Where words are used more often in a figurative sense. Direct and figurative meaning of the word

Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. To determine its essence requires careful consideration of many questions. For example, the device of the language and the ratio of the elements of its system, the influence from external factors and functions in human society.

Definition of portable values

Already from lower grades school, everyone knows that the same words can be used in different ways in speech. A direct (main, main) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context and on the allegory. An example of this is the word "collapse". In medicine, it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy, the rapid contraction of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.

The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another due to the similarity of their functions, features, etc. For example, the same “collapse” was received. Examples relate to public life. So, in a figurative sense, "collapse" means the destruction, the collapse of the association of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.

scientific definition

In linguistics figurative meaning words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning of metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. At the same time, it arises on the basis of logical, spatial, temporal and other correlative concepts.

Application in speech

Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not an ordinary and permanent object for designation. They approach other concepts by emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.

Words used in a figurative sense can retain figurativeness. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by the writers.
However, in most cases, when there is a transfer of meanings, the figurativeness is lost. Examples of this are expressions such as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, imagery decays in

Changing the essence of a concept

The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, feature or object. As a result, it goes into the category of main or main. For example, the spine of a book or a doorknob.

Polysemy

The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their ambiguity. In scientific language, it is called "Polysemy". Often a single word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use the language often need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use the words they already know.

Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning of a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning implemented in various versions.

For example, we say "red tomato". Used in this case adjective is direct meaning. "Red" can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But to give an explanation, linguistics cannot give. It's just the name of the color.

In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of non-equivalence of meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, and that a person blushed with shame, and that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are found more often in the language. They immediately come to mind when the word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.

There are semantic connections between some meanings of the word, which make understandable the phenomenon when different properties and objects are called the same.

trails

The use of a word in a figurative sense can be not only a stable fact of the language. Such usage is sometimes limited, fleeting, and carried out within the framework of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what was said is achieved.

Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. Examples of this use are found in poetry and literature. For these genres, this is effective artistic technique. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the wagons” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.

The emergence of figurative meanings of words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words,

Metaphor

In philology stands out whole line various types of transfer of names. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is possible only with the similarity of certain signs. Similarity can be external (by color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (by assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of a metaphor, they talk about black thoughts and sour face, subsided storm and cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, and the sign of the concept remains unchanged.

The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor takes place when various degrees similarities. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. Here, transfer is applied in similar forms. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes the transfer of meanings is carried out by similarity with sounds. So, the whistle was called a siren.

Metonymy

It is also one of the most important types of name transfers. However, when using it, the similarities of internal and external features are not applied. Here there is a contiguity of causal relationships, or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.

The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only in the subject, but also in the concept itself. When this phenomenon only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.

The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.

Synecdoche

This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. Examples of this are the expressions “a child goes after a mother’s skirt”, “a hundred heads of cattle”, etc.

Homonyms

This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound match of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.

There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or sound the same, but at the same time have a different composition of phonemes. For example, "rod" and "pond". Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and the pronunciation of the words are the same, but separate ones are different. For example, the number "three" and the verb "three". When the pronunciation changes, such words will not match. For example, "rub", "three", etc.

Synonyms

This concept refers to words of the same part of speech that are identical or close in their lexical meaning. The sources of synonymy are foreign language and their own lexical meanings, general literary and dialectal. There are such figurative meanings of words and thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).

Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:

• absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
• conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
• stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).

Antonyms

This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but at the same time have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meanings can have a difference in structure (“take out” - “bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposite orientation of signs, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetry and

With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest are figurative. The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context.

Words, denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in their direct meaning. The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. For example: Toy, -i, f. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands. The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche. A metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: a ripe apple is an eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their proximity *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; porcelain dish - tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (oh extra person in family); a big head - a smart head, etc. In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct. In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning words are given first, and figurative meanings go under the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5. The meaning fixed as a figurative recently comes with the mark "trans".

A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialog, purple, saber, alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen

Several types can be distinguished unambiguous words.

1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their limit specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of single objects.

2. Usually recently emerged words that have not yet become widespread are unambiguous (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria and so on.). This is explained by the fact that for the development of ambiguity in a word, its frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.

3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech. (beads, turquoise). This helps to keep them unique.

4. One meaning, as a rule, highlights the terms: sore throat, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- multivalued. In the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:

1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inner part of the tooth, hair, nail. Blush down to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. Beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. Root- significant part of the word.

The direct meaning of the word is its main meaning. For example, an adjective gold means "made of gold, composed of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.

The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-primary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. Golden autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative ("similar to gold in color"). Golden time, skillful fingers- in these examples, the adjective has a figurative meaning - "beautiful, happy."

The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:

wolf skin- wolfish appetite;

iron nail- iron character.

If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.

The use of words in a figurative sense gives speech expressiveness, figurativeness. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, moods. On the basis of the figurative meaning of words, special means of artistic representation are created: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet and etc.

Thus, on the basis of the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:

comparison(one object is compared to another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;

metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); the bird cherry is throwing snow(bird cherry, like snow);

personification(human properties are transferred to animals, inanimate objects). The grove answered; cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;

epithet(figurative use of adjectives). The grove is golden; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.

With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest portable.

direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning.

Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:

toy, -i, and. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.

2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- aircraft wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils- behindthe kettle boils; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche(from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currant; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- clever mind etc.

In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time figurative meanings can become straight.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. See, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so both sides couldsee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote corner of a bear, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Siberian)

* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.

In the first sentence, the word corner used in the literal sense: "a place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations “in a dead corner”, “bear corner”, the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dark corner- in a remote area bearliving corner - dumb place.

In explanatory dictionaries the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the portable values ​​are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. A value recently fixed as a portable value is marked "pen,", For example:

Wood, oh, oh. 1. made of wood 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. ABOUT wood oil- cheap olive oil.