International trade in goods.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, specific form exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers different countries.

International trade is a set of foreign trade of all countries of the world. At the same time, foreign trade of individual states and regions is an integral element of international trade.

Modern trends in the development of world trade

An additional impetus to world trade was due to the activities of the WTO to liberalize export-import operations and, in particular, to reduce and eliminate tariff and non-tariff barriers.

According to WTO experts, for the period from the end of the 1940s to the end of the 1990s, tariffs on the import of industrial goods to developed countries decreased by an average of 90%.

The increase in international trade was facilitated by a significant liberalization of the foreign trade policy of developing countries and, as a result, the expansion of trade between them. However, it should be emphasized that the liberalization of world trade has benefited primarily industrialized countries. Trade liberalization has had a negative impact on the state environment in developing and especially least developed countries.

According to the World Wildlife Fund, between the mid-1980s and the late 1990s, global trade liberalization contributed to a loss of up to 30% natural potential planets.

The impetus for the rapid development of world trade was the revolution in the field of information technologies and means of telecommunications. The value of exports of office and telecommunications equipment has almost doubled since the early 1990s, reaching almost 15% of the total value of world trade in the late 1990s.

The real revolution in world trade can be called the rapid spread of electronic commerce through the Internet. By the beginning of the third millennium, the Internet had become one of the leading sectors of the world economy with an annual turnover of over $500 billion and more than 3 million people employed. World trade via the Internet began in 1996 and by 2000 had reached 200 billion dollars.

An important factor in the growth of world trade is a significant increase in exports of manufactured goods manufactured in new and developing countries using components and materials imported in accordance with systems of trade preferences.

In value terms, the volume of world merchandise trade almost tripled between 1985 and 2000 to reach $11.6 trillion, including $5.7 trillion in global merchandise exports and $5.9 trillion in global imports. .

IN last years there have been significant changes in the structure of world trade, in particular, the share of services, communications and information technology has increased significantly, while at the same time the share of trade in commodities and agricultural products is declining.

If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for 1/4 of the trade turnover. The share of trade in manufactured products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1.3 of all world trade in the mid-90s was trade in machinery and equipment.

There is also a sharp increase in trade in services. The active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, and consulting. information and computing services.

In conclusion, I would like to note the trends in the development of Russia's trade relations with different countries.

The active direction of our foreign economic activity remains the development of European cooperation. Russia has become a member of the authoritative group of International Credits - the Paris and London Clubs, and the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union has entered into force. Of course, the development of mutually beneficial cooperation with the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe requires more attention.

A real breakthrough in our foreign economic policy was Russia's admission to APEC. This is an example of the practical implementation of the thesis about the unique role of Russia as a Eurasian power.

Russian-Chinese relations are steadily developing in line with a strategic trusting partnership. Trade and economic cooperation with Japan is also acquiring large-scale dimensions.

In the context of economic globalization, Russia should join the WTO, but this should be preceded by thorough preparation. Russia's main task in the negotiations is to obtain conditions for membership in the WTO, excluding the infringement of its rights in the field of international trade and improving access to world markets for goods and services. The importance of completing the process of Russia's accession to the WTO as soon as possible is due to the fact that from the moment of accession, the country receives the rights that other WTO members have. in connection with which discrimination of its goods and services in foreign markets ceases.

The problems of international trade were of interest to scientists and politicians even at a time when other areas of economic theory had not yet been developed.

The first attempt at a theoretical understanding of international trade and the development of recommendations in this area was the doctrine of mercantilism, which dominated the manufacturing period, i.e. from the 16th century until the middle of the 18th century. when the international division of labor was predominantly limited to bilateral and tripartite relations. At that time, industry had not yet broken away from the national soil, and goods were produced for export from national raw materials. So, England processed wool, Germany - flax, France - silk into flax, etc. The mercantilists held the view that the state should sell as much of any goods on the foreign market as possible, and buy as little as possible. At the same time, gold, identified with wealth, will accumulate. It is clear that if all countries pursue such a policy of refusing to import, then there will be no buyers and there will be no question of any international trade.

Modern theories of international trade

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the XV-XVII centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of the mercantilists. Basic provisions:

● the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

● recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to improve its well-being;

● money - an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of commodity mass;

● welcome protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products;

● restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's Absolute Advantage Theory

The real wealth of a country consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries may produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, as the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country, as well as the qualification of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide incentives for the production of more effective methods work.

Natural advantages: climate; territory; resources.

Acquired Benefits:

production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

The first naive attempts at a theoretical understanding of international trade are associated with the doctrine of mercantilism, which prevailed during the 17th-18th centuries. However, the scientific explanation this problem found in the works of classical economists.

