Vesalius and scientific anatomy.
If anyone can be called the father of anatomy, it is, of course, Vesalius. Andreas Vesalius, naturalist, founder and creator of modern anatomy, was one of the first to study the human body through dissections. All later anatomical acquisitions originate from him.
Andreas Vesalius came from the Viting family, who lived for a long time in Niemwegen. Several generations of the family in which Andreas was born were medical scientists and connoisseurs of medical works. historical significance. His great-great-grandfather, Peter, was a physician to Emperor Maximilian, professor and rector of the University of Louvain. Being an inveterate bibliophile, a collector of medical treatises, he spent part of his fortune on a collection of medical manuscripts. He wrote a commentary on the 4th book of the "Canon of Medicine" by the great encyclopedist of the East Avicenna.
Peter's son John, Andreas' great-grandfather, taught at the University of Louvain: he was a mathematician and physician in Brussels. John's son Everard, Andreas' grandfather, was also a physician. He is known for his commentaries on Ad al-Mozaremeh al-Razi (Latinized as Rhazes) by Abu Bakr Mohammed bin Zakaria (865-925 or 934), an eminent Iranian physician, encyclopedic scholar and philosopher, and in addition wrote additions to the first four paragraphs of the Hippocratic Miscellany. Moreover, he gave classic description smallpox and measles, used smallpox vaccination.
Andreas Vesalius' father, Andreas, was an apothecary to Princess Margaret, aunt of Charles V and ruler of the Netherlands. Andreas' younger brother, Francis, also studied medicine and became a physician.
Andreas was born in Brussels on December 31, 1514 and grew up among the doctors who visited his father's house. He is with young years used a rich library of medical treatises collected in the family and passed down from generation to generation. Thanks to this, the young and capable Andreas developed an interest in the study of medicine. I must say that he possessed extraordinary erudition: he remembered all the discoveries made by various authors, and commented on them in his writings.
At the age of 16, Andreas received a classical education in Brussels. In 1530 he entered the University of Louvain, founded by Johann IV of Brabant in 1426 (closed after the Great french revolution, renewed in 1817). The university taught ancient languages - Greek and Latin, as well as mathematics and rhetoric. For successful advancement in science, it was necessary to know ancient languages well. Dissatisfied with teaching, Andreas in 1531 moved to the Pedagogical College (Pedagogium trilinque), founded in Louvain in 1517. God did not offend him with his talents: he quickly spoke Latin and began to read Greek writers rather fluently, understanding Arabic quite well.
Andreas Vesalius showed an early aptitude for anatomy. In his free time from university studies, he dissected and carefully dissected domestic animals with great enthusiasm. This passion has not gone unnoticed. The court physician and friend of Father Andreas, Nikolai Floren, who was interested in the fate of the young man, recommended that he study medicine, and only in Paris. Subsequently, in 1539, Vesalius dedicated his Epistle on Bloodletting to Florin, calling him his second father.
In 1533, Andreas went to study medicine in Paris. Here, for three or four years, he studies anatomy, listens to lectures by an Italian doctor who has proven himself at the court of Francis I, Guido-Guidi (Guido-Guidi, 1500-1569), better known as Vidius and Jacques Dubois (Dubois, 1478-1555) (Latinized name Silvius, or Silvius, Jacobus). Sylvius was one of the first to start anatomical studies of the structure of the vena cava, peritoneum, etc. on human corpses; invented the injection of blood vessels with dyes; described the appendix, the structure of the liver, the position of the vena cava, opened the vein valves, etc. He lectured brilliantly.
Vesalius also attended the lectures of the "modern Galen", as the best physician in Europe Fernel (1497-1558), Catherine de Medici's life physician, was called. Jacques Francois Fernel, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and physician, introduced several key concepts: "physiology" and "pathology". He wrote a lot about syphilis and other diseases, studied, among other things, epilepsy and accurately distinguished the types of this disease. In 1530, the Faculty of Medicine of Paris awarded him the degree of doctor of medicine, in 1534 he received the title of professor of medicine. He was called the first doctor of France and one of the most venerable in Europe.
Vesalius was not limited to attending the lectures of Sylvius and Fernel, he also studied with Johann Günther, a Swiss from Anderlecht, who at that time taught anatomy and surgery in Paris. Günter previously taught Greek language at the University of Louvain, and in 1527 he moved to Paris, where he studied anatomy. He wrote a work on the anatomical and physiological views of Galen ("four books of anatomical regulations, according to Galen, addressed to candidates of medicine"). With Gunther, Vesalius established a more cordial relationship than with Sylvius. Günther greatly appreciated his student.
Anatomy classes involve practice on human material. Vesalius needed the corpses of dead people for anatomical studies. But this issue has always been a big problem. This occupation, as you know, has never been a charitable deed, the church has traditionally rebelled against it. Herophilus was probably the only doctor who, while dissecting corpses in Museion, was not persecuted for this. Carried away by the passion of scientific research, Vesalius went alone at night to the Cemetery of the Innocents, to the place of execution of Abbé Villar de Montfaucon, and there he challenged their half-rotted prey with stray dogs.
In the famous University of Montpellier, where anatomy was a major subject, doctors in 1376 received permission from the ruler of Languedoc, Louis of Anjou, brother of the French king Charles V, to dissect one corpse of an executed criminal every year. For the development of anatomy and medicine in general, this permission was an extremely important act. Subsequently, it was confirmed by Charles the Thin, King of Navarre, Charles VI, King of France and, finally, Charles VIII. The latter confirmed this permission in 1496 with a charter, which states that the doctors of the University of Montpellier have the right to "take annually one corpse from those who will be executed."
After spending more than three years in Paris, in 1536 Vesalius returned to Louvain, where he continued to do what he loved with his friend Gemma Frizius (1508-1555), who later became a famous doctor. Vesalius made his first connected skeleton with great difficulty. Together with Frisia, they stole the corpses of the executed, sometimes removing them in parts, climbing the gallows with danger to their lives. At night, they hid body parts in roadside bushes, and then, using various occasions, they delivered them home, where they cut off soft tissues and boiled the bones. All this had to be done in the deepest secrecy. Another attitude was towards the production of official autopsies. The burgomaster of Louvain, Adrian of Blegen, did not interfere with them, on the contrary, he patronized medical students and sometimes attended autopsies himself.
