Types of foreign trade. The main forms and methods of foreign trade by economic entities

FEA: essence, types. Subjects of foreign economic activity. The essence and significance of foreign trade. Foreign trade operations. Economic potential of Russia's foreign trade. Directions of trade and economic cooperation of Russia.

Peculiarities of Russia's trade and economic relations with the CIS countries.Treaty on the Customs Union and Common Economic Space, main provisions. Agreement of the CIS countries "On the Customs Union".Prospects for Russia's accession to the WTO.

FEA: essence, types.

FEA(foreign economic activity) - a set of organizational and economic, production and economic and operational and commercial functions of export-oriented enterprises, taking into account the chosen foreign economic strategy, forms and methods of work in the foreign partner's market.

In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the definition of foreign economic activity means foreign trade, investment and other activities, including industrial cooperation, in the field of international exchange of goods, information, works, services, results of intellectual activity (rights to them).

FEA is carried out at the level of production structures (firms, organizations, enterprises, associations, etc.) with complete independence in choosing the external market and foreign partner, the range and assortment items of goods for an export-import transaction, in determining the price and value of the contract, the volume and delivery times and is part of their production and commercial activities with both domestic and foreign partners.

FEA belongs to the market sphere, is based on the criteria of entrepreneurial activity, structural connection with production and is distinguished by legal autonomy and economic, as well as legal independence from industry departmental guardianship.

FEA is an entrepreneurial activity aimed at making a profit, which includes the following areas: Foreign trade, technical and economic cooperation, scientific, technical and industrial cooperation.

There are the following types of foreign economic activity:

foreign trade activity;

international division of labor;

industrial cooperation;

international investment cooperation;

currency and financial and credit operations;

relations with international organizations.

Foreign trade activity- this is entrepreneurship in the field of international exchange of goods, works, services, information and results of intellectual activity.

The prerequisites and conditions for the international division of labor on a significant scale arose in the era of the development of capitalism due to the industrial revolution, the emergence of the machine industry, and the specialization of production. The demand for certain types of goods in various countries that could not extract and produce them in sufficient quantities stimulated the development of foreign trade in scarce goods. Trade and the benefits derived from it pushed countries to expand the production of such goods, as a result of which labor in these countries was concentrated on the production of certain types of economic product.

Industrial cooperation as part of the foreign economic activity of enterprises and firms, it also represents one of the forms of cooperation between foreign partners in various, but structurally related processes of the technological division of labor. The technological process of the division of labor itself means the distribution of its participants in the chain of creation and sale of products according to its main phases, from studying the needs in domestic and foreign markets to bringing it to end consumers. Industrial cooperation is typical for homogeneous areas of production and circulation, for scientific, technical, investment and service areas, for example, for the manufacturing industry.

Consistency of actions of partners within the framework of industrial cooperation is achieved by:

mutual planning of export and import-substituting products;

forecasting and joint conduct of scientific developments, providing them with the necessary equipment, instruments and materials, test benches and scientific and technical information;

organization of the training process.

International investment cooperation assumes one of the forms of interaction with foreign partners based on the combined efforts of a financial and logistical nature. The goals of such cooperation are to expand the base for the development and production of export products, its systematic renewal on the basis of competitiveness criteria and the facilitation of the processes of its implementation in the foreign market. Such tasks can be solved by organizing, for example, joint production. Joint entrepreneurship is possible primarily on the basis of the exchange of technologies, services, followed by the distribution of programs for the production of products and their implementation, as well as in the form of the formation and functioning of concessions, consortiums, joint-stock companies, international non-governmental organizations, etc.

Currency and financial and credit operations as a type of foreign economic activity, enterprises and firms should be considered primarily as facilitators, accompanying any foreign trade transaction in the form of financial obligations related to ensuring payment for the delivered products through specific forms of payment, as well as currency transactions committed in order to avoid exchange losses.

An important sector of the foreign economic complex is participation in international organizations whether governmental or non-governmental. In modern international relations, international organizations play a significant role as a form of cooperation between states and multilateral diplomacy. The following features are characteristic of an interstate organization: membership of states; the presence of a constituent international treaty; permanent bodies; respect sovereignty, Member States. Taking into account these signs, it can be stated that an international intergovernmental organization is an association of states established on the basis of an international treaty to achieve common goals, having permanent bodies and acting in the common interests of member states while respecting their sovereignty.

The main types of foreign economic activity are also:

export and import of goods, capital and work force

provision by FEA participants of services to foreign business entities, including manufacturing, freight forwarding, insurance, consulting, marketing, intermediary, brokerage, agency, consignment, management, auditing, legal, tourism, etc.

scientific, scientific and technical, scientific and production, production and other cooperation with foreign business entities.

education and training of specialists on a commercial basis through the conclusion of contracts with foreign economic entities

international financial transactions (transactions with securities)

creation by foreign business entities of enterprises on the territory of the Russian Federation

joint business activities between participants in foreign economic activity of Russia and foreign economic entities. Activities, including the creation of enterprises of all forms of ownership and types of body-rights

activities on the territory of the Russian Federation related to the granting of licenses, patents, know-how, trademarks and other intangible property of foreign economic entities with Russian participants in foreign economic activity

organization and holding of exhibitions, auctions, conferences, seminars and other similar events carried out on a commercial basis with the participation of foreign economic activity entities

Concessions to foreign legal entities and individuals

operations for the processing of tolling raw materials (tolling)

barter transactions, forms of counter trade, cooperation on a compensatory basis, production sharing agreement between Russian participants in foreign economic activity and economic entities

rental operations, incl. leasing between Russian and foreign economic entities

Subjects of foreign economic activity.

Subjects of foreign economic activity are natural persons; legal entities and other legally capable organizations; public entities, including states; international organizations. Individuals such as citizens (citizens of the Russian Federation), foreign citizens and stateless persons can act as subjects of foreign economic activity. To make foreign economic transactions with foreign citizens and stateless persons, it is important for Russian entrepreneurs to know whether these persons are entitled to assume obligations under the transaction (to be a party to the transaction), since the achievement of the economic result that entrepreneurs set for themselves when concluding an agreement depends on this. Foreign citizens and stateless persons can make various transactions in order to implement PD. In some cases, entrepreneurs are the parties to foreign economic activity. For example, when concluding a contract for the international sale of goods, the parties to the contract must be entrepreneurs, while an insurance contract can be concluded by a Russian insurer with foreign citizens and stateless persons who may or may not be entrepreneurs.

The essence and significance of foreign trade

International trade - it is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies or their representatives.

International trade is a set of export-import operations of a particular country. This is the trade of one country with the subjects of the world economy.

International trade is an important and historically the first form of international economic relations. At present, all subjects of the world economy participate in it.

The main factors in the development of international trade :

international division of labor, specialization of countries in the production and trade of certain goods and services;

development of commodity production and market economy;

a scientific and technological revolution that has accelerated the qualitative transformation of all elements of the productive forces and shifts in the geographical and commodity structure of world flows of goods and services.

The role of international trade in the development of world economic relations:

partial resolution of the contradiction between production and consumption inherent in a market economy. However, not being fully resolved with the help of export-import of goods, these contradictions are transferred to the sphere of world economic relations, which finds expression in intense competition between the subjects of international trade;

participation in international trade leads to the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies in a number of areas: specialization is enhanced, the possibility of organizing mass production is created, the degree of equipment loading is increased, and the efficiency of new equipment and technologies is increasing;

the expansion of exports causes an increase in employment, which has important social consequences;

active participation in international trade creates conditions for accelerating progressive structural changes in national economies. For many developing countries (especially Asian ones), export growth has become an important basis for industrialization and increased economic growth. The expansion of exports allows the mobilization and more efficient use of natural resources and labor, which ultimately contributes to the growth of labor productivity and incomes;

at the same time, an increase in foreign trade exchange, an increase in the role of export-import in national economies contribute to the synchronization of the economic cycle in the world economy. The interconnection and interdependence of national economies is growing so much that a disruption in the functioning of the economy of any major participant in the world market inevitably entails international consequences, including the spread of crisis phenomena to other countries.

Foreign trade operations

Export - export abroad of goods of national origin or largely processed in the country for the purpose of their sale.

Import - import of foreign goods for the purpose of their use in the domestic market.

Export-import transactions are the most common in international trade.

Counter trade- foreign trade operations, in the course of which documents (agreements or contracts) fix firm obligations of exporters and importers to make a full or partially balanced exchange of goods. In the latter case, the difference in value is covered by cash payments.

This is the most famous type of international trade, which previously consisted in the barter of goods. Countertrade, which was subsequently supplanted by commodity-money relations, has acquired a new content in modern conditions and has received a certain development in international commodity exchange. It accounts for 25 to 30% of the volume of international trade transactions.