Unlike the mercantilists, the starting point of A. Smith's theory was the assertion that the wealth of a nation depends not only and not so much on the accumulated stock of precious metals, but on the potential of the economy to produce final goods and services. Therefore, the most important task of the government is not the accumulation of gold and silver, but the implementation of measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor.

The most favorable conditions for this are created by the economy of free competition, where the “invisible hand” of competition coordinates the actions of many producers so that each of the economic agents, striving for their own benefit, ensures the well-being of society as a whole. Substantiating the policy of state non-intervention in the economy and free competition, A. Smith advocated free trade. He believed that each of the countries always produces one or more goods at a lower cost than abroad. In other words, in the production and exchange of such goods, the country will have an absolute advantage. It is these goods that should be exported and be the object of international trade. . As a result of free trade based on the principle of absolute advantage, the wealth of the nation increases, its ability to save grows.

A. Smith's conclusions were based on the labor theory of value, according to which the exchange of goods is carried out in the same proportion as the amount of labor required for their production. Further, A. Smith proceeded from the presence of a perfectly competitive market in the national economy; he abstracted from technical progress and transport costs.

Thus, according to A. Smith's theory, the development of national production based on absolute advantage in free trade allows each country to simultaneously benefit from international trade by selling goods at world prices. Each of the countries reaches a level of consumption that was unattainable under autarky, that is, it is beneficial for countries to specialize production at the international level and trade on the basis of the principle of absolute advantage.

However, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantage is not universal. Its limitations lie in the fact that it leaves open the answers to a number of questions that arise in the course of foreign trade relations. Indeed, what happens if a country does not have an absolute advantage in any product? Can such a country be a full partner in foreign trade? Is such a country not doomed to the need to purchase all the goods it needs on world market? In this case, how will she be able to pay for goods purchased abroad?

Benefits of participating in international trade:

● intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of strengthening specialization, creating opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, increasing the degree of workload of equipment, and increasing the efficiency of introducing new technologies;

● an increase in export deliveries entails an increase in employment;

● international competition necessitates the improvement of enterprises;

● export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

David Riccardo's Theory of Comparative Advantage

Specialization in the production of a product that has the maximum comparative advantage is also beneficial in the absence of absolute advantages. A country should specialize in exporting the goods in which it has the greatest absolute advantage (if it has an absolute advantage in both goods) or the least absolute disadvantage (if it has no absolute advantage in any of the goods). Specializing in certain types of goods is beneficial to each of these countries and leads to an increase in total production, trade is motivated even if one country has an absolute advantage in the production of all goods over another country. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Answers to these questions were given by the law of comparative advantage formulated by D. Ricardo.

Developing the theory of absolute advantage, D. Ricardo proved that international trade is mutually beneficial for two countries even if neither of them has an absolute advantage in any product.

Indeed, the costs of producing the same product in different countries, as a rule, differ from each other. Under these conditions, in almost any country there is such a product, the production of which will be more profitable at the existing cost ratio than the production of other goods. It is for such a product that the country will have a comparative advantage, and the product itself will become the object of foreign trade transactions.

D. Ricardo's theory was improved and supplemented in the works of his followers. Thus, the original premise “two countries - two goods” was expanded and extended to a greater number of countries and a greater number of goods, transport costs and non-tradable goods were introduced into D. Ricardo's model.

With these additions and extensions to the basic model, the ideas of D. Ricardo predetermined the dominant views in the theory of international trade for many decades to come and had a strong impact on economic theory as a whole. The Law of Comparative Advantage for the first time proved the mutual benefit of international trade for all countries participating in it, revealed the scientific inconsistency of the widespread misconception that an individual country can receive unilateral advantages in the process of trade only as a result of damage to other countries.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory

According to this theory, a country exports goods for the production of which it intensively uses a relatively surplus factor of production, and imports goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production. Necessary conditions for existence:

countries participating in international exchange have a tendency to export those goods and services for the manufacture of which they use mainly production factors that are in excess, and, conversely, a tendency to import those products for which there is a shortage of any factors;

the development of international trade leads to the equalization of "factor" prices, that is, the income received by the owner of this factor;

it is possible, given sufficient international mobility of factors of production, to replace the export of goods by the movement of the factors themselves between countries.

Leontief's paradox

The essence of the paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The resolution of the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the cost of goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export deliveries. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle

Some types of products go through a cycle consisting of five stages:

product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. During this time, sales are zero and costs rise.

bringing the product to market. No profit due to high marketing costs, slow growth in sales

fast market conquest, profit increase

maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to an increase in the cost of marketing activities to protect the product from competition

decline. Decline in sales and shrinking profits.

