate different areas social life(marriage, family, property, religion), which are not very susceptible to changes in the personal characteristics of people. But they are set in motion by people who carry out their activities, "play" by their rules. Thus, the concept of "the institution of a monogamous family" does not imply separate family, but a set of norms that is realized in an uncountable set of families of a certain type .

Institutionalization, as shown by P. Berger and T. Luckman, is preceded by the process of habitualization, or “accustoming” of everyday actions, leading to the formation of patterns of activity that are later perceived as natural and normal for a given occupation or solving problems typical in these situations. Action patterns, in turn, serve as the basis for the formation of social institutions, which are described in the form of objective social facts and are perceived by the observer as a "social reality" (or social structure). These tendencies are accompanied by signification procedures (the process of creating, using signs and fixing meanings and meanings in them) and form a system of social meanings, which, developing into semantic connections, are fixed in natural language. Signification serves the purposes of legitimation (recognition as legitimate, socially recognized, legitimate) of the social order, that is, to justify and substantiate the usual ways of overcoming the chaos of destructive forces that threaten to undermine the stable idealizations of everyday life.

With the emergence and existence of social institutions, the formation in each individual of a special set of sociocultural dispositions (habitus), practical schemes of action that have become for the individual his internal "natural" need is connected. Thanks to habitus, individuals are included in the activities of social institutions. Therefore, social institutions are not just mechanisms, but "a kind of" factory of meanings "that set not only patterns of human interactions, but also ways of comprehending, understanding social reality and the people themselves" .

Structure and functions of social institutions

Structure

concept social institution suggests:

the presence of a need in society and its satisfaction by the mechanism of reproduction of social practices and relations;
these mechanisms, being supra-individual formations, act in the form of value-normative complexes that regulate social life as a whole or its separate sphere, but for the benefit of the whole;

Their structure includes:

role models of behavior and statuses (prescriptions for their execution);
their justification (theoretical, ideological, religious, mythological) in the form of a categorical grid that defines a "natural" vision of the world;
means of transmitting social experience (material, ideal and symbolic), as well as measures that stimulate one behavior and repress another, tools to maintain institutional order;
social positions - the institutions themselves represent a social position (“empty” social positions do not exist, so the question of the subjects of social institutions disappears).

In addition, they assume the existence of certain social positions of "professionals" who are able to put this mechanism into action, playing by its rules, including a whole system of their preparation, reproduction and maintenance.

In order not to denote the same concepts by different terms and to avoid terminological confusion, social institutions should be understood not as collective subjects, not social groups and not organizations, but as special social mechanisms that ensure the reproduction of certain social practices and social relations. And collective subjects should still be called "social communities", "social groups" and "social organizations".

“Social institutions are organizations and groups in which the life of community members takes place and which, at the same time, perform the functions of organizing and managing this life” [Ilyasov F.N. Dictionary of Social Research http://www.jsr.su/ dic/S.html].

Functions

Each social institution has a main function that determines its "face", associated with its main social role in the consolidation and reproduction of certain social practices and relations. If this is an army, then its role is to ensure the military-political security of the country by participating in hostilities and demonstrating its military power. In addition to it, there are other explicit functions, to some extent characteristic of all social institutions, ensuring the implementation of the main one.

Along with explicit, there are also implicit - latent (hidden) functions. So, Soviet army at one time performed a number of hidden unusual for her state tasks- national economic, penitentiary, fraternal assistance to "third countries", pacification and suppression of riots, popular discontent and counter-revolutionary coups both within the country and in the countries of the socialist camp. The explicit functions of institutions are necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. Latent functions are expressed in unforeseen results of the activities of institutions or persons representing them. Thus, the democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 1990s, through the parliament, the government and the president, sought to improve the life of the people, create civilized relations in society and inspire citizens with respect for the law. Those were the clear goals and objectives. In fact, the crime rate has increased in the country, and the standard of living of the population has fallen. These are the results of the latent functions of the institutions of power. Explicit functions testify to what people wanted to achieve within the framework of this or that institution, and latent ones indicate what came of it.

The identification of the latent functions of social institutions allows not only to create an objective picture of social life, but also makes it possible to minimize their negative and enhance their positive impact in order to control and manage the processes taking place in it.

Social institutions in public life perform the following functions or tasks:

The totality of these social functions is formed into the general social functions of social institutions as certain types of social system. These features are very versatile. Sociologists of different directions tried to somehow classify them, to present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called. "institutional school". Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg and others) identified four main functions of social institutions:

Reproduction of members of society. The main institution that performs this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved in it.
Socialization is the transfer to individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - the institutions of the family, education, religion, etc.
Production and distribution. Provided by the economic and social institutions of management and control - the authorities.
The functions of management and control are carried out through a system of social norms and regulations that implement the corresponding types of behavior: moral and legal regulations, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions govern the individual's behavior through a system of sanctions.