Vesalius entered into an argument with Driver (1504-1554), a lecturer at the University of Louvain, about how best to perform bloodletting. There were two opposing opinions on this issue: Hippocrates and Galen taught that bloodletting should be done from the side of the diseased organ, the Arabs and Avicenna suggested doing it from the opposite side of the diseased organ. Driver spoke out in support of Avicenna, Vesalius - Hippocrates and Galen. Driver was indignant at the audacity of the young doctor, who sharply answered him. Since then, Driver has become hostile to Vesalius. Vesalius felt that it would be difficult for him to continue working in Louvain.
It was time to go somewhere. But where? In Spain the church was omnipotent; touching a knife to a human corpse was considered a desecration of the deceased and was completely impossible; in Belgium and France, the autopsy of corpses was a very difficult matter. Vesalius travels to the Venetian Republic, attracted by the opportunity to gain more freedom for anatomical research. The University of Padua, founded in 1222, became subject to Venice in 1440. The Faculty of Medicine has become the most famous medical school in Europe. Padua met Vesalius favorably, there were already known "Anatomical Establishments" by Gunther and "Paraphrases" by Razi.
On December 5, 1537, the medical faculty of the University of Padua, at a solemn meeting, awarded Vesalius the degree of doctor of medicine, with the highest honors. After Vesalius publicly demonstrated the autopsy, the Senate of the Venetian Republic appointed him professor of surgery with the obligation to teach anatomy. Vesalius became a professor at the age of 23. His bright lectures attracted listeners from all faculties. Soon, to the sound of trumpets, under waving flags, he was proclaimed a doctor at the palace of the Bishop of Padua.
The active nature of Vesalius could not put up with the routine that reigned in the anatomy departments of many universities, where professors monotonously read long excerpts from the works of Galen. The autopsy of corpses was carried out by illiterate ministers, and professors with a voluminous volume of Galen in their hands stood nearby and from time to time pointed with a wand at various organs as they were mentioned in the text.
In 1538, Vesalius published anatomical tables - 6 sheets of drawings engraved by Titian's student S. Kalkar. In the same year, he undertook the reprinting of the works of Galen and a year later published his Letters on Bloodletting. Working on the release of the works of his predecessors, Vesalius made sure that they described the structure human body on the basis of a section of the organs of the body of animals, transmitting erroneous information, legitimized by time and tradition. Studying the human body through autopsies, Vesalius accumulated indisputable facts, which he decided to boldly oppose to the canons of the past. During the four years of his stay in Padua, Vesalius wrote his immortal work "On the structure of the human body" (books 1-7), which was published in Basel in 1543 and was richly illustrated. It provides a description of the structure of organs and systems, points out numerous mistakes of predecessors, including Galen. It should be especially emphasized that after the appearance of the treatise of Vesalius, the authority of Galen was shaken, and then overthrown.
By coincidence, the treatise appeared in the year of Copernicus' death, and at the same time Copernicus's book "On the Revolution of Celestial Bodies" was published, which revolutionized not only astronomy, but also the worldview of people. By the way, the son of a merchant, Canon Copernicus knew a lot about anatomy, at one time he studied at the medical faculty of the University of Padua, and upon his return to Poland from 1504 to 1512 he was a doctor of his uncle, Bishop Wachenrode.
The work of Vesalius was the beginning of modern anatomy; in it, for the first time in the history of anatomy, not a speculative, but completely scientific description structure of the human body, based on experimental studies. Vesalius made a huge contribution to the anatomical terminology in Latin. Taking as a basis the names introduced by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (I century BC), the “Latin Hippocrates” and the “Cicero of Medicine”, Vesalius gave uniformity to the anatomical terminology, threw out, with extremely rare exceptions, all medieval barbarisms. At the same time, he reduced Grecisms to a minimum, which to some extent can be explained by his rejection of many provisions of Galen's medicine. It is noteworthy that, being an innovator in anatomy, Vesalius considered the “animal spirits” that are produced in the ventricles of the brain to be the carriers of the mental. This view was reminiscent of Galen's theory, for the said "spirits" were only the renamed "psychic pneuma" of the ancients.
The work of Vesalius “On the structure of the human body” is not only the result of the study of previous achievements in anatomy, but also a scientific discovery based on new research methods that were of great revolutionary importance in the science of that time. Diplomatically lavishing praises on the “divine husband” Galen and expressing surprise at the vastness of his mind and versatility of knowledge, Vesalius dares to point out only some “inaccuracies” in his teaching. But he counts more than 200 such inaccuracies, and they are, in essence, a refutation of the main provisions of the teachings of Galen.
Vesalius, in particular, was the first to refute misconception Galen and his other predecessors that there are supposedly holes in the human heart septum through which blood passes from the right ventricle of the heart to the left. He showed that the right and left ventricles of the heart do not communicate with each other in the postembryonic period. However, from this discovery, which fundamentally refuted Galen's ideas about the physiological mechanism of blood circulation, Vesalius did not draw the correct conclusions; only Harvey succeeded in this later.
After the publication of the great work of Vesalius, a long-brewing storm broke out. Silvius, the teacher of Vesalius, bowing to the authority of Galen, considered abnormal in the human body everything that did not agree with the description or view of the great Roman. For this reason, he rejected the discoveries of his student Vesalius. Without hiding his indignation, he calls Vesalius "a proud man, a slanderer, a monster whose unholy breath infects Europe." Silvius and his disciples made a united front against Vesalius, calling him an ignoramus and a blasphemer. However, Sylvius did not limit himself to insults, he wrote a sharp pamphlet "Refutation of the slander of a certain madman on the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen, compiled by Jacobus Sylvius, the royal interpreter on medical issues in Paris" (1555). Silvius, in 28 chapters of this pamphlet, wittily ridicules his former student and friend, calling him not Vesalius, but "Vesanus", which means "mad" in Latin, and, in the end, renounces him.
Pamphlet Sylvia played fatal role in the life of Vesalius. This document, imbued with malicious and jealous envy, united the enemies of the father of anatomy and created an atmosphere of public contempt around his immaculate name among the conservative camp of the then medical scientists. Vesalius was accused of disrespectful attitude to the teachings of Hippocrates and Galen, who were not formally canonized by the then omnipotent Catholic Church, but their judgments and especially authority were accepted as indisputable truths of Holy Scripture, and to object to them was tantamount to rejecting the latter. In addition, Vesalius was a student of Sylvius, used his scientific advice, and if Sylvius reproached Vesalius for slander, then the accusation incriminated by him seemed plausible. Sylvius did not unselfishly defend the authority of Galen. His indignation was due to the fact that, undermining the authority of Galen, Vesalius destroyed him himself, for the knowledge of Sylvius rested on the texts of the classics of medicine carefully studied and transmitted to students.