The initiators of the development of countertrade are importers who, in the conditions of a shortage of foreign exchange, can purchase the necessary goods with full or partial payment for them with the supply of their goods. In the conditions of the aggravation of the sales problem, exporters are forced to accept from the buyer not the monetary equivalent of their value, but other goods that they either use in their own production or sell on the market. One of the features of countertrade is the expansion of the practice of counterpurchases by exporters of goods that cannot be used by them in their own production, but are intended in advance for subsequent sale on the foreign or domestic market.

UN experts distinguish three main types of international counter transactions:

barter transactions (barter transactions);

trade compensation transactions (commercial compensation);

industrial compensation transactions (industrial compensation).

An industrial offset transaction is a transaction in which one party supplies (often also agreeing on the necessary financing) the second party with goods, services and/or technology that the latter uses to create new production capacities. These deliveries are then offset by deliveries of goods produced in the establishments thus established (or sometimes by deliveries of similar goods produced by third parties in the country). In a trade offset transaction, as a rule, there is no such relationship between the mutual specific actions of both parties.

Specialists of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) divide all international counter transactions into two categories:

trade compensation;

industrial compensation.

Under trade compensation refers to a single transaction for a small or moderate amount, including the exchange of highly heterogeneous goods, which are usually not organically related to each other.

Under industrial compensation refers to transactions that involve the sale of related goods for a larger amount, usually corresponding to the value of complete industrial equipment or ready-made plants.

barter and compensation transactions on a non-currency basis;

compensation deals on a commercial basis;

compensation deals based on industrial cooperation agreements.

Types of international counter transactions

1. Exchange and compensation transactions on a non-currency basis

2. Offset transactions on a commercial basis

3. Compensation transactions based on industrial cooperation agreements

These three main types of transactions are very diverse in terms of their goals and nature, timing of execution, settlement mechanism, procedure for implementation.

Transactions based on natural exchange - barter (barter). Barter transactions are the most traditional type of countertrade, which is a non-currency, but valued exchange of goods. The valuation of goods is carried out to ensure the equivalence of the exchange. These transactions are characterized by the presence of a contract, which fixes the natural volumes of exchanged goods, and the simultaneous movement of commodity flows. The quantity of goods is not affected by changes in price proportions in the world market. Pure barter is the least common in countertrade.

Commercial transactions involving the participation of the seller in the sale of goods. This is the most common group of operations, which has two varieties:

direct purchase of goods for internal use or for resale to a third party;

assistance of the exporter in finding a buyer for the importer's goods.

The fundamental difference between this kind of transactions and barter is that it uses money as a measure of value and a means of payment. Such transactions can be formalized legally either by one export contract specifying the terms of countertrade, or by two contracts for primary export and counter-export. In the latter case, the first export contract contains the obligation of the exporter to purchase goods from the importer for an amount equal to a certain percentage of the original supply.

There are many types of transactions in this group, for example: compensation deals. The seller agrees to receive payment in whole or in part in the form of deliveries of any of the buyer's goods. As a rule, this is formalized in one contract. Such transactions resemble barter transactions, but have some significant differences. First, each partner invoices for their deliveries in cash. Second, the exporter may outsource its counter-import obligations to a third party. With this form of transaction, you can receive revenue at the same time;

counter purchases (counter deliveries). The exporter undertakes to purchase or arrange for a third party to purchase the importer's goods for an amount equal to a certain, predetermined percentage of his own supplies. These transactions are formalized by two contracts, and sometimes specific goods are not indicated, but the terms and amount of the purchase are fixed. Payments under the contract are made simultaneously;

advance purchases. In this case, the initial and counter deliveries seem to change places, i.e., the party interested in selling its goods to a certain buyer first purchases any goods or services from him;

offset agreement. The exporter agrees to purchase goods from the importer's country for an amount that is a certain percentage of the amount of the export delivery, and this share most often exceeds 100%. Deals of this kind tend to be associated with expensive programs for the purchase of weapons and military equipment;

switch transactions. In this case, the exporter transfers his counter delivery obligations to a third party, usually a specialized trading firm. Such transactions are used in combination with any other forms, except for barter;

purchase of obsolete products, i.e., offsetting the residual value of the purchased goods at the price of new ones. This form of trade is one of the most effective ways to increase sales in a highly competitive market, and is most widely used in the sale of cars, agricultural machinery, electronic computers, etc. Thus, in industrialized countries, trading representatives of almost all automotive companies, when a client buys a new car, deduct the price of the old one from its cost. There are approximately the same for all firms tables for estimating the cost of old cars, depending on the year of manufacture, mileage and technical condition. IN Western Europe at the end of the 80s. more than 70% of new cars were sold when buying outdated models:

Counter deliveries as an integral part of industrial cooperation, For example compensation supplies(buy back). The exporter delivers the equipment on credit terms, and the payment of the credits provided must be made after receiving the proceeds from the counter deliveries of products. Within the framework of such agreements, machines, equipment, materials and some other types of goods for the construction of industrial facilities are imported on credit terms. Subsequently, foreign exchange earnings from the export of part of the products of these enterprises serves as a source of loan repayment.

This group also includes:

operations with tolling raw materials, i.e. processing of foreign raw materials with payments for work with raw materials or processed products. As a result of the uneven development of productive forces, different countries have asymmetrical capacities for the extraction and processing of raw materials, which will create prerequisites for the conclusion of international contracts, according to which one of the parties undertakes to export raw materials and import processed products or finished products, the other - to process raw materials, called tolling. , with their own means. Payment for the services of processing firms under such agreements is carried out by deliveries of an additional amount of tolling raw materials.

Economic potential of Russia's foreign trade

Russia's unique potential

There are many countries in the world, the assessment of which often depends on subjective factors and may change over time. This provision does not apply to Russia's potential, size, territory, diversity of climatic zones and landscape, as well as population throughout most of the twentieth century. consistently received the highest ratings from almost all world experts

Based on a population with European traditions, Russia is a unique Eurasian state that occupies a significant part of the territory of both Europe and Asia. Russia's peculiar location gives the country the potential to play an active role in these two parts of the world. WITH geographic point rather cost-effective air and land routes connecting Europe, Central and Southeast Asia can pass through the territory of Russia.

At the same time, the huge territorial extent of Russia does not allow an unambiguous approach to assessing its geographical potential. On the one hand, the geographical potential provides an opportunity for the powerful development of the domestic market and the national economy of the country, relying solely on own possibilities and resources of Russian regions. On the other hand, even Russia's extensive involvement in global transport inevitably raises the question of bringing the transport infrastructure up to the level of world standards, which is difficult to achieve without the country's overall socio-economic progress, which will help reduce the cost of transport services and increase their economic and environmental safety and operational reliability.

An analysis of Russia's place in world agricultural and industrial production suggests that at present the possibility of the country's gradual transformation into an agrarian and raw materials and fuel and energy appendage of the industrialized countries of the West is by no means removed from the agenda: 1st place - natural gas; 2nd place - brown coal, potatoes, milk; 3rd place - oil, sulfuric acid (in monohydrate); 4th place - electricity, pig iron, steel, iron ore, commercial timber removal, cotton fabrics, cereals and leguminous crops, sugar beets; 5th place - finished rolled ferrous metals, lumber, mineral fertilizers; 6th place - coal, cellulose, meat (in slaughter weight), animal butter; 8th place - hosiery, fish catch; 11th place - cars, cement; 12th place - woolen fabrics, shoes; 14th place - paper and cardboard, granulated sugar (from domestic raw materials), vegetable oil.

The core of Russia's economic potential is its people. In terms of population, Russia is in 9th place in the world. The level of education and professional training of Russian citizens is such that, according to foreign partners from various countries, they are able to solve any technical and economic problems, adapt to various conditions of industrial and commercial activities. The higher education system in the country continues to train reliable and promising personnel for modern trends development of human society in line with global trends. One of the proofs of the high professional level of Russian specialists in the field of natural sciences is the high demand for them in almost all developed countries. In recent years, more and more Russian citizens with education and work experience in the field of management, marketing, finance are invited to companies from different countries operating in the Russian markets or with Russian partners.

However, the country has not yet found a mechanism for the most efficient use of human resources. In general, the problem of the effectiveness of their use sharply escalated in the 1990s, since Russia began to lose many billions of dollars on the "leakage of human capital" from the country, i.e. it faced a problem that had previously been considered unique to developing countries. A general favorable background for solving this problem can be the establishment in the country of an appropriate social climate, characteristic of societies with a developed economy.

