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Mechanisms for changing social relations. Social changes and ways of development of society

Key Concepts: social change and social revolution; levels and directions of development of society; conservative, reformist, revolutionary approaches to the transformation of society; the ratio of reforms and revolutions, the causes of social revolutions.

Numerous, relatively independent social objects and processes that make up society as a structurally complex and dynamic social system are constantly changing. social change is the transition of society or its constituent structural elements from one state to another. They are an inevitable and obligatory feature of any society.

Encourage society to move forward social contradictions . However, if they are not addressed in a timely manner, social revolution, that is, a deep and prolonged crisis in all spheres of public life. After a revolution, a painful process usually sets in, the formation of new social relations, which often turn out to be less effective and, often, worse than the previous ones.

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Shikun A.I.
Fundamentals of sociology: an electronic manual for university students / Brest. state un-t im. A.S. Pushkin. - Brest: BrGU, 2009. - 133 p. The main

The emergence and stages of development of sociology
Key concepts: sociology as a science of social systems; prerequisites for the emergence of sociology; stages and trends in the development of sociology; modern theories:

Prerequisites for the emergence of sociology
The desire to analyze social phenomena has been inherent in man at all times. However, sociology emerged as a science only in the first half of the 19th century. At this time, became a

Stages of development of sociological science
The development of sociology as a social and humanitarian science can be divided into three stages: The first stage is associated with the emergence of the first sociological

Object, subject and levels of sociological knowledge
Key concepts: object, subject and categories of sociology; social, public, societal; functions and levels of sociological knowledge; fundamental social

Functions and specifics of sociology as a science
The functions of sociology are very diverse. Nevertheless, they can be reduced to three main ones: 1) epistemological (epistemological)

Levels of sociological knowledge
In accordance with the various levels of organization and functioning of society, the main levels of sociology are distinguished: 1) macrosociology

The concept of society in sociological science
Key concepts: society as an object of sociology; social systems; social communities, mass and group communities; typology and spheres of social life; With

Society is an object of sociological knowledge
The main theoretical approaches to the concept of "society" are distinguished: 1. It is a stable, cultural and historical form of organization of life.

The main types and spheres of society
The typology of society can be defined on a variety of grounds. For example, in the social sciences and humanities, types of society are often distinguished, corresponding to

Social groups and social stratification
Key concepts: social groups and social stratification; social structure; signs of social groups; typology of groups, large and small groups; view

Social groups in the structure of society
Social structure (from Latin structura: structure) is a set of elements that make up a social system, as well as connections, relationships, interactions between them.

Typology of social groups
The social structure includes various group communities of people: 1. Social classes and social strata

Types and forms of social stratification
Modern theories of social stratification consider society as a hierarchical structure, at the top of which are privileged strata (layers

National-ethnic and racial differences
Key concepts: ethnic structure, national-ethnic groups; nation, nationality, ethnos; ethnic minorities; pluralistic societies, national

National-ethnic communities of people
The study of socio-economic, socio-political, spiritual-ideological, socio-cultural problems of the development of nations and nationalities is carried out by the sociology of national relations, or it is also called

Nationalism, regionalism, racism
Conviction in the superiority of one's nationality in comparison with others, and therefore confidence in its right to certain privileges at the expense of other ethnic

Ways to resolve national contradictions
The well-known American sociologist T. Adorno in the 50s conducted a study of the causes of the formation of national prejudices. Surveys have shown that respondents

The place of national-ethnic differentiation of society in the social structure of modern society
3. What does ethnosociology study? 4. Define the concepts of "nation" and "nationality". 5. What is "nationality".

Key concepts: social activity; social organizations and social institutions; subjects and objects of social activity; signs of organizations

Subjects and objects of social activity
Interaction environment in order to transform it, it is carried out by subjects of activity that directly influence the surrounding social processes.