The Sylvius pamphlet inflicted a mortal wound on Vesalius, from which he never recovered. Opposition to the scientific views of Vesalius arose in Padua. One of his most active opponents was his student and deputy chair Reald Colombo (c. 1516-1559). After the appearance of the insinuation, Sylvia Colombo dramatically changed his attitude towards his teacher: he began to criticize, tried to discredit before the students. In 1544, when Vesalius left Padua, Colombo was appointed to the chair of anatomy, but only served as professor of the chair for a year. In 1545 he moved to the University of Pisa and then, in 1551, took up a chair in Rome, where he worked until his death. Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562) replaced Colombo at the Padua chair and declared himself the heir and student of Vesalius, continuing with honor his traditions.
The evil fabrications of Sylvius led to the fact that, driven to despair, Vesalius stopped his research work and burned part of his manuscripts and materials collected for further work. Vesalius was forced in 1544 to move into the field of medical practice, into the service of Charles V. At that time, Charles V was at war with France, and Vesalius, as chief military surgeon, had to go to the theater of operations.
The war ended in September 1544, and Vesalius left for Brussels, where his father soon died. After the death of his father, Vesalius inherited, and he decided to start a family. In January 1545, Charles V arrived in Brussels, and Vesalius was to take over the duties of the emperor's attending physician. Karl suffered from gout and was notable for immoderation in food. Vesalius had to make titanic efforts to alleviate the suffering of the emperor. After the abdication of Charles V in 1555, Vesalius entered the service of his son, Philip II. In 1559, Philip II moved his court from Brussels to Madrid, and Vesalius and his family followed him.
The Spanish Inquisition began mercilessly persecuting Vesalius, accusing him of allegedly slaughtering a living person while dissecting a corpse, and eventually sentenced him to death. And only thanks to the intercession of Philip II, the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Palestine to the Holy Sepulcher. Returning back from this dangerous and difficult journey at the time, at the entrance to the Strait of Corinth, Vesalius' ship was wrecked, and the father of modern anatomy was thrown onto the small island of Zante, where he fell seriously ill and died on October 2, 1564, 50 years old. On this secluded island covered with pines, the soul of the great anatomist rested forever.
Vesalius and scientific anatomy
The famous scientist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) managed to correct the mistakes of his predecessors and significantly expanded the anatomical knowledge of his time. Summarizing and classifying known information, he transformed anatomy into a true science. Andreas's desire to study medicine probably appeared at an early age. His grandfather was the author of the Commentaries on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, and his father was a renowned practicing physician in Brussels. Impressions from reading medical literature led the boy to the path self-study nature. Interest in the structure of the body of domestic animals prompted the decision to dissect the corpses of mice, birds, and dogs.
Having received a solid education at the universities of Louvain, Montpellier and Paris, Vesalius enthusiastically studied anatomy, procuring human corpses at the risk of life. Due to his religiosity, the physician before each autopsy asked for forgiveness from God. Even during the years of teaching, Vesalius had doubts that the autopsies were organized incorrectly, and often argued with teachers. Nevertheless, he left the University of Paris, skillfully mastering the technique of dissection, as well as deeply studying the teachings of Galen.
Andreas Vesalius
After one year of military campaigns (the Franco-German conflict of 1535-1536), Vesalius returned to Louvain and for some time was engaged in the manufacture of skeletons. The result of this activity was an invitation to teach anatomy at the University of Padua. In 1537, his work “On the Treatment of Diseases from Head to Feet” was published as a separate brochure, and soon he moved to Italy, starting the most fruitful period of his life. In the same year he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, taking the place of a lecturer in anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua.
Having started work, Vesalius immediately changed the established method of teaching anatomy. He secured permission to perform autopsies and provided students with teaching aids. own composition. The scientist no longer experienced a shortage of corpses: the bodies of executed criminals regularly entered the anatomical theater of the university. In 1538, a Venetian printing house printed a book called "Six Anatomical Tables", created in collaboration with the artist Johann Stefan van Kalkar. Vesalius' textbook was an atlas in which the text was accompanied by original drawings depicting various parts of the human body. The physician spent the beginning of 1543 in Basel, acting as an organizer and participant in anatomical demonstrations, creating new books and preparing skeletons.
The reform of the teaching of anatomy begun by Vesalius no longer had a reverse course. First, in Italian, then in other European universities, the methods of teaching all medical disciplines have changed. At the same time, advances in the study of anatomy did not remain the property of one educational institution, but spread throughout all states. As a teacher, Vesalius constantly demanded accuracy from his students in the study of nature. He reminded of the purpose of each, even a small part of the body, called for a comprehensive coverage of the phenomenon under study and its in-depth analysis.
Students were impressed by his critical attitude to the legacy of the past, accuracy in research, striving for evidence-based judgments, moreover, with facts obtained personally. In addition, the young teacher had an attractive appearance, was charming, spoke temperamentally and weightily. Contemporaries noted the confident movements of Vesalius, his eyes burning with passion, his readiness to enter into a discussion, immediately presenting indisputable facts. All these qualities provided the anatomist with high prestige among the audience.
Vesalius was the first to describe the structure of the human body on the basis of facts personally established by him through autopsies. At that time, conclusions regarding the structure of the human body were made on the basis of the works of Galen. Vesalius appreciated his works, translated and prepared them for publication, but pointed out the fallacy of many provisions. In his essay On the Structure of the Human Body, he corrected more than 200 mistakes of a Roman doctor, unfortunately without avoiding his own.
The denial of Galen's authority caused a conflict with colleagues. Few of his contemporaries were willing to accept the new anatomy. Hostility, ridicule and outright contempt accompanied the talented scientist throughout his life. The most violent opponent was Silvius, who published a pamphlet in 1551, where he called the former student "a crazy fool who poisons the air in Europe with the stench of his corpses." Vesalius' answer was immediate: "I demand a meeting with Silvius at the anatomy table, then he can be sure which side is right."
The following years were a time of struggle for the triumph of the new anatomy; in defense of science, Vesalius organized public demonstrations in Padua, Bologna, and Pisa. His rhetorical talent, impeccable logic, rare enthusiasm captivated not only fans, but also critics. As the best method of agitation, the most ardent opponents were invited to the corpse. In Italy, the name Vesalius was pronounced with reverence, he was greeted with triumph by students, but in France, Belgium, Switzerland, the new anatomy was not recognized. However, it was in Basel that the fundamental work “On the Structure of the Human Body” (1543) was created in 7 books, summarizing past achievements and containing valuable additions by the author. At the same time, a short textbook "Extraction" was published, addressed to young doctors trained in the anatomical theater. Throughout 1544, the scientist unsuccessfully fought against enemies, the main among which was the Catholic Church. As a result, Vesalius could not stand it and left for Brussels. Having broken with his beloved science, cursing ignorance, he destroyed all his manuscripts.