Michael Porter's theory

This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, according to Porter, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that the country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. At the core of the explanation competitive advantage The role of the home country lies in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

government impact on factor conditions;

government influence on demand conditions;

government impact on related and supporting industries;

government influence on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Rybchinsky's theorem

The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain unchanged. The prices of factors of production can only remain constant if the ratio of the factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only happen if there is an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a decrease in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use along with a growing factor in an expanding industry. .

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper

In the middle of the XX century. (1948), American economists P. Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of production factors, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with the additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and consider trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.

1. International trade in goods and services.

International trade as the main form of international economic relations. The basis of economic relations in the MX is international trade. It accounts for about 80% of the total volume of MEO. The material basis for the development of trade is the increasingly deepening international division of labor, which objectively determines the connection between individual territories and countries specializing in the production of a particular product. The interaction of producers of various countries in the process of buying and selling goods and services forms the relations of the world market.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, a specific form of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers from different countries. If international trade represents the trade of one country with other countries, consisting of import (import) and export (export) of goods and services, then international trade is the aggregate of foreign trade of the countries of the world.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following functions:

1) replenishment of the missing elements of national production, which makes " consumer basket» more diverse economic agents of the national economy;

2) transformation of the natural-material structure of GDP due to the ability of external factors of production to modify and diversify this structure;

3) effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, the maximization of national income while reducing the socially necessary costs of its production.

International trade arose in antiquity, it was conducted in the slave and feudal society. At that time, a small part of the manufactured products entered the international exchange, mainly luxury goods, spices, and some types of raw materials. Since the second half of the 20th century, international trade has intensified significantly. Analyzing the processes taking place in modern international trade, one can single out its main trend - liberalization: there is a significant decrease in the level of customs duties, many restrictions and quotas are cancelled. At the same time, the policy of protectionism aimed at protecting the national producer is being strengthened. According to forecasts, high rates of international trade will continue into the first half of the 21st century.

In international trade, two main methods (methods) of trade are used: direct method - transaction directly between the producer and the consumer; indirect method - transaction through an intermediary. The direct method brings certain financial benefits: it reduces costs by the amount of the commission to the intermediary; reduces the risk and dependence of the results of commercial activities on the possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of the intermediary organization; allows you to constantly be in the market, take into account changes and respond to them. But the direct method requires considerable commercial skill and trading experience.

International trade in goods takes place in a wide variety of forms. Forms of international trade are types of foreign trade operations. These include: wholesale trade; counter trade; commodity exchanges; futures exchanges; international trades; international auctions; trade fairs.

Currently, almost all subjects of the world economy are involved in international trade. The share of developed countries accounts for 65% of export-import transactions, the share of developing countries - 28%, the share of countries with economies in transition - less than 10%. The undoubted leaders in world trade are the USA, Japan and the EU countries. In recent years, there has been a steady downward trend in the share of developed countries in world trade (back in the 1980s they accounted for 84% of world exports and imports) due to the rapid development of a number of developing countries.

Question 2. International trade in goods. International trade is also characterized by such categories as "export" and "import". Export (export) of goods means the sale of goods on the foreign market. Import (import) of goods is the purchase of foreign goods. Main forms of export (import):

– export (import) of finished products with pre-sale refinement in the country of the buyer;

– export (import) of finished products;

– export (import) of disassembled products;

– export (import) of spare parts;

– export (import) of raw materials and semi-finished products;

– export (import) of services;

– temporary export (import) of goods (exhibitions, auctions).

International trade is characterized by three important characteristics: total volume (foreign trade turnover); commodity structure; geographical structure.

Foreign trade turnover - the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country. The goods are included in the international exchange when crossing the border. The sum of exports and imports forms the turnover, and the difference between exports and imports is the trade balance. The trade balance can be positive (active) or negative (deficit, passive). A trade surplus is the excess of a country's merchandise exports over its merchandise imports. Passive trade balance - foreign trade balance, which is characterized by an excess of imports of goods (imports) over exports (exports). The composition of world trade includes all commodity flows circulating between countries, regardless of whether they are sold on market or other terms, or remain the property of the supplier. In the international practice of statistical accounting of exports and imports, the date of registration is the moment when goods pass through the customs border of the country. The cost of exports and imports is calculated in most countries at contract prices reduced to a single basis, namely: export - at FOB prices, import - at CIF prices.