Signs and types of social organizations
Social organizations have a number of common features, among which the following main ones can be distinguished: 1) the ordered state of a particular social

Every social organization strives to ensure that its members can satisfy their basic basic needs. This desire results in a certain

Key concepts: family and life; relationship, marriage; forms of marriage; social functions of the family; stages of family development; role relationships in the family; principles of regulation

Concepts of family and marriage
The basis of any family is the marriage union between a man and a woman. This union in modern society, as a rule, is sanctioned by society (the state). However, family is not

Social functions and types of the modern family
The role and place in society of the family as a social institution can be expressed through the functions of the family, which reflect the system of interaction between individuals, families, societies

Role relationships and family structure
The family develops various social roles, there are certain role relationships. Each family member performs specific

Life and lifestyle in modern society
There are three main forms of life most often studied by sociologists: 1. Family life (housekeeping

Healthy lifestyle
The sociocultural activity of an individual in the field of leisure is not only a high interest in holding sociocultural events, but also personal participation in their organization.

Key concepts: education and culture; sociology of education; economic, social, cultural functions of education; levels of education; features of education in ra

Functions and levels of education
The main functions of education can be divided into three main groups: economic, social and cultural. The functions of education can act as

Features of education in other countries
It is desirable to compare the results of the study of the domestic education system with the experience of improving the education system in other countries. For example, in F

Sociological theories of education
There are various theories in sociology. modern education. They often view education in relation to social inequality. For example, Basil Bernstein

The role of spiritual culture in the socialization of the individual
Spiritual culture is a set of historically established, relatively stable beliefs, views, assessments, patterns of people's behavior. In other words, it fixes

Public opinion and the media
Key concepts: public opinion, object and subject of public opinion; functions of public opinion; the subject of the sociology of public opinion; mass media

The concept and structure of public opinion
The term "public opinion" functions as one of the characteristics social interaction for at least eight centuries. Believe

Features of the functioning of public opinion
The influence of public opinion on social processes is carried out through the implementation of its main functions. The functions of public opinion are varied:

Media typology
Mass information is messages aimed at a large audience. They are expressed in various forms: ●

The influence of the media on public opinion
A variety of socio-political forces strive to get the widest possible access to the media. Often "news" for certain political purposes creates

Social process management
Key concepts: social process and social management; levels of social processes; public consciousness and ideology in the social process; structure of social control

Social process as an object of control
There are two main approaches to the concept of a social process: 1) a social process is random (statistically, in

Structure of social management
Social management is a multifaceted, structurally complex type human activity. It can be represented: firstly, as a mechanism, with the help of

Principles and functions of management
Management of society and individual social groups is carried out on the basis of the accumulated practical experience, which is fixed as control principles

Social interaction and social relations
Key concepts: social interaction; social connections and social relations; types and forms of social interaction; social interests and needs; social

Types and forms of social interaction
Interaction, that is, interactive action, can be of various types and be expressed in different forms. 1) interpersonal (nepos

Communication in social interaction
Communication (from Latin communication: exchange, connection, conversation) is the process of transferring information from one social system to another. It's an act

Types of social communication
We can distinguish the main types of communication: 1. Mass communication - extends to society as a whole. It assumes:

Personality as an object and subject of social relations
Key concepts: the concepts of "person", "individual", "personality"; personality as an object and subject of social relations; socialization and individualization of the individual

Personality in the system of social relations
The formation of personality is possible only in contact with social environment. On the one hand, social relations shape personality. Here she acts as an object

Stages of personality socialization
Socialization is the familiarization of the individual with the spiritual values and norms of behavior that have developed in society. Personality in the process of its formation borrows the rules of interaction

Sociological theories of education
One of the most famous authors theories of education was the American philosopher and sociologist George Herbert Mead (1863 - 1931). He identified three stages in the development of the individual

Social status and social roles of the individual
The position of the individual in society, the nature of its interaction with the environment is often associated with the concepts of "social status", "social prestige" and

Labor as a form of social interaction
Key concepts: labor and labor activity; sociology of labor; labor structure; content, forms and nature of labor; division of labor; types and working conditions; incentives to work

Structure and functions of labor
The structure of labor includes the following main elements: 1) personal components of productivity

Social problems of labor activity
An essential characteristic of the labor process is working conditions - a set of technical, organizational, socio-economic and natural factors.