Beginning in 1544, Vesalius traveled as a physician to Charles V. After the death of the old emperor, his heir, Philip II, was unable to protect the doctor from the Spanish Inquisition. Accused of dissecting living people, the scientist was sentenced to death, but the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship was caught in a storm, forced to land on the shore of the island of Zante, where Vesalius fell ill and died.
Some biographers considered Vesalius the author of one book. The text of the essay "On the structure of the human body" is illustrated with engravings famous painter Johann van Kalkar. The anatomical works of Vesalius' predecessors contained almost no drawings. The low level of painting of the Middle Ages, the difficulties of drawing on parchment, but most importantly, the neglect of anatomical knowledge gleaned from an autopsy, at that time made anatomical drawings a curious rarity. The exception was sketches of the skeleton in various poses and all the scientific work of Leonardo da Vinci.
Illustration for the composition "On the structure of the human body." Engraving by J. S. Van Kalkar. 1543
Vesalius was well aware of the importance of anatomical drawing. Starting to create the original illustrated manual, he said: "... engravings contribute to the understanding of autopsies and present the eye more clearly than the most understandable presentation." Indeed, the value of the book was largely determined by the quality of the drawings, which personified the living spirit of the Renaissance. According to the famous Russian physician, in the work of Vesalius “the muscles of the human body are presented in dynamics. The poses of the corpses make you think about the wisdom of life and the drama of death.”
The first book was a guide to the study of bones and joints (osteology and arthrology). The skeleton was fully described here, including teeth, cartilage, nails. In conclusion, methods of processing bones were considered and advice was given on the tools necessary for anatomy: saws, hammers, tongs, knives, razors, hooks, scissors, needles. However, ordinary tweezers were not mentioned among them.
The conclusion about the difference in the number of ribs in a man and a woman was intended for specialists: “And the opinion of the mob that men on one side are deprived of some kind of rib and a woman surpasses a man by one rib is completely ridiculous, although Moses kept the tradition that Eve was created by God from Adam’s rib ". In describing the skull, Vesalius was the first to accurately depict the sphenoid and mandibular bones. In conclusion, the author described the procedure for bone maceration. For this, wooden boxes with holes were used; corpses were laid in them and sprinkled with lime. The boxes were then placed in water. After several washes and cleansing, the bones were exposed to the sun for bleaching. Bone digestion was often used to improve appearance skeleton as a teaching aid. The technique of its manufacture is also described to the smallest detail.
The second book is devoted to muscle anatomy (myology). The merit of Vesalius was the creation of original, excellently executed images and accurate tables. Figures with dissected muscles in various poses are located against the backdrop of Italian landscapes. In the setting of the limbs, the dynamics of movement are correctly conveyed. The author denied early preconceptions about tendons and nerves: "The tendon corresponds to the ligament, not the nerve, and the nerve does not dissolve into either the muscle or the tendon." In the second book, the muscles are systematized by shape. At the same time, the conventionality of such concepts as the beginning and attachment of a muscle is indicated; examples of their opposite action were given.
Book three included a description of the blood vessels and glands. According to the researchers, the image of blood vessels had significant shortcomings, determined by the fact that the author did not understand the process of blood circulation in depth, while following the physiological dogmas of Galen. But in the study of blood vessels, Vesalius showed great knowledge. This is evidenced by a thorough description of the arteries and veins: the laws of branching of the arteries, the ways of roundabout blood flow, and the structural features of the vascular wall did not remain hidden. For Vesalius, the veins were the vessels through which blood flows from the liver to the periphery. Blood saturated with the spirit of life is carried from the heart by the arteries. The heart seemed ordinary internal organ, but not the center of the vascular system, so there was no description of the heart itself. Veins, according to Vesalius, "stand higher" than the arteries, but the topography of the veins is not entirely accurate.
The fourth book presented information on the anatomy of the peripheral nerves and the spinal cord. Some negligence in reasoning testifies to the author's indifference to this issue, therefore he involuntarily repeated the mistakes of Galen. Having described 7 pairs of cranial and 30 pairs of spinal nerves, Vesalius did not take into account the seventh cervical spinal nerve. Obviously, he did not understand the differences between the roots of the spinal nerves. In turn, the nerve trunk is considered as a continuous formation, mainly as a hollow tube through which the "animal spirit" circulates.
Experimental information on the anatomy of peripheral nerves, nerve plexuses, and the spinal cord is presented in the book in a classical way, but they are not original and are sometimes erroneous. Nevertheless, the peripheral nerves of the trunk, upper and lower extremities are described correctly. Being a creative person, Vesalius always moved away from the standard descriptions of Galen, correcting and supplementing them: "... if you notice that I have rather deviated from the opinion of Galen, do not be lazy, I beg you, check his description." There is no doubt that each of the large peripheral nerves was examined personally on corpses.
The fifth book reflects research on the anatomy of the digestive organs, excretion and reproduction. According to the text, the genitourinary organs are "in connection and contiguity" with the organs of nutrition, therefore they are included in this section. In fact, the book was a commentary on the autopsy of the abdominal cavity. The author explained the meaning of each organ, its place in the process of digestion, as well as its relationship with other parts of the body. At the beginning of the book there are 32 drawings depicting organs on a corpse in strict sequence, as well as their appearance on individual preparations and sections. Of course, the author perfectly represented everything that is shown on the tables and written in the book. Considerations regarding the internal structure of organs and the explanation of their functions are not ideal, but quite understandable. Vesalius clearly described the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, kidney. He examined the structure of the internal and external genital organs, presented the developing fetus.
The sixth book is devoted to the respiratory organs and the heart. In particular, the description of the organs of the chest cavity was divided into 16 chapters. The membrane covering the ribs (pleura), trachea, larynx, lung and heart are described in detail. Despite vast experience in anatomy, Vesalius never understood the true function of the heart. In addition, he experienced serious difficulties in evaluating observations on the beating heart of animals. He distinguished two chambers of the heart and admitted that there were no holes in the septum between the ventricles, but he could not comprehend the path of blood flow from the right ventricle to the left: “I hesitate a lot about the functions of the heart in this part.”