Considering the commodity structure of international trade in the first half of the 20th century (until World War II) and in subsequent years, significant changes can be noted. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for 1/4 of the trade. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. More than 1/3 of all world trade is trade in machinery and equipment. A rapidly developing area of ​​international trade is the trade in chemical products. It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. In the global food market, such trends can be explained by the decline in the share of the agricultural sector itself compared to industry. Also, this slowdown is explained by the desire for self-sufficiency in food in developed and a number of developing countries (especially in China and India). Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services, which, in turn, stimulates cross-country exchange of services, especially scientific, technical, industrial, communicative financial and credit nature. At the same time, trade in services (especially such as information and computing, consulting, leasing, engineering) stimulates world trade in industrial goods. Trade in science-intensive goods and high-tech products is developing most dynamically, which stimulates the cross-country exchange of services, especially of a scientific, technical, industrial, communicative, financial and credit nature. In addition to traditional types of services (transport, financial and credit, tourism, etc.), new types of services, developing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, occupy an increasing place in international exchange. The commodity structure of international trade is presented in table 2.

Thus, the world market of goods at the present stage is significantly diversified, and the product range of foreign trade turnover is extremely wide, which is associated with the deepening of MRI and the huge variety of needs for industrial and consumer goods.

There have been significant changes in the geographical structure of international trade under the influence of economic and political factors in the world since the 90s of the twentieth century. The leading role still belongs to the industrialized countries. In the group of developing countries, there is a pronounced unevenness in the degree of participation in international trade in goods.

Table 2.10.1 - Commodity structure of world exports by main product groups, %

Main commodity groups	First half twentieth century	End XXcentury
Food (including drinks and tobacco)
mineral fuel
Manufacturing products, including:
equipment, vehicles
chemical goods
other manufacturing products industry
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Textiles (fabrics, clothing)

The share of the countries of the Middle East is decreasing, which is explained by the instability of oil prices and the aggravation of contradictions between the OPEC states. Unstable foreign trade position of many African countries included in the group of the least developed. South Africa provides 1/3 of African exports. The situation of countries is also not stable enough Latin America, because their raw material export orientation remains (2/3 of their export earnings come from raw materials). The increase in the share of Asian countries in international trade was ensured by high economic growth rates (on average 6% per year) and the reorientation of its exports to finished products (2/3 of the value of exports). Thus, the increase in the total share of developing countries in international trade is provided by new industrial countries (China, Taiwan, Singapore). Gaining weight Malaysia, Indonesia. The main flow of international trade falls on developed countries - 55%; 27% of international trade is between developed countries and developing countries; 13% between developing countries; 5% - between countries with economies in transition and all other countries. The economic power of Japan has significantly changed the geography of international trade, giving it a tripolar character: North America, Western Europe and the Asia-Pacific region.

International trade in services.

At present, along with the goods market, the services market is also rapidly developing in the MX, because the service industry occupies significant place in national economies, especially in developed countries. The service sector developed especially rapidly in the second half of the 20th century, which was facilitated by the following factors:

- the deepening of the international division of labor leads to the formation of new types of activity, and, above all, in the service sector;

- a long economic recovery in most countries, which has led to an increase in growth rates, business activity, the solvency of the population, the demand for services is growing;

- the development of scientific and technical progress, which leads to the emergence of new types of services and the expansion of their scope;

– development of other forms of IER

Specificity of services: services are produced and consumed at the same time, they are not stored; services are intangible and invisible; services are characterized by heterogeneity, variability of quality; not all types of services can be involved in international trade, for example, utilities; there are no intermediaries in trade in services; international trade in services is not subject to customs control; international trade in services, more than trade in goods, is protected by the state from foreign competitors.

International practice defines the following 12 service sectors, which, in turn, include 155 sub-sectors: commercial services; postal and communication services; construction works and structures; trading services; educational services; environmental protection services; services in the field of financial intermediation; health services and social area; services related to tourism; services for organizing recreation, cultural and sports events; transport services; other, not included services. In the system of national accounts, services are divided into consumer (tourism, hotel services), social (education, medicine), production (engineering, consulting, financial and credit services), distribution (trade, transport, freight).

The international exchange of services is mainly carried out between developed countries and is characterized by a high degree concentration. Developed countries are the main exporters of services. They account for about 70% of world trade in services, and there has been a steady trend towards a reduction in their role due to the rapid development of a number of developing countries. The volume of international trade in services exceeds 1.6 trillion. $, growth rates are also dynamic. In terms of growth rates and volume in the world economy, the following types of services are leading: financial, computer, accounting, auditing, advisory, legal. A country's specialization in certain types of services depends on the level of its economic development. IN developed countries dominated by financial, telecommunications, information and business services. For developing countries characterized by specialization in transport and tourism services.

International regulation of trade.

The development of international economic relations is accompanied not only by the national regulation of foreign trade, but also by the emergence of recent decades various forms of interstate cooperation in this area. As a result, the regulatory measures of one country have a direct impact on the economies of other states that take retaliatory steps to protect their producers and consumers, which necessitates the coordination of the regulatory process at the interstate level. International trade policy -a coordinated policy of states in order to conduct trade between them, as well as its development and positive impact on the growth of individual countries and the world community.