Social conflicts, ways to resolve them
Key concepts: conflicts, types of conflicts, specifics of social conflicts; functions of conflicts, typology of conflicts; conflict formula; main ways to resolve social

Types and forms of social conflicts
Conflicts are divided into types, first of all, depending on the sphere of public life in which they arise: 1) economic

Causes and ways to overcome conflicts
Diverse causes of conflicts, that is, factors that determine the beginning of the conflict and its direction further development can be classified into two groups:

Social change and social contradictions
Social changes in society have various forms of manifestation: ● in the ways of accumulation, storage and transfer of experience of previous generations

Correlation of reforms and revolutions
In accordance with the positions listed above, in relation to society, there are three, it is difficult compatible friend from another position: 1. Kon

Methodological approaches to sociological research
Key concepts: sociological research, its types and forms; research program, functions and structure of the program; problems, object and subject of research; goal, tasks

Types and forms of sociological research
There are two main directions in conducting sociological research: 1. Fundamental research

Structure and functions of the research program
The program of sociological research is a theoretical document that sets out methodological (theoretical), procedural, methodological and organizational management

Justification of the research problem
It is recommended to begin the development of a sociological research program with a clarification of the content of the research problems. Research problem (from Greek probl

Definition of the object and subject of research
The real carrier of contradictions (problem situations) to be studied is the object of study. The object of research is the activities of people and the conditions in which

Formulation of the goals and objectives of the study
Each Scientific research should be purposeful, that is, have a specific goal of the study, which focuses the attention of the sociological group employees for a long time.

Designing research hypotheses
Comprehending the possible (expected) conclusions from the ongoing research, the sociologist constructs research hypotheses that should precede any

Interpretation of basic concepts
A necessary condition for the study of any social object is the interpretation of the basic concepts used in the study. The interpretation of concepts is

Methods and procedures for studying social objects
Key concepts: sociological data, information, method; methods of collecting information; study sample, general and sample population; representative

Determination of information collection methods
Using the most effective methods collecting information is the most important condition for the successful conduct of research in each case. Information collection methods

Definition of information processing methods
After information is collected, it is processed. This stage is quite laborious, requires the use of technical means and special techniques. It largely depends on

Analysis and synthesis of information
After processing the collected data, the most difficult and crucial stage begins: the analysis and generalization of information. Analysis

Planning Social Experiments
In a sociological study, at the final stage, it is always desirable to provide for experiments aimed at verifying the findings. It is useful to experiment with

What is a study sample? Specify the relationship between the concepts of "general population" and "sample population"
9. What are the main types of sampling used in sociological research? 10. What data is needed to form a sampling frame?

Organization of sociological research
Key concepts: research organization; basic organizational principles of work; strategic research plan, types of strategic plan;

Principles and ways of organizing research
The organization of the activities of the research group (its management) is carried out taking into account the most general organizational principles outlined below:

Schedule and stages of the study
The most important element of the strategic plan is calendar plan, in which the deadlines for their implementation, responsible executors, sources and amount of funding are listed important

Staffing of the research process
Training of work performers in order to improve their competence is a prerequisite for preparing for the study. For this, a corresponding

1. The essence of the concept of "social change" and their types.

2. Factors of social change.

3. Social process: essence, types and forms.

1. From the very beginning of its inception, since the time of O. Comte, sociology has been studying man and society not only in statics, but also in dynamics, in the process of social change. Everything changes in society: the economic system and social structure, social situations and roles, religious doctrines, cultural values and norms, etc. All these changes in social life are covered by the concept of "social change".

Social change is a set of diverse changes taking place in society, in its social structure, in social communities, groups, institutions, organizations, in social statuses and roles of individuals and groups, in their interactions with each other and with any structural components society.

Social changes cover all spheres of society, all kinds of diverse changes in it, constituting the core of the social dynamics of society. This social dynamics is reflected not only by this concept, but also by others that are close in meaning to it: the social process, social development, social evolution, social progress, etc.