The rich natural energy potential provides Russia with a very advantageous position. It is still the only major world power that fully meets its energy needs from its own resources. In terms of mineral fuel reserves per capita, Russia is ahead of all large industrialized countries. Under these conditions, the trade in energy carriers and mineral raw materials is still the main real profile of the country's specialization in the international division of labor, and this can be assessed not so much as a weakness, but as an important temporary strategic advantage from the national and global points of view.

The role of the fuel and energy complex (FEC) in the development of the world economy is not decreasing, but increasing. The modern economy, despite the intensive introduction of energy-saving technologies, continues to steadily increase the scale of public and individual energy needs. According to experts, the volume of world production and consumption of primary energy carriers at the beginning of the XXI century. will exceed 10 billion conditional tons. At the same time, 75% of consumption will fall on developed countries, where only one sixth of the world's population lives.

Developed countries play an increasingly significant role in Russian foreign trade. Although Russia is traditionally "tied" to the economies of the CIS countries, its foreign trade turned out to be focused on the countries of the EU, North America and, in general, states with a developed market economy. This orientation is largely due to the content side of export-import operations. The fact is that the predominant items of Russian exports are still energy resources and unprocessed metal products.

The role of the CIS countries remains important geographically, but is not stable economically. Meanwhile, from the point of view of a strategic perspective, the preservation of the nearest neighbors as the most important partners cannot but become an important stabilizing factor both for Russia and for other CIS countries.

One of the most important conditions for the development of a national market economy is a stable financial system of the country. Any failures in the financial system immediately affect the entire economy. The degree of openness of the national economy and the level of its involvement in world economic relations can be easily traced, primarily through the financial system. Therefore, the influence of certain events in the world economy on internal economic processes also occurs directly through the financial system. In a short time, in Russia, simultaneously with the process of privatization of state property, a banking system was created on the basis of joint-stock commercial banks headed by the Bank of the Russian Federation. Banks and other financial institutions have become active participants in the formation of a market economy in Russia. Gradually, the stock market took shape. Shares of Russian companies began to circulate not only on Russian, but also on foreign stock exchanges. The latter became possible, in particular, due to the fact that the foreign exchange market began to work and the Russian ruble was freely convertible on the territory of the country and the CIS. Russia entered the world capital market, and foreign investors began to actively acquire securities of Russian companies and banks. A significant share of the stock market was occupied by various government securities, which were especially popular with both domestic and foreign market participants, since they were distinguished by high profitability and the lowest risk.

international trade represents specific form the exchange of products of labor between sellers and buyers of different countries, which serves as the initial type of world economic relations.

Within the framework of this definition, it seems appropriate to pay special attention to the following circumstances:

• 1) far from always the exchange of labor products must necessarily take the form of trade, i.e. purchase and sale, which involves identifying the specific causes that give rise to international trade;
• 2) we are talking about such a type of foreign economic activity, in which, in the strict sense of the word, only the act of selling the produced product is transferred outside the national territory, but not its full or even partial creation;
• 3) the products of labor currently circulating through the channels of international trade are quite diverse, their most general classification involves the allocation of three fundamentally different groups - goods, services, intellectual property rights;
• 4) both logically and historically, international trade forms the foundation on which the entire diverse set of the modern system of international economic relations grows, which, in turn, makes one think about the dialectical relationship between various types of foreign economic activity.

The concept of "international trade" should be distinguished from the terms "foreign trade" and "world trade" that are close to it in meaning, often in everyday speech used as a synonym, but at the same time by no means identical to it (and to each other).

Let's deal with the last one first. Assessing the situation in the market of each individual country and their totality as a whole, we must state that in the overwhelming majority of cases, both goods produced by domestic companies and products of foreign manufacturers are presented there at the same time. Accordingly, purchase and sale transactions are concluded and implemented both for one and for other products, forming a complex of exchange operations called world trade. It is thus larger than the set of relationships that is the immediate object of the topic, as it includes relationships between sellers and buyers from the same country.

The main difference between the concepts of "international trade" and "foreign trade" is that, speaking of foreign trade, we evaluate it from the point of view of a particular country or group of countries (foreign trade of Russia, foreign trade of Great Britain, foreign trade of the Baltic countries, etc.). .P.). Here, everything that is outside the national territory appears as external in relation to it. At the same time, when we talk about international trade, we mean activities carried out within the framework of the entire world economy. In relation to it, only trade relations with extraterrestrial civilizations could be external. Thus, international trade is the totality of the foreign trade of all countries. At the same time, foreign trade of individual states and regions is an integral part of international trade.

The main types of foreign trade operations. Foreign trade operations, considered in a generalized form, involve either the export of manufactured products outside the national territory, or, conversely, its import from abroad. Accordingly, they talk about export or about import.

At the same time, both export and import operations, in turn, do not act as something homogeneous. They can be divided into smaller groups - varieties. Most often, one can come across a classification of foreign trade operations depending on the origin and destination of the manufactured products, which is based on the fact that, from the point of view of the impact on the economy of countries participating in international trade, various types of foreign trade operations are not equivalent.

Consequently, the degree of their state regulation may also vary, for example, the amount of customs duty charged or the established rights and obligations of the owner in terms of the use of products circulating through international trade channels. For this purpose, apply different kinds customs procedures, a detailed description of which is given in the Customs Code of the Customs Union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan (section 6), which has been in force since 2010. Among the customs procedures, in particular, the following stand out:

• export- customs procedure in which the goods of the customs union are exported outside the customs territory of the customs union and are intended for permanent residence outside it;
• re-export- a customs procedure in which goods previously imported into the customs territory of the customs union are exported from this territory without payment and (or) with the return of the paid amounts of import customs duties, taxes and without the application of non-tariff regulation measures;
• temporary export- a customs procedure in which goods of the Customs Union are imported and used within a specified period outside the customs territory of the Customs Union with full exemption from export customs duties and without the application of non-tariff regulation measures, followed by repatriation to the territory of the Customs Union;
• refusal in favor of the state- a customs procedure in which foreign goods are transferred free of charge to the ownership of a member state of the customs union without payment of customs duties and without the application of non-tariff regulation measures.

If we look at export from the point of view of the formation of the company's management and marketing strategies, then we will get at least two possible classifications of it. On the one hand, passive and active exports are distinguished. Passive export involves the periodic export of excess products from the customs territory of the country in case of their occurrence. Active export occurs when a firm not only sets, but also realizes the goal of expanding the scale of its operations by selling products in a specific foreign market or several such markets. On the other hand, indirect and direct exports stand out. Indirect export involves the use of the services of independent intermediaries - export agents, sales companies, etc. At direct export the firm - the producer of production itself carries out export operations.

Quantitative parameters of the development of international trade. International (and equally foreign) trade is primarily characterized by three most important indicators:

• total volume (turnover);
• commodity (branch) structure;
• geographical structure.

Volume of trade, estimated at the level of an individual country (or a group of countries), we will get if we sum up all export and all import operations:

To assess the results of foreign trade activities, it is very often necessary to compare data on the volume of trade over a number of years. In this case, we can use two calculation options: first, the turnover calculated in actual (current) prices, the result of which is the value of the turnover; secondly, the calculation in constant prices, the result of which is the physical volume of trade.

Each of these indicators has its own advantages and disadvantages, but both are important for analysis. When using current prices, we have an idea of ​​the real amount of money that the state, on the one hand, receives through the sale of manufactured products abroad, and on the other hand, pays out to suppliers of imported goods and services. As for the physical volume, here, abstracting from price changes caused by market fluctuations, we more clearly imagine the real dynamics of the movement of goods and services as such.

Earlier, we have already found out that international trade is the totality of the foreign trade of all countries. Does this mean that, summing up the indicators of the foreign trade turnover of the states that form the world economy, we will get the value of the turnover of international trade? In other words, can we use the following formula to calculate this indicator:

It would be wrong to do so. The fact is that within the framework of the entire world economy, the export of some countries simultaneously turns out to be the import of others. This means that, using formula (1), we will inevitably encounter repeated counting. In order to avoid it, it is necessary to summarize for all countries only one of the types of foreign trade operations - either exports or imports. Based on the foregoing, we can draw a conclusion, the generalized expression of which will be the following formula:

International trade = World exports = World imports. (2)

Let's see how our theoretical calculations are confirmed by statistical data. The most authoritative institution in these matters - the World Trade Organization (WTO) - determines the total volume of world merchandise exports in 2008 at 15,775 billion dollars, in 2012 - at 17,850 billion, and in 2014 - at 18,935 billion As for world merchandise imports, its value, according to the WTO, for the same years was $16,120 billion, $18,155 billion, and $19,024 billion, respectively. A similar discrepancy occurs in data for other years.