The main subject of international trade liberalization remains the international trade organization GATT/WTO. GATT - an international agreement for consultations on international trade issues(This is a code of conduct for international trade). GATT was signed in 1947 by 23 countries and operated until 1995, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) was established on its basis. GATT promoted trade liberalization through international negotiations. The functions of the GATT were to develop rules for international trade, to regulate and liberalize trade relations.

Main GATT principles: trade must be non-discriminatory; elimination of discrimination through the introduction of the most favored nation principle in relation to the export, import and transit of goods; liberalization of international trade by reducing customs duties and eliminating other restrictions; trade security; the predictability of the actions of entrepreneurs and the regulation of the actions of governments; reciprocity in granting trade and political concessions, settling disputes through negotiations and consultations; the use of quantitative restrictions is not allowed, all measures of quantitative restriction must be transformed into tariff duties; tariffs must be reduced through amicable negotiations and cannot be subsequently increased; when making decisions, participating countries must conduct mandatory consultations among themselves, ensuring the inadmissibility of unilateral actions.

The WTO monitors the implementation of all previous agreements concluded under the auspices of the GATT. Membership in the WTO means for each member state the automatic acceptance in full of its package of already concluded agreements. In turn, the WTO significantly expands the scope of its competence, turning into the most important international body that regulates the development of international economic relations. Countries wishing to join the WTO must: begin the process of rapprochement with WTO member countries, which takes a significant amount of time; make trade concessions; comply with GATT/WTO principles.

Belarus is not yet a member of the WTO and is in a discriminatory position in the world market. It bears losses from anti-dumping policy; it is subject to supply restrictions high technology. In addition, Belarus is not yet ready to join the WTO, but constant work is being done in this direction.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has been convened since 1964 once every 4 years. The most significant UNCTAD decisions are the Generalized System of Preferences (1968), the New International Economic Order (1974) and the Integrated Raw Materials Program (1976). The general system of preferences means the provision of trade preferences to developing countries on a non-reciprocal basis. This means that developed countries should not demand any concessions in return for their goods in the markets of developing countries. Since 1971, developed countries have been providing common system preferences for developing countries. The USSR lifted all restrictions on the import of goods from developing countries in 1965. In 1974. at the suggestion of developing countries, fundamental documents were adopted on the establishment new international economic order (NIEO) in relations between the countries of the North and the South. The NMEP talked about the formation of a new MRT, focused on the accelerated industrialization of developing countries; on the formation of a new structure of international trade that meets the objectives of accelerated development and raising the living standards of peoples. Developed countries were asked to make adjustments to the economic structure of their economies, to free up niches for goods from developing countries. In accordance with the NMEI, it is necessary to assist developing countries in the development of food and to promote the expansion of its exports from developing countries.

Others deal with international trade issues international organizations. As part of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes all developed countries, has a Trade Committee. Its task is to promote the expansion of the world exchange of goods and services on a multilateral basis; consideration common problems trade policy, balance of payments balance, conclusions about the expediency of granting loans to members of the organization. Within the framework of the OECD, measures are being developed for the administrative and technical unification of rules in the field of foreign trade, common standards, recommendations for changing trade policy, and others are being developed. A significant impact on the foreign trade of developing countries and countries with economies in transition, especially insolvent debtors, has International Monetary Fund (IMF). Under pressure from the IMF, there is an accelerated liberalization of the markets of these countries in exchange for loans.

Academy of Public Administration under the President of the Republic of Belarus

Department of International Economic Relations

Independent work on the course : International economic relations.

on the topic :

Main trends in international trade in goods and services .

Veremyev Viktor Grigorievich

group listener no.

specializations : MMT

part-time education

GTPP “ Lublin ”

Brest

Director

Minsk 1999

INTRODUCTION

1. The concept of international trade.

2.Modern organizational forms export and import.

3.GATT as a regulator of international

trade.

4.The current trend in the development of international trade and services.

CONCLUSION.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Introduction

International trade is the oldest form of international economic relations. It existed long before the formation of the world economy and was its immediate predecessor. It was the development of international trade that created the economic conditions for the development of machine production, which could often grow only on the basis of imported raw materials and massive overseas demand. The growth of profits due to the use of machines predetermined the emergence of relatively excess capital and its export abroad, which marked the beginning of the formation of the world economy, accelerated the process of internalization of productive forces.

International trade occupies a leading place in the system of world economic relations. International trade exchange is both a prerequisite and a consequence of the international division of labor, and is an important factor in the formation and functioning of the world economy. In its historical evolution, it has gone from single foreign trade transactions to long-term large-scale trade and economic cooperation. In the context of the scientific and technological revolution, international trade exchange is becoming increasingly important. The peculiarity of these processes in the post-war period is revealed with particular relief in the analysis of long-term trends, features, forms and methods of joint trade.