Typology of social change:

A. The types of changes are diverse and may differ depending on which aspects, fragments and changes of the system are involved in them. Changes can be seen:

1) in the composition(for example, migration from one group to another, the cessation of a social movement, the breakup of a group, etc.);

2) in structure(the emergence of inequality, the formation of friendly ties, the establishment of cooperative or competitive relations);

3) in functions(specialization and differentiation of work, the decline in the economic role of the family, the assumption of a leadership role by universities);

4) within the boundaries(merger of groups or competition between them, democratization of membership conditions, etc.);

5) in the relations of subsystems(the victory of politics over the economy, the management of private life by a totalitarian government, etc.);

6) surrounded(deterioration of the ecological situation, earthquakes, epidemics).

B. Social change is understood as what happens either with the system itself or within it. In the first case, changes can cover all (or at least the main) components of the system, leading to its complete rebirth, when the new system is fundamentally different from the previous one. This perfectly illustrates most social revolutions. In the second case, the changes are of a private, limited nature and do not find a noticeable response in other parts of the system, its integrity is preserved and does not undergo global transformations despite the gradual changes taking place inside. Thus, social change is divided into two types: system-wide And intrasystem.

IN. Depending on the level of changes taking place:

1) social changes at the macro level (international systems, nations, states);

2) social changes at the mesolevel (corporations, political parties, religious movements, large associations);

3) social changes at the micro level (families, employment groups, cliques, groups of friends).

G. In form, evolutionary and revolutionary social changes are distinguished.

evolutionary social changes are gradual, mostly quantitative changes, as a rule, of an irreversible nature, occurring in various social systems and communities - in the economy, politics, culture, education, etc. Evolutionary changes can be socially organized and regulated, in which case they acquire the character of social reforms (for example: reforming the economic system in the country).

revolutionary social change is fundamentally different from evolutionary change. These are changes: a) not of a quantitative, but of a qualitative nature, aimed at radical transformations of the social system; b) are organically connected with the crisis and, as a rule, do not occur without an increase in crisis phenomena; c) cover the main structures and functions of the system being changed; d) most often rely on violence.

D. Depending on the direction of the ongoing changes:

progressive changes - have such an orientation in which the transition is made from the lower level of development of the social system to its highest level or to a new, much more perfect social system that has a more complex organized structure and more effective functions (for example: the transition from the pre-civilized, archaic stage development of mankind towards civilized).

regressive changes - have a direction that is embodied in the transition from higher to lower, in the processes of degradation, stagnation, decline, return to obsolete social structures and functions (for example: the establishment of the fascist regime in Germany in the 30s of the twentieth century).

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that progress is a value category, progress is always correlated with values. The same changes can be qualified depending on the alleged value preferences, which are completely different for different individuals, groups, classes, nations. Therefore, we must constantly ask ourselves: progress for whom and in what respect? If absolute progress does not exist, then there is always a need for a scale of values taken as the measure, or criterion, of progress.

The degree of relativity of values can be different. There are so-called universal values, also called absolute, for example, human life, knowledge. Such facts as the increase in human life expectancy, the destruction of many dangerous epidemics, the ability to cross the ocean not in three months, but in six hours - these are undoubted indicators of progress in society.

However, there are areas where the choice of progress criteria is highly context dependent. So, for example, in the 19th century and for most of the 20th century, industrialization, urbanization, modernization were considered synonymous with progress, and only recently it was discovered that they can have too far-reaching consequences (crowded cities, traffic jams on freeways, overproduction of goods, etc.). ) and that good things can have very unpleasant side effects (diffusion of resources, pollution and destruction of the environment, new diseases). In addition, it has become clear that progress in one area is often only possible at the expense of regression in another. Thus, the processes of democratization, the development of entrepreneurship and the free market that are currently taking place in post-communist countries are accompanied by an increase in unemployment and poverty, a weakening of social discipline, an increase in the level of crime and delinquency, and local conflicts.