The inequality in the volumes of world exports and imports stems from differences in the logical basis of statistical estimates of foreign trade operations. Accounting for export deliveries, as a rule, is carried out in the so-called FOB prices (FOB; free on board free [delivery] on board, "free - board"), including all costs associated with the delivery of goods on board the vessel carrying them. For land transportation, the FOB price corresponds to the price of the goods on the condition "ex-land border of the exporting country", which also reflects the total cost of production and delivery of goods directly to the border of the exporting country. As for import deliveries, their accounting is carried out, as a rule, in the so-called CIF prices (With IF; cost, insurance, freight - cost, insurance, freight), taking into account the costs of delivering the goods to the specified port of destination, i.e. including the cost of cargo insurance in transit and its transportation (sea freight). The concept of CIF price at maritime transport corresponds to the concept of "free-border of the importing country" for land transportation.

In a certain sense, such a difference in the approach to determining the volume of exports and imports looks completely logical. Indeed, from the point of view of a country participating in a foreign trade transaction, it is the crossing of the country's customs border in one direction or the other that becomes the fact that determines the operation.

With regard to our formula (2), we can measure the total volume of both exports and imports at the same prices - FOB, CIF or whatever. In this case, all indicators must match.

Commodity (sectoral) structure international (and equally foreign) trade shows us the ratio of various groups of goods in the total volume of the corresponding operations. In this case, especially in relation to the foreign trade of individual countries, it is expedient to speak about both the commodity structure of exports and the commodity structure of imports. Comparison of these indicators allows us to draw a number of conclusions that characterize not only the foreign economic activity of a particular state, but also the general economic situation of the country.

The fact is that at the level of specific national economies, the commodity structure of exports and imports does not coincide, and in a number of cases they differ fundamentally. For example, in 2012, in Russia's exports, the share of mineral products accounted for 71.4%, and the share of machinery, equipment and vehicles - 5%. In the same year, the share of these commodity groups in imports was 2.4% and 49.9%, respectively. At the same time, in international trade in general, the commodity structure of exports and imports coincide.

An analysis of the dynamics of the commodity structure of foreign trade over a certain period is also of undoubted scientific and practical value. If we supplement it with a comparison with an analysis of the dynamics of the commodity structure of international trade performed on the same time base, then we will be able to characterize the change in the competitive positions of a given national economy in the general system of the world economy.

Geographic structure international (and equally foreign) trade characterizes the share of individual countries and groups of states in the total volume of relevant sales transactions. At the level of the world economy, ego allows us to identify those countries that account for the bulk of both exports and imports, changing the balance of power between them. Thus, in 2014, according to the WTO, the PRC carried out 12.4% of the total volume of commodity export operations in the world, the USA - 8.6%, Germany - 8.0%. The share of the Russian Federation in the same year accounted for only 2.6% of world merchandise exports. It should be borne in mind that the geographical structure of world exports and world imports differ from each other. In particular, in 2014, the share of China, the USA, Germany and Russia in world merchandise imports was 10.3%; 12.7%; 6.4% and 1.8% respectively. This is due to the discrepancy between national indicators of the volume of export and import operations. The vast majority of countries have either a deficit or a positive trade balance.

At the level of individual states, the geographical structure of exports and imports also differ. Of course, theoretically one can imagine the situation of their coincidence, but to real life it hardly applies. The analysis of these indicators, especially performed in dynamics over a certain period of time, can give rise to serious reflections and conclusions.

Indeed, isn't it amazing that the share of the USSR and its legal successor, the Russian Federation, in the foreign trade turnover of Finland (for which the USSR was the largest trading partner in 1980-1987) has decreased since 1982-1983. until 1992 from 25.9 to 4.8%, pushing Russia to sixth place in this indicator after Germany,

Sweden, UK, USA and France? Apparently, one should seriously think about the fact that the share of the CIS countries in the export of the Russian Federation, which was 25.1% in 1993, decreased by 2012 to 14.8%.

Franco (it. franco - free) - a term denoting the condition for the transfer of the rights of the seller to the buyer of the product upon delivery, until which the seller bears the commercial costs of transporting and insuring the product.

Forms of foreign trade of subjects of foreign economic activity are considered according to three criteria:

I. According to the criterion of the specifics of the object, the following forms of foreign trade of subjects of foreign economic activity are distinguished:

a) trade in goods, which, in particular, includes:

Commodities;

Fuels and lubricants;

Foodstuffs;

Semi-finished products;

b) trade in services, including:

Trade in licenses;

Patents;

know-how;

Engineering services;

insurance services;

marketing services;

accounting services;

audit services;

legal services;

Tourist services;

transport services;

Consulting services;

consignment services;

Forwarding services;

II. According to the criterion of the specifics of interaction between subjects of foreign economic activity, the following forms of their foreign trade are distinguished:

1. Traditional foreign trade is the export-import operations of foreign trade entities, carried out on the terms of payment for goods and services provided in cash (goods - money, money - goods), that is, goods are sold / bought for money,

2. Trade in cooperative products, that is, this is trade in products manufactured on the basis of international agreements on cooperation in production.

This type of foreign trade means that the subjects of foreign economic activity have industrial relations (foreign economic contracts on cooperation in the production of this product) before the act of purchase and sale of goods and continue them after the implementation of the foreign trade transaction. With this form of trade, only cooperative products are sold, that is, the exchange products of which are the subject of relevant foreign economic contracts of foreign economic activity subjects.

3. Counter trade of subjects of foreign economic activity is barter transactions. The main types of countertrade of subjects of foreign economic activity:

3.1. Trade compensation transactions on a non-currency basis, they include:

3.1.1. Agreements with a one-time supply of goods, which are divided into:

a) barter transactions;

b) direct compensation.

Let's consider these subtypes of countertrade in more detail:

a) barter transactions provide for the accounting of an agreed amount of one product for another. Barter transactions include:

One-time delivery of goods to an outstanding destination;

The gap between deliveries of goods should not exceed one year;

b) direct compensation is a mutual supply of goods for the same amount without settlements in foreign currency. Direct compensation, unlike barter transactions, involves the exchange of several types of goods.

3.1.2. Long term agreements. These include:

a) basic agreements that are used by large companies, countries and provide for the signing of agreements with partners for a long period. In these contracts, lists of goods that the partners supply to each other are fixed;

b) agreements on the exchange of goods based on the list - obligations. This type of countertrade involves the exchange of lists of goods between partners in which they are mutually interested. The duration of these agreements is from 3-5 years;

c) protocols on the exchange of goods. This is the legal basis for the mutual exchange of goods between partners within a specified period (usually one year).

3.2. Offset transactions on a commercial basis include:

3.2.1. Short-term offset transactions, these include:

a) transactions with partial compensation. They provide for: covering a certain part of exports, purchasing goods in the importing country. Part of the export remained paid in money;

b) transactions with full compensation. They mean the purchase of goods for an amount equal to or greater than the value of the supply of export goods;

c) a three-way offset deal. It means the participation in its execution of an intermediary from a third party (country). In this case, deliveries are made to a third country, and the exporter receives payment for them from the importer.

3.2.2. Counter purchases. These include:

a) parallel transactions. These agreements mean that the partners enter into two separate contracts:

For the export of goods;

For the counter-purchase of goods.

The duration of parallel agreements is from 2 to 5 years.

b) gentlemen's agreement. It means that the partners enter into an agreement under which the exporter has no obligation to supply goods on the contrary, but is ready to purchase goods from the importer;

c) transactions with the transfer of financial obligations "connected. Mean that the exporter transfers his obligations for the counter-purchase of goods to a third party (usually large trading firms).

3.2.3. advance purchases. Mean that the exporter undertakes to purchase goods from the importer in exchange for his obligation to buy goods from the exporter in the same volume.

3.3. Compensation transactions based on industrial cooperation arrangements include:

3.3.1. Large-scale long-term compensation contracts with repurchase of goods. They are divided into such subspecies:

a) transactions in which the obligation to compensate is higher than the value of the goods supplied under this transaction. They are used when purchasing equipment on the basis of long-term loans. Such a loan is returned in the form of finished products, raw materials, materials;

b) transactions in which purchase commitments are at or below the value of the supplied equipment.

This means that counter-purchases can be carried out both in the form of finished and intermediate products at the prices of the supplier's enterprise. These prices are updated quarterly.

3.3.2. Production Sharing Agreements. These are agreements between partners on the construction of industrial facilities on a turnkey basis. Payment for the construction of the enterprise is carried out by the supply of products manufactured by him. The share of such deliveries is 20-40% of the cost of the building under construction.

3.3.3. The "development-import" agreements mean that the expenses of a foreign company that supplies complete equipment to its partner's enterprise will be covered by counter deliveries of the products of this enterprise.