In addition to solving its specific tasks, each social institution performs universal functions inherent in all of them. The functions common to all social institutions include the following:

The function of fixing and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.
Regulatory function. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.
Integrative function. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of the members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.
Broadcasting function. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.
Communication functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. This is the main function of the media institute. Scientific institutions actively perceive information. The communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

Functional qualities

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities:

Political institutions - the state, parties, trade unions and other kinds public organizations pursuing political goals aimed at establishing and maintaining a certain form of political power. Their totality is political system of this society. Political institutions ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, stabilize the social class structures that dominate in society.
Sociocultural and educational institutions aim at the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of individuals in a particular subculture, as well as the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable socio-cultural standards of behavior and, finally, the protection of certain values and norms.
Normative-orienting - mechanisms of moral and ethical orientation and regulation of the behavior of individuals. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, an ethical basis. These institutions assert imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in the community.
Normative-sanctioning - social and social regulation of behavior on the basis of norms, rules and regulations, enshrined in legal and administrative acts. The binding nature of the norms is ensured by the coercive power of the state and the system of appropriate sanctions.
Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on the more or less long-term adoption of conventional (by agreement) norms, their official and unofficial consolidation. These norms regulate everyday contacts, various acts of group and intergroup behavior. They determine the order and method of mutual behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc., the rules of meetings, sessions, and the activities of associations.

Dysfunction of a social institution

Violation of regulatory interaction with social environment, which is a society or community, is called a dysfunction of a social institution. As noted earlier, the basis for the formation and functioning of a particular social institution is the satisfaction of a particular social need. Under the conditions of intensive social processes, the acceleration of the pace of social change, a situation may arise when the changed social needs are not adequately reflected in the structure and functions of the relevant social institutions. As a result, dysfunction may occur in their activities. From a substantive point of view, dysfunction is expressed in the ambiguity of the goals of the institution, the uncertainty of functions, in the fall of its social prestige and authority, the degeneration of its individual functions into “symbolic”, ritual activity, that is, activity not aimed at achieving a rational goal.

One of the clear expressions of the dysfunction of a social institution is the personalization of its activities. A social institution, as you know, functions according to its own, objectively operating mechanisms, where each person, on the basis of norms and patterns of behavior, in accordance with his status, plays certain roles. The personalization of a social institution means that it ceases to act in accordance with objective needs and objectively established goals, changing its functions depending on the interests of individuals, their personal qualities and properties.

An unsatisfied social need can bring to life the spontaneous emergence of normatively unregulated activities that seek to make up for the dysfunction of the institution, but at the expense of violating existing norms and rules. In its extreme forms, activity of this kind can be expressed in illegal activities. Thus, the dysfunction of some economic institutions is the reason for the existence of the so-called "shadow economy", resulting in speculation, bribery, theft, etc. The correction of dysfunction can be achieved by changing the social institution itself or by creating a new social institution that satisfies this social need.

Formal and informal social institutions

Social institutions, as well as the social relations they reproduce and regulate, can be formal and informal.

Classification of social institutions

In addition to the division into formal and informal social institutions, modern researchers distinguish conventions (or “strategies”), norms and rules. The convention is a generally accepted prescription: for example, “in the event of a telephone break, the one who called back calls back.” Conventions Support Reproduction social behavior. A norm implies a prohibition, requirement or permission. The rule provides for sanctions for violations, therefore, the presence in society of monitoring and control over behavior. The development of institutions is connected with the transition of a rule into a convention, i.e. with the expansion of the use of the institution and the gradual rejection in society of coercion to its execution.

Role in the development of society

According to American researchers Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (English) Russian it is the nature of the public institutions that exist in a particular country that determines the success or failure of the development of this country, their book Why Nations Fail, published in 2012, is devoted to proving this statement.

After examining the examples of many countries of the world, scientists came to the conclusion that the defining and necessary condition for the development of any country is the presence of public institutions, which they called public (Eng. Inclusive institutions). Examples of such countries are all developed democratic countries of the world. Conversely, countries where public institutions are closed are doomed to fall behind and decline. Public institutions in such countries, according to researchers, serve only to enrich the elites that control access to these institutions - this is the so-called. "extractive institutions" (eng. extractive institutions). According to the authors, the economic development of society is impossible without advancing political development, that is, without the formation public political institutions. .

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D.P. Le Havre
doctor of sociological sciences

The concept of "institution" (from Latin institutum - establishment, institution) was borrowed by sociology from jurisprudence, where it was used to characterize a separate set of legal norms that regulate social and legal relations in a certain subject area. In legal science, such institutions were considered, for example, inheritance, marriage, property, etc. In sociology, the concept of "institution" retained this semantic coloring, but acquired a broader interpretation in terms of denoting some special type of stable regulation of social relations and various organizational forms of social regulation of behavior of subjects.

The institutional aspect of the functioning of society is a traditional area of interest for sociological science. He was in the field of view of thinkers, whose names are associated with its formation (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, M. Weber, etc.).