By progress, we mean such changes that steadily bring the system closer to either a more preferable, better state, or to the ideal state of the society described in numerous social utopias. Over a long period intellectual history various thinkers have proposed various criteria as a measure of progress, among which:

1) salvation by religion as spiritual and moral progress;

2) knowledge as the progress of knowledge leading to "positive" science;

3) negative freedom (i.e. freedom from restrictions and barriers in order to have the opportunity for individual self-expression and self-realization) and positive freedom (i.e. freedom to influence one’s own society and its formation);

4) emancipation as an expansion of the field of activity of members of society, measured by the growth of people's involvement in public life and the disappearance of inequality;

5) technical development as the ability to dominate nature;

6) justice and equality, determined by humanely organized production and equal distribution;

7) abundance as a realization of opportunities for access to benefits;

8) the ability to choose and equal life opportunities.

History shows that no society stands still: it either progresses or regresses. If the sum of the positive consequences of large-scale changes in society exceeds the sum of the negative ones, then we speak of social progress. Progress is both local and global.

Regression is a local process that covers individual societies and short periods of time, it represents the predominance of negative changes over positive ones.

2. The emergence of social change is explained by the interaction of a number of factors:

physical environment. If the environment changes for some reason, its inhabitants, who have developed a certain type of adaptation to it, must respond to these changes with appropriate institutional changes, the development of new forms of social organization and new technical inventions. Drought, floods, epidemics, earthquakes and other natural forces force people to make changes in their lifestyles. In addition, social changes are caused by changes in the physical environment as a result of the negative impact of a person on it. For example, hazardous waste disposal, air and water pollution, acid rain, depletion natural resources, erosion of the top fertile soil layer - all this is the result of damage caused by people to the ecosystem. Thus, people are connected to their environment in a chain of complex mutual changes.

Population. Changes in the size, structure and distribution of the population affect the culture and social structure of society. For example, the "aging" of society creates serious problems with jobs.

Conflicts. Conflict is a form of interaction between people in the struggle for resources or values. The interests of individuals and groups contradict each other, their goals are incompatible. Most often, the end result of conflicts is expressed in the formation of a qualitatively new integral structure. Old social order constantly eroding and giving way to a new one.

Innovation. A discovery is a shared perception by many people of an aspect of reality previously unknown; this is a new achievement in progress scientific knowledge nature and society. It always adds something new to the culture. A discovery turns into a factor of social change only when it can be used, when it has become part of society or human relations. So, the ancient Greeks 100 years before our era had an idea about the energy of steam. A small steam engine was even built in Alexandria for recreation, but the power of steam did not produce social change until after two thousand years this discovery was seriously used by people.

An invention is a new combination or new use of already existing knowledge. It was in this way that the inventor J. Selden in 1895, combining the engine, fuel tank, belt drive and wheels, invented the car. Inventions are divided into two types: material (telephone, airplane) and social (alphabet, electoral democracy).

Innovation - both discoveries and inventions - is a cumulative sequence of growing knowledge passed down from generation to generation, plus a number of new elements.

Diffusion is the process in which cultural characteristics spread from one social system to another. Diffusion operates both within societies and between them. It is possible only in those societies that come into close contact with each other. Diffusion is a selective action: a group accepts some cultural traits and rejects others.

3. As a rule, disparate actions can rarely lead to significant social and cultural changes. Significant social changes occur in the process of joint actions of people.

A social process is a set of unidirectional and repetitive social actions that can be distinguished from many other social actions.

Social changes represent one of the important aspects of the social process, but do not cover it entirely, since a significant place in the social process belongs to the simple reproduction of structures, functions, norms, and standards of behavior that already existed before. Thus, social changes represent a very important, most dynamic part of social processes.