The seventh book deals with the brain and sense organs. Here are collected facts that seemed to the author rather controversial. When writing this section, Vesalius had little knowledge of the internal structure of the brain. The text shows how much the doctor doubted this issue and still made many mistakes. However, the main details of the brain are correctly described: the brainstem, cerebellum, cerebral peduncles, quadrigemina, visual tubercles, corpus callosum, cerebral hemispheres, cerebral ventricles, pineal gland and pituitary gland.
This book was distinguished by a clear systematization of all known information on the anatomy of the brain. Not trusting his predecessors, Vesalius personally checked every judgment. His invention was the technique of dissecting the brain into slices. Silvius and Vesalius himself knew perfectly well the methods of compacting the brain; the cut was sketched, all large details were indicated in the drawings. Thus, anatomists were able to study the brain using a single method, as well as present their observations graphically.
The meaning of the brain is expressed by the following phrase: "... the brain is built for the supremacy of the mind, as well as sensitivity and movement, depending on our will." According to Vesalius, the brain performs its assigned functions with the help of a certain "animal spirit" that is produced in it and in the membranes, and then goes to the periphery along the nerves: "... I am not in the least afraid to attribute the purpose in the emergence of the animal spirit to the ventricles." Being faithful to Galen, the author mentioned the influence of the brain on vital functions, but he was able to explain it only with the help of the mysterious “animal spirit”, allegedly imparting “strength to the sense organs, causing muscle movements and being an impulse for the divine acts of the reigning soul”!
The supplementary, eighth, book contains the results of research on experimental anatomy and physiology, obtained by the author in the process of vivisection on animals. Vesalius turned to experiments of this kind very often; in the anatomical room next to the table on which the dismemberment of a human corpse was carried out, there was a table for dissecting animals.
The objects of the study were live monkeys, dogs, and pigs. In the course of a simple experiment, which was a bone fracture, the researcher was convinced that after an injury to one bone, the work of the entire organ is disrupted, otherwise the entire limb ceases to function. A variety of experiments concerning the nervous system consisted of the activation of paralysis of the muscles, the opening of the ventricles of the brain and skull in dogs, followed by the destruction of the medulla. Wanting to understand the influence of the recurrent nerves on the voice, Vesalius squeezed or cut the nerves, which entailed a loss of voice. Vesalius knew how to perform operations to remove the spleen from living animals, cut out the kidneys and testicles. Lifetime observations of the work of the heart and lungs were also made for educational purposes.
In medical literature, Vesalius is often described as a pure theorist, far from practical medicine. Despite the fact that he was not an attending physician, in particular a surgeon, his occupation required mastery of surgical techniques. No information has been preserved about his clinical activities, but Vesalius revealed his attitude to some problems of treatment in the preface to the manual on anatomy. In addition, he repeatedly touched on clinical problems in an article on the use of cinchona decoction. Given his scientific degree and vast teaching experience, it is necessary to recognize his merits in the development of surgery as a science. The correctness of the conclusions of Vesalius in his scientific work on the structure of the body was significantly confirmed by his contemporary, the great surgeon Ambroise Pare, who was both a theorist and a practitioner.
After the death of Vesalius, rare autopsies were performed in unsuitable premises, which was contrary to sanitary requirements and was explained by the prohibitions of the authorities. In Italy in the 16th century, autopsies turned into solemn demonstrations, carried out with the permission of the city administration. The “performance” took place in special rooms equipped like amphitheatres. The main characters were professors of medicine, performing actions in the presence of colleagues and students. The teachers dissected the corpses with their own hands, aiming not only to study the structure of the human body, but also to teach the anatomy of students. A century later, the center of anatomical research moved to France, and later concentrated in the Netherlands.
The largest anatomical school existed at Leiden University. At one time, the famous Dutch surgeon Nicholas Tulip (1593–1674) from Amsterdam, known to the world from a painting by his compatriot Rembrandt, graduated from it. Being a serious researcher in the field of comparative anatomy, the physician for the first time presented the structure of the anthropoid ape, likening it to a person. The name Tulpa is associated with the appearance of the symbol of doctors all over the world: a burning candle and the motto "Serving others, I destroy myself."
The University of Leiden became the place of study and work of another famous anatomist, Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731). A consistent supporter of Vesalius, in 1665 he defended his dissertation and left for Amsterdam at the invitation of the guild of local surgeons. Combining lectures on anatomy, Ruysch was engaged in scientific research. He is credited with inventing an original method of embalming, in creating a unique collection for the anatomical museum, where congenital anomalies and malformations were demonstrated. The Dutch scientist mastered the technique of preparing anatomical preparations to perfection, he knew the technique of injecting blood vessels with colored and hardening liquids. The great merits of Ruysch were appreciated by foreign luminaries of medicine. In 1705 he was elected a member of the Leopoldina Academy of Berlin, in 1720 he became a member of the London Scientific Royal Society, and after 7 years he attended meetings of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
From book encyclopedic Dictionary(A) author Brockhaus F. A. From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (B) author Brockhaus F. A.Vesalius Vesalius (Andrey Vesalius) - the famous surgeon and founder of the latest anatomy, genus. December 31, 1514 in Brussels, in a family that included several famous doctors among its ancestors (his grandfather is the author of the Op. "Commentaries on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates"). V. received
From book Big Book aphorisms authorScience Fiction Science fiction is not written for scientists, just as ghost stories are not written for ghosts. Brian Aldis Fiction does not deal with a person, but with human race as such, and even with possible species of sentient beings. Stanislav
From the book Everything in Science. Aphorisms author Dushenko Konstantin VasilievichSCIENTIFIC WORK Scientific work is when you read two books that no one has ever read in order to write a third book that no one will read. Definition proposed by NASA staff Scientific works are multiplied by division. "Stuckenbrenner's Rule" In science, there is no
From the book of 100 great doctors author Shoifet Mikhail SemyonovichSCIENTIFIC DISCUSSION A discussion is an exchange of knowledge, an argument is an exchange of ignorance. Robert Quillen If you've convinced your opponent in an argument, he's bound to say at the end, "Basically, we both said the same thing." Karol Izhikovsky If you do not agree with me, then you just
From the book Aphorisms author Ermishin Oleg From the book of 100 great prisoners author Ionina NadezhdaANDREAS VESALIUS (1514-1564) Andreas Vesalius is rightly considered the creator of modern anatomy and the founder of the school of anatomists. He was also successful as a medical practitioner. Andreas Vesalius was born in 1514 in Brussels into a family of hereditary physicians. The doctors were his grandfather and
From the book I know the world. Criminalistics author Malashkina M. M.Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) naturalist, founder of scientific anatomy ... The science of the structure of the human body is the most worthy field of knowledge for a person and deserves extraordinary approval; the most outstanding both in their deeds and in their studies
From the book The Big Book of Wisdom author Dushenko Konstantin Vasilievich“Incomparable Vesalius Inquisitive and inquisitive since childhood, Andreas Vesalius wanted to deeply understand the science to which he decided to devote his whole life. And he wanted to practice medicine, because he was born and raised in a family of hereditary doctors: his grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors, and his father
From the book Lessons from the World Champion in Bodybuilding. How to build the body of your dreams author Spasokukotsky Yuri AlexandrovichThe Scientific Era of Forensic Science If modern forensic scientists were at war with 19th-century criminals, the latter would have no chance of winning. Modern criminologists work wonders - they can "see" the prints of gloves on the door handle, and on the gloves - a trace of
From the author's bookScience Fiction Science fiction is not written for scientists, just as ghost stories are not written for ghosts. Brian Aldis* Fiction does not deal with man, but with the human race as such, and even with possible species of intelligent beings. Stanislav
From the author's bookAnatomy Before moving on to further discussion, let's find out what our legs are from the point of view of anatomy and biomechanics.