O. Comte's institutional approach to the study social phenomena followed from the philosophy of the positive method, when one of the objects of the sociologist's analysis was the mechanism for ensuring solidarity and consent in society. “For a new philosophy, order is always a condition for progress, and vice versa, progress is a necessary goal of order” (Comte O. A course in positive philosophy. SPb., 1899. S. 44). O. Comte considered the main social institutions (family, state, religion) from the standpoint of their inclusion in the processes of social integration and the functions performed at the same time. By contrasting the functional characteristics and nature of ties between family association and political organization, he acted as a theoretical predecessor of the concepts of dichotomization of the social structure of F. Tennis and E. Durkheim (“mechanical” and “organic” types of solidarity). The social statics of O. Comte was based on the position that the institutions, beliefs and moral values of society are functionally interconnected, and the explanation of any social phenomenon in this integrity implies finding and describing the patterns of its interaction with other phenomena. O. Comte's method, his appeal to the analysis of the most important social institutions, their functions, and the structure of society had a significant impact on the further development of sociological thought.

The institutional approach to the study of social phenomena was continued in the works of G. Spencer. Strictly speaking, it was he who first used the concept of "social institution" in sociological science. G. Spencer considered the struggle for existence with neighboring societies (war) and with the natural environment to be the determining factors in the development of the institutions of society. The task of the survival of the social organism in its conditions. According to Spencer, the evolution and complexity of structures give rise to the need to form a special kind of regulatory institution: “In the state, as in a living body, a regulatory system inevitably arises ... When a stronger community is formed, higher centers of regulation and subordinate centers appear” (Spencer H. First principles. N. Y., 1898. P. 46).

Accordingly, the social organism consists of three main systems: regulatory, producing means of life and distribution. G. Spencer distinguished such types of social institutions as institutions of kinship (marriage, family), economic (distributive), regulatory (religion, political organizations). At the same time, much of his reasoning about institutions is expressed in functional terms: “In order to understand how an organization arose and develops, one must understand the need that manifests itself in the beginning and in the future” (Spencer H. The principles of ethics. N.Y., 1904. Vol. 1. P. 3). Thus, every social institution takes shape as a stable structure of social actions that performs certain functions.

The consideration of social institutions in a functional way was continued by E. Durkheim, who adhered to the idea of the positivity of public institutions, which are the most important means of human self-realization (see: Durkheim E. Les formes elementaires de la vie religieuse. Le systeme totemique en Australie. P., 1960) .

E. Durkheim called for the creation of special institutions to maintain solidarity in the conditions of the division of labor - professional corporations. He argued that corporations, unjustifiably considered anachronistic, are in fact useful and modern. Corporations E. Durkheim calls institutions of the type of professional organizations, including employers and workers, standing close enough to each other to be for everyone a school of discipline and a beginning with prestige and power (see: Durkheim E. O division of social labor. Odessa, 1900).

K. Marx paid notable attention to the consideration of a number of social institutions, who analyzed the institution of majorat, the division of labor, the institutions of the tribal system, private property, etc. He understood institutions as historically formed, conditioned by social, primarily industrial, relations, forms of organization and regulation of social activity.

M. Weber believed that social institutions (state, religion, law, etc.) should “be studied by sociology in the form in which they become significant for individual individuals, in which the latter are actually guided by them in their actions” (History sociology in Western Europe and the USA, Moscow, 1993, p. 180). Thus, discussing the question of the rationality of the society of industrial capitalism, he considered it (rationality) at the institutional level as a product of the separation of the individual from the means of production. The organic institutional element of such a social system is the capitalist enterprise, considered by M. Weber as a guarantor of the individual's economic opportunities and thus turning into a structural component of a rationally organized society. A classic example is M. Weber's analysis of the institution of bureaucracy as a type of legal domination, conditioned primarily by purposeful rational considerations. At the same time, the bureaucratic mechanism of management appears as a modern type of administration, acting as the social equivalent of industrial forms of labor and "as it relates to previous forms of administration, as machine production to home-tire" (Weber M. Essays on sociology. N. Y., 1964. p. 214).

The representative of psychological evolutionism is an American sociologist of the early 20th century. L. Ward considered social institutions as a product of mental rather than any other forces. “Social forces,” he wrote, “are the same psychic forces operating in the collective state of man” (Ward L.F. The physical factors of civilization. Boston, 1893. P. 123).

In the school of structural-functional analysis, the concept of "social institution" plays one of the leading roles, T. Parsons builds a conceptual model of society, understanding it as a system of social relations and social institutions. Moreover, the latter are interpreted as specially organized "nodes", "bundles" of social relations. In the general theory of action, social institutions act both as special value-normative complexes that regulate the behavior of individuals, and as stable configurations that form the status-role structure of society. The institutional structure of society is given the most important role, since it is it that is designed to ensure social order in society, its stability and integration (see: Parsons T. Essays on sociological theory. N. Y., 1964. P. 231-232). It should be emphasized that the normative-role representation of social institutions that exists in structural-functional analysis is the most common not only in Western, but also in Russian sociological literature.

In institutionalism (institutional sociology), the social behavior of people is studied in close connection with the existing system of social normative acts and institutions, the need for which is equated with a natural historical pattern. The representatives of this trend include S. Lipset, J. Landberg, P. Blau, C. Mills, and others. Social institutions, from the point of view of institutional sociology, imply “a consciously regulated and organized form of activity of a mass of people, the reproduction of repetitive and most stable patterns behavior, habits, traditions passed down from generation to generation. “Each social institution that is part of a certain social structure is organized to fulfill certain socially significant goals and functions (see; Osipov G. V., Kravchenko A. I. Institutional Sociology//Modern Western Sociology. Dictionary. M., 1990. S. 118).