Along with the types of countertrade discussed above, it is necessary to note operations with tolling raw materials,

Operations with give-and-take raw materials are such operations for processing, enrichment of give-and-take raw materials imported into the customs territory of Ukraine and exported outside it in order to obtain finished products for an appropriate fee.

Peculiarities of operations with tolling raw materials. They provide:

1. Processing of DS, its enrichment or use.

2. Different number of customers and performers.

3. The presence of stages, operations for the processing of this raw material.

4. The possibility of purchasing DS by foreign economic entities for foreign currency.

An essential feature of operations with tolling raw materials is the following - such operations, first of all, include those in which the customer's raw materials at a particular stage of its processing make up at least 20% of the total cost of finished products.

Tolling raw materials are:

1. Raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, components, energy carriers (coal, oil, gas) imported into the customs territory of Ukraine by a foreign customer.

2. The same goods purchased by a foreign customer in Ukraine for foreign currency (hard currency).

3. The same goods that are exported outside the customs territory of Ukraine for the purpose of use in the manufacture of finished products and provide for their next return to Ukraine or sale in the country of production or in another state.

Ownership of tolling raw materials. It provides:

a) for imported raw materials in Ukraine and finished products made from it, the property right belongs to foreign customers

b) for raw materials exported from Ukraine by national subjects of foreign economic activity - they own the right of ownership of the finished product, made from this raw material.

Subjects of operations with tolling raw materials:

1. The subject of foreign economic activity, providing tolling raw materials, is the customer.

2. The subject of foreign economic activity, carrying out the processing of raw materials supplied by the customer, is the executor.

Settlements between subjects of foreign economic activity for operations with raw materials supplied by the customer:

1. They can be produced in cash.

2. They are carried out by allocating a certain share of raw materials to the contractor.

3. They occur through the supply of finished products by the customer.

4. Such calculations are also carried out by the simultaneous application of the first three forms of settlements in coordinating the interests of customers and contractors.

III. The third general criterion (according to which the forms of foreign trade are distinguished) of the subjects of foreign economic activity are: the specifics of the regulation of foreign trade of subjects of objects of foreign economic activity. These 3/t forms include:

1. Ordinary BT - means that all subjects of foreign economic activity, when they carry out export-import operations, are subject to customs requirements established by national legislation in full.

2. Preferential BT - means the application of preferential customs requirements to the subjects of foreign economic activity.

3. Discriminatory BT - means the restriction of foreign trade in foreign economic activity by a state or a group of states.

Along with the forms, there are methods for the implementation of foreign trade of subjects of foreign economic activity. These include:

2. Indirect trade.

Direct trade is a method of foreign trade in which there are no intermediaries between the subjects of foreign economic activity.

Indirect trade is a method of implementation of BT by subjects of foreign economic activity with the help of intermediaries. Indirect BT of subjects of foreign economic activity is carried out by such specific methods:

1. 3 / t through intermediaries.

2. Exchange trading.

3. Auction trade.

4. International auctions (tenders).

Consider these methods of indirect 3 / t of subjects of foreign economic activity. Trade through intermediaries. The following intermediaries participate in the indirect 3 / t of foreign economic activity entities:

a) simple;

b) attorneys;

c) commission agents;

d) consignees;

e) agents;

e) marketing intermediaries.

These intermediaries conclude the following types of contracts with manufacturers:

1. Contract with a simple intermediary. This agreement provides that foreign legal entities or individuals (intermediaries) search for interested partners, sign a foreign economic contract between themselves. For this intermediaries will receive a monetary reward.

2. Contract-order. This agreement provides that the seller and buyer of imported goods instruct intermediaries (other persons, firms, organizations) to conclude export or import contracts on behalf and at the expense of buyers and sellers.

3. Contract-commissions This contract provides that intermediaries-commission agents conclude foreign economic contracts on their own behalf, but at the expense of the seller or buyer of imported goods. The reward is commission.

4. Consignment agreement. This agreement provides that sellers (consignees) deliver goods to the warehouses of intermediaries (consignees), they are sold to buyers. Consignees transfer the received foreign exchange earnings to sellers,

5. Contracts with sales intermediaries (distributors). This agreement provides that intermediaries (distributors) are independently engaged in the resale of goods on their own behalf and at their own expense.

6. Agency agreements. These are transactions that provide that intermediaries:

a) contribute to the conclusion of foreign economic contracts;

b) these agreements are entered into by agents on behalf of sellers and buyers.

7. Dealer agreements. These are agreements with legal entities and individuals independent of the supplier who are engaged in the resale of their goods.

Exchange trade is the method of indirect foreign trade of subjects of foreign economic activity objects. When carrying out exchange transactions within the framework of the world economy, 3 types of international exchanges are distinguished.

1. M / n commodity exchange.

2. M / n stock exchange.

3. M / n currency exchange.

M / n commodity exchange is an intermediary in the implementation of foreign trade operations by subjects of foreign economic activity.

A m/n commodity exchange is an organization that provides a venue and enforces rules for the introduction of regular trading in commodities.

M / n commodity exchange is a stably operating world markets in which large volumes of homogeneous goods are traded.

The following operations are carried out on international commodity exchanges:

1. Agreement for a real product ("spot"). The "spot" agreement means that the seller or buyer really wants to sell or buy a real-life product.

Spot agreements are divided into:

a) a transaction with the immediate delivery of goods (up to 15 days from the date of the transaction);

b) transactions for goods with delivery in the future (up to 3 months). These transactions for real goods are called "forwards". The forward transaction prices take into account their dynamics and changes from the moment the transaction was concluded.

2. Forward (f "future) transactions. They do not provide for the sale of a real product within a certain period. These agreements are aimed at the sale and purchase of the right to a product, that is, documents of ownership of this product.

3. Speculative transactions are transactions that are calculated on a possible increase in prices for goods in the future. Speculative transactions are based on the difference in prices for individual goods. This price difference is due to:

a) extension of the term for the sale of goods;

b) an increase in commodity prices;

c) the use of mutually substituting goods, the prices of which are lower.

4. Operations of hedging (insurance). They are carried out in order to avoid losses from price changes.

The method of indirect s/trade of sub-objects of foreign economic activity is auction trade.

An auction is a public sale of any property, things, goods in which the things that are offered for sale are purchased by the person who offered the highest price for them.

The main purpose of the m / n auction is to ensure the sale of goods at the most favorable prices.

M / n auctions are held in 4 stages:

Stage 1 - preparatory. At this stage, an invitation to participate in the auction is sent. This is also where the goods are received, examined by the auction staff, lots are formed and agreements are concluded by the seller.

Lots are a breakdown of goods into standard lots. A sample is taken from each lot of the lot and put up for auction.

Stage 2 - includes the inspection of the goods by the buyer and the selection of lots.

Stage 3 - provides for the implementation of direct bargaining. That is the essence of the auction.

The main types of auctions:

a) bargaining, which involves an increase in the price of a product. In it, the one who last named the price of the goods offers the price that is the highest;

b) bargaining with a decrease in the price of goods offered for sale at m / n auction. Here the buyer wins, the last one named his price for the goods.

Stage 4 is the final one. At this stage, transactions are processed.

M / n trading auctions are carried out in the following ways:

1. Vowels m / n auctions.

2. Silent m / n auctions.

3. Automated m / n auctions.

Open auctions provide for a public auction of bargaining, in which the buyer openly names the agreed price.

Silent auctions involve buyers submitting conventional signs agreeing to raise the price by a predetermined markup. The name of the buyer is kept confidential.

Automated - assume that the progress of the sale of goods, the rates offered by buyers are automatically covered on an electronic scoreboard.

❖ The method of indirect s/trade of sub-foreign economic activities is international bidding.

International auctions assume that their organizer is a buyer who invites several sellers of goods or services to participate in the auction. In this case, the buyer chooses the product that satisfies his needs in terms of quality and price.

International bidding is a way of buying and selling goods or providing contracts for the performance of certain works on certain conditions.

Types of international trades:

1. Open m / n auction. These are those in which all interested legal and natural persons take part. As a rule, at open tenders it is offered for the sale of standard equipment.

2. Closed m / n auction. A limited number of the most well-known firms that have authority in the world market participate in them. These auctions are used, for example, when buying complex and expensive equipment.

Belarusian State University

Faculty of Humanities

Essay

on the topic of: International trade: types and mechanisms

Introduction

1. The essence and most important characteristics of international and foreign trade

2. Types of world trade and its mechanisms

3. International trade in services

4. International trade in goods

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

International trade is one of the most developed and traditional forms of international economic relations. It originated in ancient times - actually international trade began to be carried out with the formation of the first national states in the 4th - 3rd millennia BC.