In the Middle Ages, attention to the body was considered sinful and persecuted; autopsies were banned or limited to isolated cases. Under such conditions, the study of anatomy could not develop. On the contrary, the culture of the Renaissance, putting man in the center of attention, began to study his body. Not only doctors were engaged in anatomy, but also scientists, who were far from it in their main activity. Thus, Leonardo da Vinci was also an anatomist.
In collaboration with physicians, Leonardo performed autopsies and anatomical sketches in hospitals for many years. Many other artists of this era also paid tribute to anatomy - Michelangelo, Albrecht Dürer.
The desire to master nature, to subjugate it to oneself, to discover its secrets, could not but put forward the task of overcoming diseases. And this for the advanced people of this era meant to study in reality, in practice, what the disease is expressed in, what phenomena it causes. So, first of all, it was necessary to study the human body.
The Belgian (Flemish) Vesalius is justly considered the creator of modern anatomy and the founder of the school of anatomists.
Andreas Vesalius (real name Witting) (1514-1564) was born in Brussels Andreas grew up in a family of hereditary doctors. His grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors, and his father served as a pharmacist at the court of Emperor Charles V. The interests of those around him undoubtedly influenced the interests and aspirations of the young Vesalius . Andreas studied first at school, and then at the University of Louvain, where he received a versatile education, studied Greek and Latin, thanks to which he could get acquainted with the works of scientists already in his youth. Obviously, he read a lot of books about medicine by ancient and contemporary scientists, so how his works speak of deep knowledge. Vesalius himself, from the bones of the executed, assembled a complete human skeleton. It was the first anatomical manual in Europe.
Every year Vesalius became more and more interested in the study of medicine, in anatomical studies. In his free time from teaching, he carefully dissected the bodies of animals at home: mice, cats, dogs, and enthusiastically studied the structure of their body.
In an effort to improve his knowledge in the field of medicine, especially anatomy, Vesalius at the age of seventeen went to the University of Montpellier, and in 1533 he first appeared at the medical faculty of the University of Paris to listen to lectures by the famous anatomist Sylvius Young Vesalius could already be critical of the method of teaching anatomy .
In the preface to the treatise On the Structure of the Human Body, he wrote: “My studies would never have led to success if, during my medical work in Paris, I had not applied my own hands to this matter ... And I myself, somewhat sophisticated with my own experience, publicly performed a third of the autopsies on his own.
Vesalius asks questions in lectures that indicate his doubts about the correctness of the teachings of Galen Galen is an indisputable authority, his teachings should be accepted without any reservations, and Vesalius trusts more his eyes than the works of Galen.
The scientist rightly considered anatomy to be the basis of medical knowledge, and the goal of his life was the desire to revive the experience of the distant past, to develop and improve the method of studying human anatomy. However, the church, which hindered the development of the natural sciences, forbade the autopsy of human corpses, considering it blasphemy. The young anatomist had to overcome many difficulties.
In order to be able to do anatomy, he used every opportunity. If there was money in his pocket, he negotiated with the cemetery watchman, and then a corpse suitable for autopsy fell into his hands. If there was no money, he, hiding from the watchman, opened the grave himself, without his knowledge. What to do, I had to take risks!
Vesalius studied the bones of the human and animal skeleton so well that he could name any bone by touch without looking at them.
Vesalius spent three years at the university, and then circumstances developed in such a way that he had to leave Paris and go again to Louvain
There Vesalius got into trouble. He removed the corpse of the executed criminal from the gallows and performed an autopsy. The Louvain clergy demanded the strictest punishment for such blasphemy. Vesalius realized that disputes were useless here, and considered it good to leave Louvain and went to Italy.
After receiving his doctorate in 1537, Vesalius began teaching anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua. The government of the Venetian Republic encouraged the development of the science of nature and sought to expand the work of scientists in this direction.
The brilliant talent of the young scientist was noticed. Twenty-two-year-old Vesalius, who had already received the title of Doctor of Medicine for his work, was appointed to the Department of Surgery with the duty of teaching anatomy.
He gave lectures with inspiration, which always attracted many listeners, worked with students and, most importantly, continued his research. And the deeper he studied the internal structure of the organism, the more he became convinced that there were many very significant errors in Galen's teachings, which those who were under the influence of Galen's authority simply did not notice.
For four long years he worked on his work. He studied, translated and republished the works of medical scientists of the past, his anatomist predecessors. And in their writings, he found many errors. “Even the greatest scientists,” wrote Vesalius, “slavishly adhered to other people’s oversights and some strange style in their unsuitable manuals.” The scientist began to trust the most authentic book - the book of the human body, in which there are no errors. At night, by candlelight, Vesalius dissected corpses. He set himself the goal of solving the great problem of correctly describing the location, shape and function of the organs of the human body.
The result of the passionate and persistent work of the scientist was the famous treatise in seven books, which appeared in 1543 and was entitled "On the structure of the human body." It was a gigantic scientific work, in which, instead of obsolete dogmas, new scientific views were presented. It reflected the cultural upsurge of mankind during the Renaissance.