Structural-functionalist and institutionalist interpretations of the concept of "social institution" do not exhaust the approaches to its definition presented in modern sociology. There are also concepts based on the methodological foundations of a phenomenological or behavioral plan. So, for example, W. Hamilton writes: “Institutions are a verbal symbol for the best description of a group of social customs. They signify a permanent way of thinking or acting which has become a habit for a group or a custom for a people. The world of customs and habits to which we adapt our lives is an interweaving and continuous fabric of social institutions. (Hamilton W. lnstitution//Encyclopedia of social sciences. Vol. VIII. P. 84).

The psychological tradition in line with behaviorism was continued by J. Homans. He gives the following definition of social institutions: “Social institutions are relatively stable models of social behavior, the maintenance of which is aimed at the actions of many people” (Homans G.S. The sociological relevance of behaviorism//Behavioral sociology. Ed. R. Burgess, D. Bushell. N. Y., 1969, p. 6). In essence, J. Homans builds his sociological interpretation of the concept of "institution" based on the psychological foundation.

Thus, in sociological theory there is a significant array of interpretations and definitions of the concept of "social institution". They differ in their understanding of both the nature and functions of institutions. From the author's point of view, the search for an answer to the question of which of the definitions is correct and which is erroneous is methodologically unpromising. Sociology is a multi-paradigm science. Within the framework of each of the paradigms, it is possible to build its own consistent conceptual apparatus that obeys the internal logic. And it is up to the researcher working within the framework of the theory of the middle level to decide on the choice of the paradigm within which he intends to seek answers to the questions posed. The author adheres to the approaches and logic that lie in line with system-structural constructions, this also determines the concept of a social institution that he takes as a basis,

An analysis of foreign and domestic scientific literature shows that within the framework of the chosen paradigm in the understanding of a social institution, there is a wide range of versions and approaches. Thus, a large number of authors consider it possible to give the concept of "social institution" an unambiguous definition based on one key word (expression). L. Sedov, for example, defines a social institution as “a stable complex of formal and informal rules, principles, guidelines, regulating various spheres of human activity and organizing them into a system of roles and statuses that form a social system” (cited in Modern Western Sociology, p. 117). N. Korzhevskaya writes: “A social institution is community of people performing certain roles based on their objective position (status) and organized through social norms and goals (Korzhevskaya N. Social institution as a social phenomenon (sociological aspect). Sverdlovsk, 1983, p. 11). J. Shchepansky gives the following integral definition: “Social institutions are institutional systems*, in which certain individuals, elected by group members, are empowered to perform social and impersonal functions in order to satisfy essential individual and social needs and to regulate the behavior of other members of the groups" (Schepansky Ya. Elementary concepts of sociology. M., 1969. S. 96-97).

There are other attempts to give an unambiguous definition, based, for example, on norms and values, roles and statuses, customs and traditions, etc. From our point of view, approaches of this kind are not fruitful, since they narrow the understanding of such a complex phenomenon as social institution, fixing attention only on one aspect, which seems to this or that author to be its most important side.

Under the social institution, these scientists understand the complex, covering, on the one hand, a set of normative-value determined roles and statuses intended to meet certain social needs, and on the other hand, social education, created to use the resources of society in the form of interaction to meet this need (see: Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. S. 79-81; Komarov M.S. On the concept of a social institution// Introduction to sociology. M., 1994. S. 194).

Social institutions are specific formations that ensure the relative stability of ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society, some historically determined forms of organization and regulation of public life. Institutions arise in the course of the development of human society, the differentiation of activities, the division of labor, the formation of specific types of social relations. Their occurrence is due to the objective needs of society in the regulation of socially significant areas of activity and social relations. In the nascent institution, a certain type of social relations is essentially objectified.

Common features of a social institution include:

Identification of a certain circle of subjects entering into relationships that acquire a stable character in the process of activity;

A certain (more or less formalized) organization:

The presence of specific social norms and regulations that regulate the behavior of people within the framework of a social institution;

The presence of socially significant functions of the institution, integrating it into the social system and ensuring its participation in the process of integration of the latter.

These signs are not normatively fixed. They rather follow from the generalization of analytical materials about the various institutions of modern society. In some of them (formal - the army, the court, etc.), signs can be fixed clearly and in full, in others (informal or just emerging) - less clearly. But in general, they are a convenient tool for analyzing the processes of institutionalization of social formations.

The sociological approach focuses on the social functions of the institution and its normative structure. M. Komarov writes that the implementation of socially significant functions by the institution “is ensured by the presence within the social institution of an integral system of standardized patterns of behavior, i.e., a value-normative structure” (Komarov M.S. O the concept of a social institution//Introduction to sociology. S. 195).

The most important functions that social institutions perform in society include:

Regulation of the activities of members of society within the framework of social relations;

Creating opportunities to meet the needs of members of society;

Ensuring social integration, sustainability of public life; - socialization of individuals.