1. The concept of international trade.

International trade is a central link in a complex system of world economic relations, mediating almost all types of international division of labor and linking all countries of the world into a single international economic system. It is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world, and its volume is calculated by summing the volumes of exports,

Modern international trade is trade between countries, involving the import (import) and export (export) of goods. It involves various legal entities-corporations, their associations, states, and individuals. It is a means by which countries can develop specialization, increase the productivity of their resources, and thus increase overall output.

In addition, an important feature is the most diverse economic and political risks in international trade, due to geographical, political, national factors.

Modern international trade is dynamic. The structure and volume of exports, imports of trade in various countries and regions of the world is constantly changing. Analysis shows an exceptionally rapid growth in trade after the Second World War: from 1947 to 1973. The volume of world exports increased annually by about 6%. On the whole, the post-war period saw a real explosion in the export of goods: its volume, when converted into current dollars, increased from less than $25 billion in 1939 to $25 billion. to about 2500 billion dollars in 1987. The 1990s did not change this trend.

According to the GATT Secretariat, the turnover of world trade in 1993, taking into account price changes, increased by 2.5%; world exports increased by 2% and imports by 2%.

The intensity of trade relations differs significantly according to

Such a dynamic development of foreign trade is explained by its positive impact on the level and quality of economic development of countries. Most countries in modern conditions are countries with an open economy, i.e. a significant part of their GDP is produced with participation outside the non-tradable sector.

2. Modern organizational forms of export and import

On turn of the XXI century, international trade uses the following organizational forms of exports and imports:

· Trade in disassembled products. Export of products in disassembled form is used to increase its competitiveness, as well as to enter the market of countries that prohibit the import of certain products in finished form, to protect similar products or stimulate the creation of similar industries in their country.

· Trade in complete equipment. Industrial equipment is considered to be complete. nn th enterprise, representing a single complete technological complex. Its necessary element is the construction of facilities on a turnkey basis, which provides for the design, construction of enterprises, equipping them with equipment, training of local personnel, and ensuring the operation of the facility during the period under the guarantee contract.

· Trade in commodities. In summarizing concept"commodities" includes mineral raw materials, products of their processing and enrichment, agricultural e raw e plant and animal origin and products its processing chemical and food products. Commodity trading carried out through:

1. International commodity agreements that are used to regulate trade in raw materials in order to stabilize the market and reduce speculation. International commodity agreements relate to cereals, grain - legumes, coffee,

Foreign trade policy. Pricing in international trade. Foreign trade balance.

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. According to some estimates, trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of MRI, and expresses their mutual dependence. Modern international economic relations, characterized by the active development of world trade, bring a lot of new and specific features to the process of development of national economies.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of various countries under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation industrial production strengthen the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. to the international trading system annually comes up to a quarter of the world's production. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to WTO research, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. Foreign trade has become a powerful factor in economic growth. At the same time, the dependence of countries on international trade increased significantly.

The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into trade in finished products, machinery and equipment, raw materials, services, and technologies. In recent decades, trading in financial instruments (derivatives), derivatives of financial instruments circulating on the cash market, such as bonds or shares, has been booming.

International trade appears as the total volume of trade of all countries of the world. However, the term "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total volume of foreign trade of industrialized countries, the total volume of foreign trade of developing countries, the total volume of foreign trade of countries of a continent, region, for example, countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

International trade is characterized by three main indicators: turnover (total volume), commodity structure and geographical structure.

Foreign trade turnover includes the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country participating in international trade. There are cost and physical volumes of foreign trade.

The value volume is calculated for a certain period of time in current (changing) prices of the corresponding years using current exchange rates.

The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices. On its basis, it is possible to make the necessary comparisons and determine the real dynamics of foreign trade. The volume of international trade is calculated by summing the export volumes of all countries.

Since the second half of the XX century. world trade is growing rapidly. Between 1950 and 1994, world trade grew 14 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as a "golden age" in the development of international trade. It was during this period that an annual 7% growth in world exports was achieved. it decreased slightly (up to 5%). At the end of the 80s. world exports showed a noticeable recovery (up to 8.5% in 1988). After a temporary decline in the early 1990s, in the second half of the 1990s, international trade again demonstrates high and stable rates (7-9%).

A number of factors influenced the rather stable, sustainable growth of international trade:

stabilization of interstate relations in the conditions of peace,

development of MRT and internationalization of production and capital,

Scientific and technological revolution, which contributes to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones,

· vigorous activity international corporations in the world market,

the emergence of a new commercial reality - a global market for standardized goods,

· regulation of international trade through international trade agreements adopted under the GATT / WTO;

the activities of international financial and economic organizations, such as the IMF, which maintains the relative stability of the main world currencies, trade and payment balances of many countries,

stabilizing activity of the World Bank in relation to the world economy,

liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of "free economic zones»;

development of trade and economic integration processes, elimination of regional barriers, formation of "common markets", free trade zones,

· Gaining political independence by the former colonial countries, separating from among them countries with an economic model oriented to the foreign market.