Typography developed rapidly in Venice and in Basel, where Vesalius printed his work. His book is decorated with beautiful drawings by the artist Stefan Kalkar, a student of Titian. It is characteristic that the skeletons depicted in the drawings stand in poses characteristic of living people, and the landscapes surrounding some of the skeletons speak of life, not death. All this work of Vesalius was aimed at the benefit of a living person, at studying his body in order to find an opportunity to preserve his health and life. Each capital letter in the treatise is adorned with a drawing depicting children studying anatomy. So it was in antiquity: the art of anatomy was taught from childhood, knowledge was passed from father to son. The magnificent artistic composition of the frontispiece of the book depicts Vesalius during a public lecture and an autopsy of a man.
Vesalius pointed out a number of Galen's mistakes regarding the structure of the arm, pelvic girdle, sternum, etc., but, above all, the structure of the heart.
Galen argued that in the adult's cardiac septum there is a hole preserved from fetal age, and that therefore blood penetrates from the right ventricle directly into the left. Having established the impermeability of the cardiac septum, Vesalius could not help but come to the conclusion that there must be some other way for blood to penetrate from the right heart to the left. Having described the valves of the heart, Vesalius created the basic prerequisites for the discovery of the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery was already made by his successors.
“The work of Vesalius,” wrote the famous Russian scientist I. Pavlov, “is the first human anatomy in recent history humanity, not only repeating the instructions and opinions of ancient authorities, but relying on the work of a free investigating mind.
The work of Vesalius excited the minds of scientists. The boldness of his scientific thought was so unusual that, along with the followers who appreciated his discoveries, he had many enemies. The great scientist experienced a lot of grief when even his students left him. The famous Silvius, the teacher of Vesalius, called Vesalius "Vesanus", which means mad. He attacked him with a scathing pamphlet which he called "A defense against the slander of the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen by a certain madman."
Most eminent doctors really took the side of Sylvius. They joined his demand to curb and punish Vesalius, who dared to criticize the great Galen. Such was the strength of recognized authorities, such were the foundations public life of that time, when any innovation caused wariness, any bold statement that went beyond the established canons was regarded as freethinking. These were the fruits of the centuries-old ideological monopoly of the church, which imposed rigidity and routine.
Having opened dozens of corpses, having carefully studied the human skeleton, Vesalius came to the conclusion that the opinion that men have one rib less than women is completely wrong. But such a belief went beyond medical science. It affected church doctrine.
Vesalius did not reckon with another statement of the churchmen. In his time, the belief was preserved that in the human skeleton there is a bone that does not burn in fire, is indestructible. It supposedly contains a mysterious power, with the help of which a person will be resurrected on the day of the Last Judgment in order to appear before the Lord God. And although no one saw this bone, it was described in scientific papers its existence was not in doubt. Vesalius, who described the structure of the human body, bluntly stated that, while examining the human skeleton, he did not find a mysterious bone.
Vesalius was aware of the consequences of his speeches against Galen. He understood that he opposed the prevailing opinion, offended the interests of the church: “I set myself the task of showing the structure of man on himself. Galen, on the other hand, performed autopsies not on people, but on animals, especially monkeys. It's not his fault - he had no other option. But those are to blame who now, having human organs before their eyes, persist in reproducing mistakes. Should respect for the memory of a major figure be expressed in the repetition of his mistakes? It is impossible, like parrots, to repeat the contents of books from the pulpits without making one's own observations. Then the listeners had better learn from the butchers.”
Vesalius was an innovator not only in the study but also in the teaching of anatomy. He accompanied his lectures with demonstrations of a corpse, as well as a skeleton and a sitter. He accompanied anatomical demonstrations with a variety of experiments on living animals. In the work of Vesalius, special attention is paid to the nature of the drawings, nowhere in his corpse is depicted lying, motionless, but everywhere dynamic, in motion, in working poses. This peculiar manner of rendering the body represented the transition from descriptive anatomy to physiology. The drawings in the book of Vesalius give an idea not only about the structure, but also partly about the functions of the body.
The name of the doctor Andreas Vesalius became famous during the Middle Ages. Already at that time, he became famous thanks to a written description of the surgical treatment of tracheostomy. The first experiment was carried out by him on an animal that was artificially ventilated. Andreas first studied the structure and features of the human body through dissection. So our contemporaries consider him the founder of anatomy, and almost all further teachings were based on his discoveries. And it’s not a sin for us to remember who Andreas Vesalius was in his time, to remember the contribution to medicine of an outstanding scientist, because his merits could not go unnoticed already in his time.
Andreas Vesalius was born into a family in which several generations of his relatives were physicians. There were many outstanding scientists in the Viting family: great-great-grandfather Peter was appointed by Emperor Maximilian as his doctor, great-grandfather was famous doctor and worked in Brussels. Andreas's grandfather, also a doctor, is the author of additions to the Hippocratic collection, and also first announced the procedure for inoculation against smallpox. It was he who owned the works on the study of smallpox and measles. Andreas Vesalius Sr., father, was an apothecary to Princess Margaret, who was the ruler of the Netherlands. There was also a younger brother in Andreas's family, who took up medicine from a young age. It is not surprising that the profession of a doctor could not escape Andreas himself: after so many generations devoted to the study of medicine, he considered it necessary to make his contribution to its further development.
Andreas Vesalius - biography (briefly):
Andreas was born on December 31, 1514. From a young age, he listened with enthusiasm as his mother read treatises and works on medicine to him. By the age of 16, Andreas had a classical education, which he received in Brussels. After that, in 1530, his studies at the University of Louvain begin. This is supreme educational institution founded by Johann IV of Brabant. At the university, special attention was paid to the study of ancient languages, because they are needed for successful advancement in medicine.
Considering the level of teaching to be insufficiently high, Vesalius changed his place of study in 1531 and continued it at the Pedagogical College. There he managed to master quite well the Greek, Arabic and Latin languages. The propensity for anatomical research manifested itself in a young student quite early. He devoted the hours free from study to the fact that he was engaged in the opening of the corpses of animals and their preparation. This hobby did not go unnoticed by the court physician Nikolai Floren, who, by and large, determined further fate young men, sending him to study at the Paris Medical University. As a token of gratitude for the parting words, Andreas dedicated to Floren a work called "The Message of Bloodletting" and began to call him a second father.
From 1533, Andreas continued his medical studies in Paris. For four years, he listened to lectures by prominent doctors, in particular Sylvius, who thoroughly studied the structure of the vena cava of the human body, the structure of the peritoneum, studied the appendix, revealed the structure of the liver, and much more. In addition, Vesalius studied anatomy and surgery with the famous Swiss doctor Gunther at that time. It was with him that Andreas began a very warm, friendly and mentoring relationship.