The structure of social institutions most often includes a certain set of constituent elements that appear in a more or less formalized form, depending on the type of institution. J. Shchepansky identifies the following structural elements of a social institution: - the purpose and scope of the institution; - functions provided to achieve the goal; - normatively determined social roles and statuses presented in the structure of the institute;

Means and institutions for achieving the goal and realizing functions (material, symbolic and ideal), including appropriate sanctions (see: Shchepansky Ya. Decree. op. S. 98).

Various criteria for classifying social institutions are possible. Of these, we consider it appropriate to focus on two: subject (substantive) and formalized. Based on the subject criterion, i.e., the nature of the substantive tasks performed by institutions, the following are distinguished: political institutions (state, parties, army); economic institutions (division of labor, property, taxes, etc.): institutions of kinship, marriage and family; institutions operating in the spiritual sphere (education, culture, mass communications, etc.), etc.

Based on the second criterion, i.e. the nature of the organization, institutions are divided into formal and informal. The activities of the former are based on strict, normative and, possibly, legally fixed prescriptions, rules, and instructions. These are the state, the army, the court, etc. In informal institutions, there is no such regulation of social roles, functions, means and methods of activity and sanctions for non-normative behavior. It is replaced by informal regulation through traditions, customs, social norms, etc. From this, the informal institution does not cease to be an institution and perform the corresponding regulatory functions.

Thus, when considering a social institution, its features, functions, structure, the author relied on an integrated approach, the use of which has a developed tradition within the framework of the system-structural paradigm in sociology. It is a complex, but at the same time sociologically operational and methodologically rigorous interpretation of the concept of "social institution" that allows, from the point of view of the author, to analyze the institutional aspects of the existence of social education.

Let us consider the possible logic of substantiation of the institutional approach to any social phenomenon.

According to the theory of J. Homans, in sociology there are four types of explanation and justification of social institutions. The first is the psychological type, proceeding from the fact that any social institution is a psychological formation in its genesis, a stable product of the exchange of activities. The second type is historical, considering institutions as the final product of the historical development of a certain field of activity. The third type is structural, proving that "each institution exists as a consequence of its relationship with other institutions in the social system." The fourth is functional, based on the position that institutions exist because they perform certain functions in society, contributing to its integration and the achievement of homeostasis. The last two types of explanations for the existence of institutions, which are mainly used in structural-functional analysis, are declared by Homans to be unconvincing and even erroneous (see: Homans G.S. The sociological relevance of behaviorism//Behavioral sociology. P. 6).

Without rejecting the psychological explanations of J. Homans, I do not share his pessimism regarding the last two types of argumentation. On the contrary, I consider these approaches to be convincing, working for modern societies, and I intend to use both functional, structural, and historical types of substantiation of the existence of social institutions in the study of the chosen social phenomenon.

If it is proved that the functions of any phenomenon under study are socially significant, that their structure and nomenclature are close to the structure and nomenclature of functions that social institutions perform in society, this will be an important step in substantiating its institutional nature. Such a conclusion is based on the inclusion of a functional feature among the most important features of a social institution and on the understanding that it is social institutions that form the main element of the structural mechanism by which society regulates social homeostasis and, if necessary, implements social changes.

The next step in substantiating the institutional interpretation of the hypothetical object we have chosen is b: "analysis of the ways of its inclusion in various spheres of social life, interaction with other social institutions, proof that it is an integral element of any one sphere of society (economic, political, cultural, etc.), or a combination of them, and ensures its (their) functioning. This logical operation is advisable to do for the reason that the institutional approach to the analysis of social system, but at the same time, the specificity of the main mechanisms of its functioning depends on the internal patterns of development of the corresponding type of activity.Therefore, consideration of an institution is impossible without correlating its activities with the activities of other institutions, as well as systems of a more general order.

The third stage, following the functional and structural justification, is the most important. It is at this stage that the essence of the institution under study is determined. An appropriate definition is formulated here, based on an analysis of the main institutional features. affects the legitimacy of its institutional representation. Then its specificity, type and place in the system of institutions of society are singled out, the conditions for the emergence of institutionalization are analyzed.

At the fourth and final stage, the structure of the institution is revealed, the characteristics of its main elements are given, and the patterns of its functioning are indicated.

One of the factors that characterize society as a whole is the totality of social institutions. Their location seems to be on the surface, which makes them especially successful objects for observation and control.

In turn, a complex organized system with its own norms and rules is a social institution. Its signs are different, but classified, and it is they that are to be considered in this article.

The concept of a social institution

A social institution is one of the forms of organization. For the first time this concept was applied. According to the scientist, the whole variety of social institutions creates the so-called framework of society. The division into forms, Spencer said, is produced under the influence of the differentiation of society. He divided the whole society into three main institutions, among which:

reproductive;
distributive;
regulating.

E. Durkheim's opinion

E. Durkheim was convinced that a person as a person can realize himself only with the help of social institutions. They are also called upon to establish responsibility between inter-institutional forms and the needs of society.

Karl Marx

The author of the famous "Capital" evaluated social institutions from the point of view of industrial relations. In his opinion, the social institution, the signs of which are present both in the division of labor and in the phenomenon of private property, was formed precisely under their influence.