The rapid growth of world trade in the mid-90s. mainly due to a sharp increase in imports from the United States, Italy, Canada, Spain, the expansion of trade within the OECD group of countries, as well as an improvement in the economic situation in developed countries (except Japan), Far East and in Latin America.

If the elimination of trade barriers continues successfully, the capacity of the goods market will grow by an average of 6% annually over the next ten years. This will be the highest rate since the 1960s. Trade in the sphere of services will increase even more rapidly, which is greatly facilitated by the success of computer science and communications.

The structure of international trade is usually considered in terms of its geographical distribution (geographical structure) and commodity content (commodity structure).

The geographical structure of international trade is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, identified either on a territorial or organizational basis.

The territorial geographical structure of trade usually summarizes data on the international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world (Africa, Asia, Europe) or to an enlarged group of countries (industrial countries, developing countries) (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1

Geographical structure of international trade (exports) (in %)

The organizational geographical structure shows the distribution of international trade either between countries belonging to individual integration and other trade and political associations (European Union countries, CIS countries, ASEAN countries), or between countries allocated to a certain group in accordance with some analytical criterion ( oil exporting countries, net debtor countries).

The main volume of international trade falls on developed countries, although their share declined somewhat in the first half of the 1990s due to the growth in the share of developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The main growth in the share of developing countries occurred at the expense of rapidly developing new industrial countries South-East Asia(Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong) and some Latin American countries. The world's largest exporters (in billion dollars) are the USA (512), Germany (420), Japan (395), France (328). Among developing countries, the largest exporters are Hong Kong (151), Singapore (96), Malaysia (58), Thailand (42). Among the countries with economies in transition, the largest exporters are China (120), Russia - (63), Poland (17), Czech Republic (13), Hungary (11). In most cases, the largest exporters are also the largest importers in the world market.

Data on the commodity structure of international trade in the world as a whole is very incomplete. Typically, either the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HSCT) or the UN Standard International Classification (SITC) is used to classify individual goods in international trade. The most significant trend is the growth in the share of trade in manufacturing products, which by the mid-1990s accounted for about ¾ of the value of world exports, and the reduction in the share of raw materials and foodstuffs, which account for about ¼ (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2

Commodity structure of international trade (in %)

Goods	2003	2010
agricultural products	14,6	12,0
Food	11,1	9,5
Agricultural raw materials	3,5	2,5
Extractive industry products	24,3	11,9
Ores, minerals and ferrous metals	3,8	3,1
Fuel	20,5	8,8
Industrial goods	57,3	73,3
Equipment and vehicles	28,8	37,8
Chemical products	7,4	9,0
Semi-finished products	6,4	7,5
Textiles and clothing	4,9	6,9
Cast iron and steel	3,4	3,0
Other finished goods	6,3	9,2
Other goods	3,8	2,8

This trend is typical for both developed and developing countries and is a consequence of the introduction of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies. The most significant group of products within the manufacturing industry is equipment and vehicles (up to half of the export of goods in this group), as well as other industrial products - chemical products, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, textiles. Within the framework of raw materials and food products the largest commodity flows are food and beverages, mineral fuels and other raw materials, excluding fuel.

Pricing in international trade depends on a large number of factors:

place and time of sale of goods;

The relationship between the seller and the buyer;

conditions of a commercial transaction;

the nature of the market;

Sources of price information.

called world prices. special variety prices in international trade - the prices of the most important (large, systematic and stable) export or import transactions made on normal commercial terms in the main centers of international trade by well-known exporting firms and importers of the relevant products.

The final cost of the goods is formed from:

manufacturer's prices

the cost of translation services;

cost of legal support of the transaction;

cost of production control (product inspection);

the cost of transportation;

the amount of payments to the budget (customs payments, VAT, etc.);

· Commissions of intermediaries organizing the import of products.

The foreign trade balance is the ratio of the value of import and export of products for a particular time period. The foreign trade balance, along with actually paid transactions, also includes transactions made on credit. With actually paid commodity transactions, the foreign trade balance is part of the state's balance of payments. When transactions are carried out on credit, the foreign trade balance is included in the settlement balance of the country.
The foreign trade balance is formed both for individual countries and for groups of countries. The foreign trade balance is called active if the value of exported goods exceeds the value of imported ones. In the case when the value of imported goods exceeds the value of exported goods, the foreign trade balance is passive.
A positive foreign trade balance indicates the demand for the goods of a particular country in the markets of the world or that the state does not consume all the goods it produces. A negative balance indicates that in addition to its own goods, foreign goods are also consumed in the country.