In 1536, Vesalius again came to Louvain and continues his medical practice, in which he is supported by his friend Gemma Frisius. Together, they secretly stole the corpses of executed criminals from the cemetery (such autopsies were strictly prohibited at that time for religious reasons and the canons of the church). With great risk, but with firm self-confidence, the young physician moved forward in his research.
In 1537, Vesalius was awarded a doctorate and a diploma with honors. After a public autopsy in the Senate of the Republic of Venice (where Andreas already lived at that time), he was officially appointed professor of surgery. There he remains, at the same time becoming a teacher of anatomy. Thus, already at the age of 23, he became an outstanding professor, and his fascinating lectures attracted all students.
From 1545, Andreas moved to the University of Pisa, but six years later became a professor at the University of Rome, where he worked until the end of his life.
Vesalius was heavily persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition, who accused him of murdering a man under the guise of allegedly autopsying the corpse of an executed criminal. He was sentenced to death, but this measure was canceled thanks to the intervention of Philip II.
Instead, as a sign of punishment, Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to Palestine, where the Holy Sepulcher is located. The difficult journey ended in an unsuccessful return and the crash of the ship, on which the great scientist was also. Once on a desert island, Andreas Vesalius fell ill, was left without hope of salvation and died at the age of 50 on October 2, 1564.
Andreas Vesalius' contribution to medicine
In 1543, the famous work of Andreas Vesalius "On the structure of the human body" was published. It contained not just text, but rather demonstrative pictures and indications of the mistakes made by another well-known scientist at that time, Galen. Over 200 bugs have been fixed. After this treatise, the authority of the latter was seriously damaged. It was this work that marked the beginning of the modern science of anatomy.
One of the indisputable achievements of Vesalius is the compilation of anatomical terminology in Latin. Based on the names that were introduced into medicine by Celsus (he was called the "Latin Hippocrates"), Andreas removed all the words from the Middle Ages from the terminology, minimizing the terms of Greek origin.
The great scientist also described the correct digestion of bones - this procedure is necessary for creating skeletons.
In his writings, he was able to create a solid foundation for further development anatomy and surgery. He was convinced that for someone who wants to become a good doctor in any field, the study of anatomy is a fundamental factor. It was he who gave surgery a chance to develop as a science since antiquity.
All of his iconographic legacy is of great value. And it was graphic methods in anatomical science that irrevocably refuted the relationship of astrology with medicine.
VESALIUS, ANDREAS (Vesalius, Andreas) (1514-1564), Italian naturalist. Born December 31, 1514 (or January 1, 1515) in Brussels (Belgium). He studied medicine in Brussels, Louvain and Paris. In 1537 he received the degree of bachelor of medicine in Louvain, in the same year - the degree of doctor of medicine in Padua. From 1539 he was a professor at the University of Padua.
The main scientific works of Vesalius are devoted to human anatomy. In 1538, the scientist published Anatomical Tables - six sheets of engravings made by Stefan Van Kalkar, a student of Titian Vecelli. In them, Vesalius clarified and supplemented the anatomical terminology, illustrated new data on the structure of the human body. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130-200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies of the human body. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).
“Know thyself” (Nosce te ipsum) - this, in fact, was the essence of anatomy, and the book of Vesalius greatly contributed to the process of knowledge. But a person is extremely persistent in delusions, all the more so - a specialist, and a narrow specialist - even more so. And parting with delusions is like death. And the book of Vesalius, without claiming to absolute truth, forced a lot to rethink anew, in accordance not with conjectures - they, like a shell rock, stuck around the bottom of the ship of knowledge, hindering the movement forward, but with the facts that were obtained by experiment and practice.
It must be said that Vesalius was not inclined to write too much. In addition to the main book of his life, we know only a few of his publications. These are the famous "Tabullae anatomicae sex" ("Six anatomical tables"), which were the prelude to his main work. A separate publication also published his letter on bloodletting from the right cubital vein in inflammatory processes. Since venous blood flows from the liver to the periphery, and it mixes in the superior vena cava, according to Vesalius, even with left-sided inflammation of the lungs, bloodletting from the veins of the right hand can have a therapeutic effect. This work was a response to the furious controversy on the issues of bloodletting and, to a certain extent, put an end to that controversy.
In addition to his main work, Vesalius wrote Epitome, which was published in the same year 1543 as an annotation to his book. This is, if you like, anatomy for beginners in an accessible and concise manner. By the way, according to experts, this book did not appear in Russian, while its originals were not found in the libraries of the CIS.
He is the author of two other publications. This is a letter about the healing properties of a decoction of cinchona root (Basel, 1546) and a letter to Gabriel Fallopius with a response to his criticism (Venice, 1564) - the same Fallopius, after whom the pipes he discovered are named (that is, the oviducts through which the egg cell passes from the ovary into the uterus). So, in the first letter, Vesalius reports on the successful use of cinchona decoction for gout, devoting several pages along the way to defending his anatomical views. The second contains frank thoughts about the development of anatomy, considers the merits of Fallopius, and notes with regret the premature departure of Vesalius from anatomy.
In 1543, Vesalius became the court physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, acquired an extensive private practice and a high reputation. After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, he entered the service of his son Philip II, King of Spain. After the death in 1562 of Gabriele Fallopio, who held the chair of anatomy in Padua, Vesalius decided to return to research work. Under the pretext of illness and a desire to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he obtained permission to leave. In May 1564, Vesalius received his former chair and, before the start of the new semester, set off on a journey to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship on which Vesalius sailed was shipwrecked and was thrown onto the island of Zakynthos. Vesalius died on the island of Zakynthos in June 1564.
Preface to the Russian edition of the treatise by Andrei Vesalius "On the structure of the human body"
The period, not for nothing called the Renaissance, the period of the beginning of free art and free investigative thought in the modern history of mankind, breathes through with passion that has broken through. Joining this passion will always remain a powerful impetus for the current artistic and research work. That is why artistic and scientific works of this period should be constantly before the eyes of present generations and, as far as science is concerned, in a form accessible to wide use, i.e. in native language. This fully justifies the appearance in Russian of the work of Andrei Vesalius entitled: “De Humani Corporis Fabrica” of 1543. The title alone sounds invigorating. He seems to be saying: here is the structure, and now understand and study further the activity of this grandiose object. The work of Vesalius is the first human anatomy in the modern history of mankind, which does not repeat only the instructions and opinions of ancient authorities, but is based on the work of a free investigating mind.