However, at that time, only a small part of the produced products entered the international exchange, since the subsistence economy was the dominant form of economy.

Since the 80s. 20th century The development of international trade is closely connected with the globalization of the economy, when the markets of individual countries are essentially “growth”. This happens most intensively within the framework of integration groupings, customs, trade and economic unions, where administrative and economic barriers between countries are reduced or completely eliminated.

An increasingly significant place in modern international trade is occupied by electronic commerce (e-commerce, electronic commerce). E-commerce is based on the use of the capabilities of modern computer systems to carry out transactions for the sale of goods and services and the transfer of financial resources.

A significant impact on the development of international trade is provided by the activities of TNCs, which form their own internal (“internal”) markets, determine within their framework the market situation, the scale and direction of commodity flows, commodity prices (a special place is occupied by transfer prices) and the overall development strategy. such markets. Since many different subjects of international economic relations are involved in modern international trade (from TNCs with global strategies and global scale of trade to individual individuals (“shuttle traders”)), whose economic interests often do not coincide, then in general, intense competition is characteristic.

International trade flows in general are on a huge scale and cover all regions of the world. In 2003, international trade in goods (together with international trade in services) continues to occupy a central place in the general system of international economic relations at the beginning of the 21st century. Indeed, it is precisely with international trade that the population of all countries of the modern world, without exception, is connected in one way or another. In the sphere of international trade, the economic interests of its participants are realized - individual states, their groupings and unions, corporate business of various levels - from small enterprises to super-large TNCs participating in international trade of individuals (individuals). At the same time, when carrying out foreign trade operations, these subjects of international economic relations are included in complex and highly contradictory processes of international competition.

The effectiveness or inefficiency of foreign trade, the openness or, conversely, the closeness of national economic systems have a very contradictory effect on economic entities and the population of various countries of the world. For example, liberalization outwardly economic ties and the growth of the openness of the national economy lead to the fact that cheap competitive imported goods come into the country in significant quantities, but this can lead to the closure of domestic enterprises producing similar products, an increase in unemployment in the country, etc.

International trade in goods consists of two oppositely directed flows - exports and imports of goods.

Export - the export of goods abroad for their implementation in the foreign market. Import - the importation of goods for their sale in the domestic market. Re-export - the export of previously imported goods that have not undergone processing in a given country. Re-import - re-importation from abroad into the country of unprocessed domestic goods. The fact of export and import is recorded at the moment of crossing the customs border and is reflected in the customs and foreign trade statistics of the state.

When assessing the scale of international trade, the concepts of nominal and real volume of international trade are distinguished. The first of these (nominal volume) is the value of international trade expressed in US dollars at current prices. Therefore, the nominal volume of international trade depends on the state and dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against national currencies. The real volume of international trade is its nominal volume converted into constant prices using the chosen deflator.

The nominal volume of international trade, despite some deviations in individual years, generally has a general upward trend.

In addition to export and import indicators, foreign trade statistics use the indicator of the foreign trade balance, which is the value difference between exports and imports. The balance can be positive (active) or negative (passive), depending on whether exports exceed imports in size or, conversely, imports exceed exports (accordingly, there are concepts of active and passive foreign trade balance). The countries of the world are interested in the fact that the foreign trade balance is positive and its scale grows, since this indicates an active foreign trade policy, foreign exchange earnings in the country are growing, and thus prerequisites for economic growth within the country are created.

1. Essence and the most important characteristics of international and foreign trade

When defining international trade, it should be remembered that it, like other elements of the system of international economic relations, is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon, so there are many definitions of it. Here is one of the most common: international trade is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world. Foreign trade is the trade of a given country with other countries, consisting of export (export) and import (import) of goods, works, services. Foreign and international trade are close concepts. The same commodity transaction between two states can be considered from the side of both foreign and international trade. Both of them are connected with the sphere of international circulation, with acts of sale. The development of these categories is determined by the processes of the sphere of production. However, these concepts are far from unambiguous. Foreign and international trade correlate with each other as private and general, as national and international. When they talk about foreign trade, they mean a specific sector of the economy of an individual state, associated with the sale of part of national products (goods and services) in foreign markets and part of foreign goods and services in the national market. Foreign trade is regulated mainly by national government bodies, it is associated with such categories as the trade balance, national economic policy.

International trade is a specific area that unites the foreign trade sectors of national economies. However, this is not a purely mechanical, but an organic unity, which has its own laws of development, special regulatory bodies. International trade is connected with the international division of labor and the international market.

International trade - critical area activities of any state. Without foreign trade and the external market, no state can exist and develop. At the present stage, when individual countries have become links in the international economy, their economy is more dependent on the external market than ever. Due to the deepening of international specialization and cooperation, the growth of internationalization economic life, influenced scientific and technological revolution(NTR) foreign trade is becoming more and more an important factor economic development, a factor of interaction and cooperation between states.

International trade is one of the forms of international economic relations (IER), YG

As you know, the most important forms of MEO are:

International trade;

International monetary and financial relations;

International scientific, technical and industrial cooperation;

international labor migration;

International migration of capital and international investments;

International economic integration.

All these forms are closely related and interact with each other, but, of course, the main, main and leading form is international trade. It mediates other forms, a significant part of which is realized through it. In particular, the development of international specialization and cooperative production, international scientific and technical cooperation are reflected in the expansion of the exchange of goods and services between countries. The interrelation and interdependence of international trade and international investment activity are very close. Foreign investments, primarily direct ones, carried out by manufacturing companies, as a rule, stimulate the development of export production in capital recipient countries and thus contribute to the expansion and increase in world trade.

Regional integration groupings and associations (for example, the EU, NAFTA, the CIS, APEC) influence the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, contribute to its development mainly within the framework of these associations. At the same time, they often impede the development of transcontinental commodity flows and sometimes hinder the processes of globalization of the world economy.

IN general view the impact of international trade on the world economy and international economic relations is as follows:

The growth of foreign trade exchange between countries leads to the fact that the interconnection and interdependence of the economic complexes of individual countries increases so much that disruptions in the functioning of the economy of any state can lead to negative consequences for the development of national economies in other countries of the world;

Through international trade, the results of all forms of world economic relations are realized - the export of capital, international scientific, technical and industrial cooperation;

♦ deepening of inter-regional, intra-regional and interstate trade relations is a prerequisite and stimulus for international economic integration;

♦ international trade contributes to the further deepening of the international division of labor and the globalization of the world economy.

Thus, at the present stage, international trade plays an important role in the development of both the world economy and the IER as a whole, and individual subjects of the world economy, being, on the one hand, a powerful factor in economic growth, and on the other, a factor in increasing the interdependence of countries.

2. Types of world trade and its mechanisms

trade in goods:

Food and non-food raw materials;

Mineral raw materials;

Finished products;

Trade in services:

Engineering services;

Leasing services;

Information and consulting services;

trade in licenses and know-how;

Countertrade:

Transactions based on natural exchange:

* barter transactions;

* operations with tolling raw materials - tolling;

Commercial transactions:

* counter purchases;

* redemption/purchase of obsolete products;

* commercial compensation transactions and

* advance purchases;

Trade in the framework of industrial cooperation or cooperative products

* compensation deals;

* counter deliveries.

International trade is carried out by concluding international transactions and contracts.

Trading can be carried out on exchanges, auctions and auctions.

Exchanges: real transactions, speculative or urgent and with cash goods.

Auctions: up and down.

Bargaining: open, open with qualification and closed (tenders).

To characterize the state and development of MT, indicators are used:

Cost and physical volume of trade;

General commodity and geographical structure of world trade;

The level of specialization and industrialization of exports;

Elasticity coefficients of MT, exports, imports and terms of trade;

Export and import quotas;

Trade balance.

The development of MT is accompanied by an increase in world wealth. Since the end of the Second World War, international exchange has been one of the main driving forces of economic growth. Since the beginning of the 90s, the growth dynamics of MT has twice exceeded the growth in world production. The movement of goods and services between individual countries links national markets in the single market system and, accordingly, enhances the economic interdependence of countries. This indicates the progressive integration of economies on a global scale and determines the objective prerequisites for strengthening the role of the MT in the global economy and the international economic relations.

3. International trade in services

Services (services) are a complex of diverse activities and commercial activities related to the satisfaction of a wide range of human needs. The Liberalization of International Transactions in Services handbook developed by UNCTAD and the World Bank defines services as follows: Services is a change in the position of an institutional unit that has occurred as a result of actions and on the basis of mutual agreement with another institutional unit.

It is easy to see that this is an extremely broad definition, covering a diverse range of operations. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish between the concept of services in the broad and narrow sense of the word. In a broad sense, services are a complex of various activities and commercial activities of a person through which he communicates with other people. In a narrow sense, servants are understood as specific actions, activities that one side (partner) can offer to the other side.