International trade- this is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, due to the development of the international division of labor in the conditions of scientific and technical progress and the globalization of trade. According to another interpretation international trade- this is the total trade turnover of all countries of the world or a part of countries grouped into a sample on some basis (for example, developed countries or countries of one continent).

International trade: aspects

International trade is considered to be a complex economic category, therefore it should be considered in at least 3 different aspects:

1. 1. Organizational-technical. This aspect considers the physical exchange of goods, paying special attention to the problems of the movement of goods between counterparties and their crossing the borders of the state. The organizational and technical aspect is the object of study of such disciplines as international law and customs.

1. 2. Market. This aspect assumes that international trade is a combination of supply and demand, with demand being the total amount of products that consumers are willing to buy at current prices, and supply being the amount of goods that producers are able to offer at current prices. Supply and demand materialize in counter flows - imports and exports. The market aspect of international trade is studied by such disciplines as management and.

1. 3. Socio-economic aspect understands MT as a set of social relations that have a number of features:

- they are global in nature, that is, all the states of the world and economic groupings participate in them;

- they are objective and universal, since they do not depend on the will of one specific consumer.

International Trade Indicators

There are a number of indicators that characterize international trade:

1. 1. Worldwide turnover- the sum of foreign trade turnover of all countries. In its turn foreign trade turnover is the sum of imports and exports of one country. The world trade turnover is assessed by volume and dynamics: the volume is measured in US dollars, and in addition, in physical units (tons, barrels), and chain and average annual growth indices are used to assess the dynamics.

1. 2. Structure allows you to judge the share of the part of the turnover, selected depending on the classification criterion. General structure reflects the ratio of exports to imports, commodity shows the share of a particular product in the turnover. The commodity structure also shows the ratio between trade in goods and services (currently 4:1). Geographic the structure measures the share of one commodity flow - the part of the goods moving between the countries grouped on a territorial basis.

1. 3. Elasticity coefficients exports and imports are indicators that characterize the dynamics of aggregate demand for and exports. The coefficient of elasticity is considered as the ratio of the volume of imports (exports) and its price. If demand is elastic (that is, the coefficient is greater than 1), the country increases its imports because the terms of trade are favorable. Elasticity indicators can be effectively used to evaluate both international and foreign trade.

1. 4. Quotas. VTK (foreign trade) is calculated according to the following formula:

GTC = ((Export + Import) / 2 * GDP) * 100%

The VTC shows how dependent the internal is on the world, and characterizes its openness. The importance of imports for a country is determined by imported quota, which is the ratio of imports to GDP (according to the same principle, export quota).

1. 5. Level specializations. Specialization characterizes the share of intra-industry trade in the total turnover (for example, trade in cars of a particular brand). Used for evaluation index specializations, which are denoted by the letter T. The value of the coefficient ranges from 0 to 1: the closer the value is to one, the deeper the division of labor.

1. 6. Trade balance. The fundamental indicator of a state's foreign trade is commercial balance is the difference between imports and exports. The trade balance is the defining element of the state's balance of payments.

Benefits of participating in international trade

The expediency of international trade is determined by two:

• resources are unevenly distributed among states;

• efficient production requires a combination of different resources and technologies.

Therefore, a country entering into international trade relations can enjoy a number of advantages:

• The level of employment is rising, which is a consequence of the growth of exports.

• Businesses face the need to improve in order to remain competitive.

• Export earnings are increasing, which can be further invested in industrial development.

• There is an intensification of the production process: the workload of equipment is increasing, the efficiency of integrating innovative technologies is growing.

Regulation of international trade

The regulation of international trade can be classified into state regulation And regulation through international agreements. In turn, the methods of state regulation can be divided into tariff And non-tariff:

Tariff methods are reduced to the application of duties - taxes that are paid for the transport of goods across the border. The purpose of imposing duties is to restrict imports and reduce competition from foreign manufacturers. Export duties are used much less frequently than import duties. According to the method of calculating fees, they are divided into ad valorem(that is, calculated as a percentage of the delivery amount) and specific(charged as a fixed amount).

Of high importance for international trade are international agreements that define the basic rules and principles of MT. The most famous agreements are:

• GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). GATT requires countries to act on the basis of the MFN (Most Favored Nation) principle. GATT clauses guarantee equality and non-discrimination to participants in international trade.

• WTO ( The World Trade Organization) is the "successor" of the GATT. The WTO retained all the provisions of the GATT, supplementing them with conditions for ensuring free trade through liberalization. The WTO is not part of the UN, which allows it to pursue an independent policy.

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