Terminology

The term "social institution" comes from the Latin word "institution", which means "organization" or "order". In principle, all the features of a social institution are reduced to this definition.

The definition includes the form of consolidation and the form of implementation of specialized activities. The purpose of social institutions is to ensure the stability of the functioning of communications within society.

The following short definition of the term is also acceptable: an organized and coordinated form of social relations, aimed at meeting the needs that are significant for society.

It is easy to see that all of the definitions provided (including the above opinions of scientists) are based on "three pillars":

society;
organization;
needs.

But these are not yet full-fledged features of a social institution, rather, key points that should be taken into account.

Conditions for institutionalization

The process of institutionalization is a social institution. It occurs under the following conditions:

social need as a factor that will satisfy the future institution;
social ties, that is, the interaction of people and communities, as a result of which social institutions are formed;
expedient and rules;
material and organizational, labor and financial necessary resources.

Stages of institutionalization

The process of establishing a social institution goes through several stages:

the emergence and awareness of the need for an institution;
development of norms of social behavior within the framework of the future institution;
the creation of its own symbols, that is, a system of signs that will indicate the social institution being created;
formation, development and definition of a system of roles and statuses;
creation of the material basis of the institute;
integration of the institution into the existing social system.

Structural features of a social institution

Signs of the concept of "social institution" characterize it in modern society.

Structural features cover:

Scope of activity, as well as social relations.
Institutions that have certain powers in order to organize the activities of people, as well as perform various roles and functions. For example: public, organizational and performing the functions of control and management.
Those specific rules and norms that are designed to regulate the behavior of people in a particular social institution.
Material means to achieve the goals of the institute.
Ideology, goals and objectives.

Types of social institutions

The classification that systematizes social institutions (table below) divides this concept into four certain types. Each of them includes at least four more specific institutions.

What are the social institutions? The table shows their types and examples.

Spiritual social institutions in some sources are called institutions of culture, and the sphere of the family, in turn, is sometimes called stratification and kinship.

General signs of a social institution

The general, and at the same time the main, signs of a social institution are as follows:

the range of subjects that, in the course of their activities, enter into relationships;
the sustainability of these relationships;
a certain (and this means, to some extent formalized) organization;
behavioral norms and rules;
functions that ensure the integration of the institution into the social system.

It should be understood that these signs are informal, but logically follow from the definition and functioning of various social institutions. With the help of them, among other things, it is convenient to analyze institutionalization.

Social institution: signs on specific examples

Each specific social institution has its own characteristics - signs. They closely overlap with roles, for example: the main roles of the family as a social institution. That is why it is so revealing to consider examples and the signs and roles corresponding to it.

Family as a social institution

A classic example of a social institution is, of course, the family. As can be seen from the above table, it belongs to the fourth type of institutions covering the same area. Therefore, it is the basis and ultimate goal for marriage, fatherhood and motherhood. In addition, the family also unites them.

Features of this social institution:

marriage or consanguinity ties;
overall family budget;
cohabitation in the same dwelling.

The main roles are reduced to the well-known saying that she is a "cell of society". Essentially, that's exactly what it is. Families are particles that together form society. In addition to being a social institution, the family is also called a small social group. And it is no coincidence, because from birth a person develops under its influence and experiences it for himself throughout his life.

Education as a social institution

Education is a social subsystem. It has its own specific structure and characteristics.

Basic elements of education:

social organizations and social communities (educational institutions and division into groups of teachers and students, etc.);
sociocultural activity in the form of an educational process.

The characteristics of a social institution include:

Norms and rules - in the institute of education, examples can be considered: craving for knowledge, attendance, respect for teachers and classmates / classmates.
Symbolism, that is, cultural signs - hymns and coats of arms educational institutions, animal symbol of some famous colleges, emblems.
Utilitarian cultural traits such as classrooms and cabinets.
Ideology - the principle of equality between students, mutual respect, freedom of speech and the right to vote, as well as the right to one's own opinion.

Signs of social institutions: examples

Let's summarize the information presented here. The characteristics of a social institution include:

a set of social roles (for example, father/mother/daughter/sister in the institution of the family);
sustainable behavior patterns (for example, certain models for the teacher and student at the institute of education);
norms (for example, codes and the Constitution of the state);
symbolism (for example, the institution of marriage or a religious community);
basic values (i.e. morality).

The social institution, the features of which were considered in this article, is designed to guide the behavior of everyone specific person directly being a part of his life. At the same time, for example, an ordinary senior student belongs to at least three social institutions: the family, the school, and the state. It is interesting that, depending on each of them, he also has the role (status) that he has and according to which he chooses his behavior model. She, in turn, sets his characteristics in society.