Although services are traditionally regarded as the so-called "tertiary sector" of the economy, they now account for 2/3 of the world's GDP. They absolutely predominate in the economy of the USA (75% of GDP) and other industrialized countries (within 2/3 - 3/4 of GDP), as well as in most developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The share of services in the RF GDP in 2002 was 52%.

Services have a number of significant differences from goods in its material terms:

1) they are usually intangible. This intangibility and "invisibility" of most types of services is often the basis for calling foreign trade in them invisible (invisible) exports and imports;

2) services are inseparable from their source;

3) their production and consumption are usually inseparable;

4) they are characterized by inconstancy of quality, variability and perishability.

The number of services, their role in the economy and international trade is growing rapidly, primarily as a result of scientific and technological progress, the growth of international economic relations in general, the increase in incomes and the solvency of the population in many countries of the world. Since services are heterogeneous, there are several classifications.

The classification of services based on the UN International Standardized Industrial Classification includes:

1) utilities and construction;

2) wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels;

3) transportation, storage and communication, as well as financial intermediation;

4) defense and compulsory social services;

5) education, health care and public works;

6) other communal, social and personal services. Most of the services under this classification are produced and consumed domestically and cannot be traded internationally.

The IMF classification used in compiling the balance of payments includes the following types of services related to payments between residents and non-residents: 1) transport; 2) trips; 3) communication; 4) construction; 5) insurance; b) financial services; 7) computer and information services; 8) royalties and license payments; 9) other business services; 10) personal, cultural and recreational services; 11) government services.

International trade in information products. The products of intellectual and creative labor form their own special market - the market of intangible goods - ideas, artistic insights, scientific discoveries, knowledge, inventions, new technologies, production experience, etc. All these diverse products are usually embodied in specific material products - patents, plays , melodies, models, drawings, calculations, etc., which distinguishes this market from a very similar service market, where there is no material embodiment of the goods.

Unlike natural resources, information goods, as intangible products of labor, do not have physical wear and tear, are inexhaustible and capable of self-reproduction, such as knowledge that can be reproduced and grow in the process of their productive consumption by creative people. The main property of intellectual resources, which ensures their active use in production, is the ability to replicate, i.e. they can be used on any scale.

The market of information services is developing most dynamically. The increase in demand for information is caused by the general complication of the management structure of companies, the need for them to make reasoned decisions based on forecast information. The information market includes all types of information, including business, legal, environmental, medical, and consumer information.

The market covers a group of goods, with legitimate protection exclusive rights of the owner, confirmed by official documents (patents, certificates of registration of copyrights, industrial property). This applies primarily to such products of labor as inventions. The exclusive rights of the author (inventor) are confirmed and secured by a state patent, based only on the registered priority in terms of filing an application. This also includes new engineering solutions and industrial developments, samples, models, designs, confirmed by copyright registration certificates. Alienation of rights in whole or in part is formalized by a license - a document confirming the assignment of rights and fixing the scope of transferred rights and the conditions for their use.

The second group is formed legally "unprotected" products of activity that are original, but do not have formal grounds for recognizing their exclusivity. The accumulated production experience, interesting constructive and technological solutions, which, however, do not have sufficient signs of the invention, are unique goods, the information insecurity of which is fraught with gratuitous copying of the idea. Any breach of confidentiality violates the exclusivity of the product and lowers its price.

International currency market. The currency market is a set of funds that operate separately from national money markets. Exporters and importers, banks and financial companies, hedgers and speculators buy currency.

The specificity of a currency as a commodity lies in the fact that its consumer value is determined not by the physical qualities of money as an object of a transaction, but by the ability to provide the owner with income, obtaining some specific benefits. Money is a title, a debt obligation of the state (the issuer of money) to provide their owner with a set of benefits. The change in the price of a currency as a title of a government obligation is due to differences in the assessments by world market participants of the supposed real value of these nominal obligations.

The dynamics of market prices for such a commodity as currency is not due to objective shifts in the level of their costs (as the basis of cost), but to fluctuations in subjective assessments of the expectations of the market participants themselves. And the source of income for the owners of the currency is another market participant. In speculative trade, there is mainly a multiple redistribution of existing, rather than newly created, value, as provided for in the classical model of international commodity exchange for markets for material goods.

The objects of commercial transactions are cash on accounts and national bank deposits that are acquired by foreigners and placed outside the issuing country of the national currency. Since, as a rule, deposits in eurocurrencies act as a lending instrument, they, as a financial instrument, have recently become one of the most important objects of foreign exchange trading.

International securities trading. The global securities market is a rather fragmented system of interaction between sellers and buyers in relation to documents that are different in form and content and establish property rights. The transfer of these rights is complicated by the peculiarities of national laws governing the rights to property, real estate, money, the possibility of exporting foreign currency values ​​and capital, the acquisition of rights to real estate by foreigners, etc. In addition, the variety of forms of such papers, the ambiguity of terminology, affects. Even in relation to money (currencies), goods that are sufficiently standardized and provided with the authority of the state, procedural and technical difficulties arise in international trade. With respect to financial assets (ie, securities that are the subject of trade), the situation becomes much more complicated.

The world market limits trading operations only to certain types of securities, the format of which has been unified. This market includes:

Debt obligations (including promissory notes, bonds, accounts payable receipts, warrants);

Titles of ownership (including shares, shares, warehouse receipts, waybills, depositary receipts, bills of lading, certificates of deposit);

Rights of claim (documents on assignment, forfeiting, assets of receivables, writ of execution of arbitration courts, prepaid products, checks, rights to credit);

Financial derivatives (options and swaps);

Bank financial guarantees as a traded asset.

Most developed markets bonds and shares. In the bond market, the issuer's debt obligations are sold to pay the nominal value of the sold bond on time and pay, in addition, interest for the use of borrowed money during this period. A bond is essentially an IOU in receipt of money, attracting the lender, as a rule, with a higher percentage of income, which is designed to compensate for the risk. The market value of bonds is calculated quite simply - by the equivalent amount of capital, which provides, at the current deposit rate at the time of purchase (or sale) of the bond, the receipt of the same income that the sold (or purchased) bond gives.

In the stock market, we are talking about the title of ownership of property, which should grow due to the entrepreneurial activity of the issuer. The shareholder's income - the amount of dividends - depends on the success of entrepreneurial activity.

4. International trade in goods

The variety of world trade goods is growing rapidly, which is greatly facilitated by scientific and technological progress and competition. Each product, each trade transaction is unique in its own way and requires the use of forms and methods adequate to the nature of the product when conducting any transaction.

It is advisable to consider five more or less homogeneous groups of goods for which differences in the mechanism of international trade are most noticeable and which form world markets that are quite different in their characteristics: the market for traditional material goods, the market for services, products of intellectual and creative labor, as well as currency and financial markets. assets.

Market for physical goods. Tangible products make up the traditional nomenclature of international trade and international statistics of world trade.

Until the end of the 20th century, the structure of world economic commodity flows generally corresponded to the sectoral structure of the gross product. Its changes reflected, as already noted, the general trends in the economic development of countries, the introduction of scientific and technical innovations into social production.

The main article of the world turnover of tangible products are finished products, the share of which even in exports from developing countries (mainly due to Asian exporters) increased from 19% in 1980 to 70% by 2005. In the export of tangible products from developed countries the share of such finished industrial products increased to 80%.

The increase in finished products in world trade is carried out at the expense of machinery, equipment, and vehicles. Trade in semi-finished products, intermediate products, individual consumer goods is expanding, the share of which is almost a third of world imports, and in trade in machinery, equipment and vehicles - about 40%.

Commodities make up a significant part of the product range. They cover large groups of agricultural products, where grains and foodstuffs occupy an important place. In analytical assessments of the economic situation of countries, the volumes of imports of precisely these goods usually characterize the foreign economic dependence and vulnerability of countries to external supplies.

Over the twenty-five years (since 1980), the share of food in the exports of developed countries, which were considered the main suppliers of these products to the world market, decreased by "/s and amounted to 7.6%; developing countries - by 30% and amounted to 8.4% of countries Central and of Eastern Europe(CEE) - by 14% and with 9.1% in the export of these countries. The share of agricultural raw materials, metal and ores, and fuels has significantly decreased in world exports.

The modern economy is less and less dependent on the vicissitudes of the natural uneven distribution of natural resources, and their role in world trade is naturally declining. The exception, perhaps, is mineral fuels, whose share in world trade is not only not declining, but growing. The coefficient of elasticity of fuel consumption in relation to industrial production is close to 1 (one), which means that the demand for fuel will grow in proportion to the growth industrial production.

The main changes in trade in commodities in the context of the globalization of world trade have affected the forms of trade transactions. The commodity market, historically one of the earliest markets in world trade, is monopolized for most goods due to the direct dependence of prices on available reserves and mining conditions, climatic conditions cultivation of agricultural products, which, in turn, are due to the natural uneven distribution of favorable natural conditions and minerals.

As consumption of commodities declined, trade links based on long-term contracts between producers and consumers of commodities began to lose their sustainability. Competition between suppliers of raw materials and the volatility of buyers led to the inclusion of intermediaries in trading operations and the transition to trading through auctions and commodity exchanges. Conducting trading transactions involving international auctions and exchanges reduces risks, as these reputable participants act as guarantors of the reliability of trading operations in a relatively volatile and shrinking commodity market.

Market for industrial goods. According to international statistics, the share of finished industrial products and semi-finished products in world exports of tangible products increased from 55% in 1960 to 75% by 2005. The most dynamically developing group of goods in the 90s in the exports of developed countries, and accordingly in world exports, steel office and telecommunications equipment, automation equipment.

Among the leading exporters of industrial products are 15 states of the group of developing countries, including 11 Asian ones. This (according to UN statistics) includes Bangladesh, India, China, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, as well as Brazil, Israel, Mexico. This also includes, of course, the newly industrialized countries. South-East Asia- Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea.

In the production of industrial products, in contrast to the goods of the raw material group, the importance of natural resources is noticeably reduced, giving way to such factors of production as equipment and technology. And these are factors that, in principle, can be located in almost any country and that are able to ensure the release of products, regardless of the security natural resources. Competitive advantage The development of the country is based not on the uneven distribution of scarce natural goods, but on the country's ability to concentrate and rationally organize production resources that are unlimited in principle.

The market for industrial products, unlike the market for commodities, is much more fragmented. The diversity and uniqueness of industrial products exclude the possibility of using exchanges or auctions even for the simplest products. The point is not only in the quality of manufacture, but above all in the incomparability of many technical parameters. The use of a foreign product requires technological and organizational adaptation of many parts of the production system. The conditions of consumption of an industrial product significantly change the assessment of the market value of this product.

Bibliography

1. Kokushkina I.V., Voronin M.S. International Trade and World Markets: Textbook. - St. Petersburg: Technical book, 2007. - 592 p.

2. International economic relations: Textbook / Ed. B.M. Smitienko. – M.: INFRA-M, 2005. – 512 p.

3. International economic relations. Ed. Rybalkina V.E. - M., 2001

Giving the concept of international trade, one should not forget that it, like other components of the system of international financial relations, is considered a very laborious and multifaceted phenomenon, therefore there are a large number of its definitions. Here is one of the more generally recognized: international trade is the sum of the foreign trade of all the states of the world.

Foreign trade is the trade of a given state with other states, consisting of export (export) and import (import) of goods, works, services. Foreign and international trade are considered the closest concepts. The same commodity transaction between 2 countries can be considered from the side of both foreign and international trade. Both of them are connected with the sphere of international circulation, with acts of sale. The formation of these categories is guided by the processes of the sphere of production. However, these concepts are far from unambiguous. Foreign and international trade relate to each other as private and common, as national and international. If they talk about foreign trade, they mean a specific branch of the economy of a particular country that is related to cases related to the sale of a share of state products (goods and services) in foreign markets and a share of foreign products and services in one state market.

Foreign trade is regulated mainly by state bodies, it is associated with such categories as the trade balance, state financial policy.

International trade is a kind of sphere that connects the trade sectors of state economies. Therefore, it is not purely automatic, but an organic unity that has personal laws of formation, special regulatory bodies. International trade is connected with the international division of labor and the international market.

Foreign trade is the main activity of any country. In the absence of trade and a foreign market, no country has the opportunity to exist and develop. At this stage, when individual states have become parts of the international economy, their economy is largely dependent on the external market. In connection with the improvement of international specialization and cooperation, the rise in the internationalization of economic life, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution (STR), foreign trade is becoming the most significant factor in financial development, a factor in the interaction and cooperation of countries.

International trade is one of the forms of international economic relations (IER).

As you know, the main forms of MEO are:

• * international trade;
• * international monetary and financial relations;
• * international scientific, technical and industrial cooperation;
• * international labor migration;
• * international migration of capital and international investments;
• * international economic integration.

All these forms are closely connected and interact with each other, although, of course, international trade is considered the main, most important and favorite form. It mediates other forms, a significant proportion of which is realized through it. Namely, the improvement of international specialization and cooperation of production, international scientific and technical cooperation are reflected in the expansion of the exchange of goods and services between states. The connection and interdependence of international trade and international investment activity are considered very narrow. Foreign investments, most often direct investments made by manufacturing firms, usually increase the development of export production in capital recipient countries and, therefore, contribute to the expansion and increase in the size of world trade.

Regional integration groupings and associations (for example, the EU, NAFTA, CIS, APEC) influence the commodity and geographical structure of international trade, contribute to its development, as a rule, on the scale of these associations.

At the same time, they often hinder the improvement of transcontinental commodity flows and, from time to time, limit the processes of unification of the world economy.

In general, the impact of international trade on the world economy and international financial relations is contained in the following:

• - the rise in foreign trade exchange between states comes down to the fact that the connection and interdependence of the economic complexes of individual states is strengthened so that disruptions in the economy of a country can lead to bad consequences for the development of national economies in other states;
• - with the help of international trade, the effects of all forms of world economic relations are produced - the export of money, international scientific, technical and industrial cooperation;
• - the expansion of inter-regional, intra-regional in interstate trade relations is a prerequisite and impetus for international economic integration;
• - international trade contributes to the subsequent deepening of the international division of labor and the unification of the world economy.

Consequently, at the current stage, international trade plays a significant role in the development of both the world economy and the IER in general, but also of individual subjects of the world economy, being, firstly, the most powerful factor in economic growth, and secondly, a factor in increasing the interdependence of states.

In our period, the structure of foreign trade is represented by the following types:

• * export;
• * import;
• * transit trade: acquisition abroad with simultaneous sale to a third country;
• * special forms, for example, re-export or re-import of goods that have been refined;
• * production under license;
• * cooperation;
• * compensation deals, etc.

Export is understood as a type of entrepreneurial foreign trade activity associated with the receipt by a firm (resident) of cash proceeds in the course of the sale and export of its competitive products to a foreign partner (non-resident) abroad.

The export operation scheme includes:

• a) conclusion of a contract for the supply of the product;
• b) supply of products.

Exports are of 2 types: non-residential (when a firm exports leftovers from time to time, offering goods to local wholesalers representing foreign firms) and active (in order to expand exports in a particular market).

Also, export can be direct and indirect.

Direct export is carried out through the export department of the enterprise located in its own country, through the sales office (branch) abroad, export salesmen, as well as through foreign distributors or agents.

Indirect export is carried out by attracting independent intermediary exporters, representatives, and various organizations. Indirect exports are more common abroad. 2 factors contribute to this:

• 1) the company creates all goods in its own country, therefore, it requires less capital investment to expand production and create a personal trading tool abroad;
• 2) less degree of risk.

Import is understood as a type of entrepreneurial activity of Russian residents associated with the acquisition from non-residents and import into the resident state of products, services and technologies for subsequent distribution in the domestic market.

Import operations are of 2 types: direct and indirect.

With direct imports, Russian residents purchase products directly from a foreign manufacturer (non-resident) or from an export intermediary abroad. An import transaction is made between a resident (domestic recipient) and a non-resident (supplier) abroad.

With indirect imports, Russian companies (residents) purchase a product from a Russian entrepreneur (separate company) specializing in import transactions, who also receives the product from a foreign manufacturer (non-resident) or exporter (it may also be another resident). The import transaction is executed between a Russian entrepreneur specializing in the import of specific products and a general supplier abroad.

Import mode also comes in 2 types: unlicensed import and licensed.

Unlicensed import is carried out when the conclusion of import contracts has no restrictions, i.e. the importer (non-resident) may, without special permission from the regulatory authorities, conclude a sales agreement (contract) with a foreign supplier (other non-resident), import the product into the territory of the Russian Federation and make payment.

Licensed imports occur when the importation of products from abroad requires special permission from the regulatory authorities, which determine the conditions, volume and issue licenses for any type of product. Only after acquiring an import license can an importer (non-resident) enter into a sales contract with a resident. To carry out an import operation, the importer (non-resident) must have the financial means to purchase products, know potential suppliers, analyze the prices of competitors offering the necessary goods, conclude an agreement with a more preferable exporter (resident), receive the purchased product and pay for it.

foreign trade economic policy