Sociologists, who borrowed the concept of institution from jurists, endowed it with new content. Understanding social institutions as a set of norms and mechanisms that regulate a certain area of social relations (family, production, state, education, religion), sociology has deepened our understanding of them as the pillars or basic elements on which society rests. The purpose of social institutions is to satisfy the most important (fundamental) vital needs of society. As you know, there are four such needs, so they distinguish four main social institutions:

1) to meet the need for the reproduction of people exists institution of family and marriage;
2) the need for obtaining means of subsistence - economic institutions, production;
3) security needs and social order – political institutions, state;
4) the need for solving spiritual problems, the development and transfer of new knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation - spiritual institutions broadly, including science And culture.

social institution is an adaptive device of society, created to satisfy its critical needs and regulated by a set of social norms. Thanks to institutions, the socialization of individuals occurs (the assimilation of cultural norms and the development of social roles), new generations of people are born (the institution of the family), means of subsistence are obtained, order is put in place in society, and spiritual rituals are performed.

There is another definition of a social institution as a set of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and way of life, passed down from generation to generation, changing depending on the circumstances and acting as an instrument of adaptation to them. Strictly speaking, this is how lawyers understand the terms "institution"(establishment, custom, order accepted in society) and " institute"(fixing customs and procedures in the form of a law or institution). Hence the concept" institutionalization", denoting the consolidation of a practice or area of social relations in the form of a law or social norm, an accepted order.

Thus, the institutionalization of any science, say sociology, involves the publication of state standards and regulations, the creation of research institutes, bureaus, services and laboratories, the opening of corresponding faculties, departments, departments and training courses for professional specialists at universities, colleges and schools, the publication of journals, monographs and textbooks, etc.

In essence, institutionalization means the transformation of a fuzzy set of rules and norms, customs and practices, ideas and designs, people and buildings into an ordered system that can rightly be called social organization.

All social institutions that exist in society can be conveniently divided into main (they are called fundamental, main) and non-main (non-main, private). The latter hide within the former as smaller formations. Unlike the main institution, the non-basic one performs a specialized task, serves a specific custom, or satisfies a non-fundamental need.

For example, among the non-principal political institutions, we find the institutions of forensics, passport registration, legal proceedings, advocacy, juries, judicial control of arrests, the judiciary, the presidency, royalty, and so on. These include also the institution of removal from power (position), historical forms which have undergone a long evolution.

In addition to dividing institutions into main and non-main ones, they can be classified according to other criteria. For example, institutions differ in the time of their emergence and duration of existence (permanent and short-term), the severity of sanctions applied for violation of the rules, the conditions of existence, the presence or absence of a bureaucratic management system, the presence or absence of formal rules and procedures.

Non-core institutions are also called social practices. Under social practice is understood as existing historically long time a sequence of actions carried out by a large social group (one or more) as a group (national, ethnic) custom in order to satisfy some important need for this group or community.

The simplest example of social practice is the queue at the store. For scarce, i.e. limited in quantity, the goods line up a chain of random passers-by who instantly obey certain rules of behavior. Not a specific queue, but a queue as a tradition of time or people is a social practice.

Each major institution has its own systems of established practices, methods, techniques and procedures. Economic institutions cannot do without such mechanisms and practices as currency conversion, protection of private property, professional selection, placement of workers and evaluation of their work, marketing, market, etc. Inside the institution of family and marriage, and this also includes the system of kinship, scientists find institutions of paternity and motherhood, tribal revenge, twinning, inheritance of the social status of parents, naming, etc. The custom of making an appointment is an element of the social practice of courtship. Confession is a social practice, not an institution, set of institutions, or organization. This is a centuries-old practice that has its own technology of execution, rules and norms of behavior, a circle of performers (confessors and confessors), a system of prescribed statuses and roles. Sociologists talk about the institutions of celibacy (celibacy) in Catholicism, baptism and confession in Orthodoxy, the Inquisition, monasticism, episcopacy.

Sometimes social practices coincide with non-core institutions, and sometimes they don't. For example, the institute of representatives of the President of Russia, as well as the institute of mentoring in the USSR, are vivid examples of private institutions. They were established from above, by the state, and did not arise from the bottom of the people as a natural continuation of its traditions and customs.

But the ritual of acquaintance, which different peoples takes sometimes incredibly exotic forms, refers to social practices. In most societies, intermediaries are not needed for acquaintance, but in many countries, especially in high society, a man cannot approach a lady or another man and introduce himself to him. They need to be introduced to each other by someone else.

The English political philosopher Michael Oakeshott believed that democracy as a social and political practice is a set of traditions and customs of a given people and includes many very specific and very invisible to the outside eye procedures, institutions, habits, with the help of which it is only maintained and successfully functions.

To the main functions of a social institution include the function of consolidating and reproducing social relations, as well as regulatory, integrative, broadcasting and communicative functions. Along with universal, there are specific functions. They include such functions that are inherent in one and not characteristic of other institutions. This, for example, is the reproduction of people, the birth of new generations (the institution of the family), the acquisition of means of subsistence (production), the establishment of order in society (the state), the discovery and transfer of new knowledge (science and education), the administration of spiritual rituals (religion). Some institutions serve as stabilizers of social order. These include political and legal institutions such as the state, government, parliament, police, courts, army. Other institutions support and develop culture. This applies to the institutions of the church and religion. Within each social institution, one can distinguish whole line subfunctions which it fulfills and which other institutions may not have.

For example, at the Institute of the Family, scientists discovered the functions of sexual regulation; reproductive; socialization; emotional satisfaction; status; protective and economic.

Society is arranged in such a way that a number of institutions perform several functions simultaneously, and at the same time, several institutions can specialize in the performance of one function at once. For example, the function of educating or socializing children is performed by such institutions as the family, church, school, state. At the same time, the institution of the family performs such functions as the reproduction of people, education and socialization, satisfaction in intimacy and others. Functions that were once performed by one institution may eventually be transferred to other institutions or distributed partially or completely between them.

For example, in the distant past, the family institution performed more than five to seven functions, but today some of them have been transferred to other institutions. So, along with the family, the school is engaged in education, the organization of recreation is carried out by special recreation institutions. Even the function of satisfying sexual needs is shared by the family with the institution of prostitution. And the function of earning a livelihood, which in the days of hunters and gatherers was exclusively done by the family, is now completely taken over by the industry.

If the institution works as it should, then it has much more pluses than minuses, and vice versa. Pros, or functions, strengthen, stabilize and develop society. Cons, i.e. dysfunction, it is shattered. Major social upheavals, such as wars, revolutions, economic and political crises, can lead to the disruption of one or more institutions. This applies to government, parliament, industry, property, school, religion, and so on. As a result, failures and dysfunctions occur in their functioning. This happened after October revolution in Russia in 1917

Public opinion gives an assessment of the activities of institutions, how they cope with their functions and tasks. Sociologists periodically measure trust level to social institutions.

Over the past 20 years, only the institution of the church enjoyed consistently high confidence among Russians, since 2000 - the president of the country. Attitudes towards other institutions, such as the media, trade unions, government, courts, parliament, army, police, local authorities, the prosecutor's office, changed from 2000 to 2013. from extremely low to moderately low or medium values (from 4 to 32%).

Sociologists believe that the low level of trust in social institutions indicates the way they experience crisis when they fail to do their job.

Data from a survey conducted by the Gallup Institute in the EU countries, of Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, Israel, Canada, the USA, South America, Asia and Africa showed that the level of trust in public institutions is, as a rule, higher here than in Russia (from 34 to 92%).

So, social institutions (primary and non-primary) have not only functions (benefit they bring), but also dysfunctions (harm to society). Functions and dysfunctions are explicit, if they are officially declared, are understood and obvious by everyone, and latent, if they are hidden from view, are not declared. The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. Latent functions are the unintended result of the activities of institutions or persons representing them. The democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 1990s, through the parliament, government and president, sought to improve the lives of the people, create civilized relations in society and inspire citizens with respect for the law. These were the explicit, publicly declared goals and objectives. In fact, crime has risen in the country, and the standard of living has fallen. These are the by-products of the efforts of the institutions of power. Explicit functions testify to what people wanted to achieve within the framework of this or that institution, and latent ones indicate what came of it. The concept of explicit and latent functions was developed in the middle of the 20th century. Robert Merton.

The explicit functions of the school as an institution of secondary education include the acquisition of literacy and matriculation, preparation for higher education, training in professional roles, and the assimilation of the basic values of society. But it also has hidden functions: acquiring a certain social status that will allow you to climb a step above the illiterate, establishing strong friendships, supporting graduates at the time of their entry into the labor market. Explicit, i.e. rather self-evident, the functions of the institution of higher education can be considered the preparation of young people for the development of various special roles and the assimilation of the prevailing value standards, morality and ideology in society, and the implicit ones are the consolidation of social inequality that occurs when receiving higher education. Thus, latent functions act as side effect activity of a social institution. They can be both positive and negative, i.e. dysfunctions.

As we have seen, functions and dysfunctions are relative, not absolute. The function may be explicit for some members of society and latent for others. The same goes for dysfunction. For example, it is important for some to acquire fundamental knowledge at the university, and for others to make acquaintances. In this case, the intersection of functions, dysfunctions, explicit and latent functions can be depicted as a logical square (Fig. 3.4).

The institution of education or the institution of taxation has all pairs of functional relationships. For example, the latent function of education is to give graduates of higher education higher starting positions and ensure higher career growth than people who do not have higher education. This function is positive, because it benefits graduates, not harm. At the same time, it is latent, not explicitly manifested by any official law on education. The same can be said about setting friendly relations, the formation of solidarity and mutual assistance of graduates of the same university and faculty after graduation and the formation of a career.

Another example is taxation. Useful spending of taxes, established by law, is a clear and positive function of an economic institution. Misappropriation of taxes is an example of a dysfunction that takes both explicit and latent forms. Expenditures of taxes made by the state for useful to society, but not included in their intended purpose, will give a clear dysfunction, and theft of taxes - a latent dysfunction.

Rice. 3.4.

When the discrepancy between explicit and latent functions is large, there is double standard social relations, which threatens the stability of society. Even more dangerous is the situation when, along with the official institutional system, so-called shadow institutions are formed that take on the function of regulating the most important social relations (for example, criminal structures in modern Russia).

Cm.: Frolov S. S. Sociology. M., 1994. S. 141–143.
Cm.: Merton R. Explicit and latent functions // American Sociological Thought; ed. V. I. Dobrenkov. M., 1994. S. 379 447.

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