From the whole variety of social processes, one can single out processes that have common features, the totality of which allowed the sociologists R. Park and E. Burgess to create a classification of the main social processes:

1) cooperation (co- together , operari - work ) - the interaction of individuals or groups that are in the process of joint activities, united by a common goal or the solution of a specific problem. The basis of cooperation is mutual benefit;

2) competition (rivalry)- it is a struggle between individuals, groups or societies for the mastery of values, the stocks of which are limited and unequally distributed among individuals or groups. Competitive relationships thrive in conditions of abundance.

Competition can be personal (for example, when two leaders compete for influence in an organization) or be impersonal (for example, an entrepreneur competes for markets without knowing his competitors personally). Both personal and impersonal competition are usually carried out in accordance with certain rules that focus on reaching and outperforming rivals, rather than eliminating them.

Competition has its “pluses” (competition is a means that stimulates each individual to the greatest achievements, i.e., increasing motivation for activity) and “minuses” (for example, if there are competing groups in an organization, this can negatively affect on the effectiveness of such an organization);

3) adaptation- acceptance by an individual or group of cultural norms, values and standards of action new environment when the norms and values learned in the old environment do not lead to the satisfaction of needs, do not create acceptable behavior. In other words, adaptation is the formation of a type of behavior suitable for life in changing environmental conditions. Depending on the assessment by the individual of changes in the external environment and the significance of these changes, adaptation processes can be short-term or long-term.

Adaptation is a complex process in which a number of features can be distinguished, these are:

Submission is a prerequisite for the adjustment process, because any resistance greatly complicates the entry of the individual into a new structure, and the conflict makes this entry or adaptation impossible. Submission to new norms, rules, customs may be conscious or unconscious, but in the life of any individual it occurs more often than disobedience and rejection of new norms;

Compromise is a form of accommodation that means that an individual or group agrees to changing conditions and culture by partially or completely accepting new goals and ways to achieve them. Each individual usually tries to reach an agreement, taking into account his own strengths and what forces the changing environment has in a particular situation. Compromise is a balance, a temporary agreement; as soon as the situation changes, a new compromise has to be found;

Tolerance is a necessary condition for the successful course of the adaptation process, it is tolerance towards a new situation, new samples of culture and new values (for example, an emigrant leaving for another country must be tolerant of samples of a culture alien to him, try to understand them);

4) conflict- an attempt to achieve a reward by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or even destroying an opponent seeking to achieve the same reward. Conflict differs from competition in its clear direction, the presence of incidents, and the tough conduct of the struggle. ;

5) assimilation is a process of mutual cultural penetration, through which individuals and groups come to a common culture shared by all participants in the process. It is always a two-way process in which each group has the opportunity to infiltrate its culture into other groups in proportion to its size, prestige and other factors. Assimilation can significantly weaken and extinguish group conflicts, mixing groups into one large group with a homogeneous culture;

7) amalgamation- biological mixing of two or more ethnic groups or peoples, after which they become one group or people.

There are many things going on in the world around changes. Some of them are committed constantly and can be recorded at any time. To do this, you need to choose a certain period of time and track which features of the object disappear and which appear. Changes may relate to the position of the object in space, its configuration, temperature, volume, etc., i.e. those properties that do not remain constant. Summarizing all the changes, we can isolate character traits that distinguish this object from others. Thus, the category "change" refers to the process of movement and interaction of objects and phenomena, the transition from one state to another, the emergence of new properties, functions and relationships.

A special type of change is development. If change characterizes any phenomenon of reality and is universal, then development is associated with the renewal of an object, its transformation into something new, and development is not a reversible process. For example, the change "water - steam - water" is not considered development, just as quantitative changes or destruction of an object and the cessation of its existence are not considered to be.

Development always implies qualitative changes occurring in relatively large time intervals. Examples are the evolution of life on Earth, the historical development of mankind, scientific and technological progress, etc.

Society development is a process of progressive change that occurs every this moment at every point of the human hostel . In sociology, the concepts of "social development" and "social change" are used to characterize the movement of society. The first of them characterizes a certain type of social change that is directed towards improvement, complication and perfection. But there are many other changes. For example, the emergence, formation, growth, decline, disappearance, transition period. These changes are neither positive nor negative. The concept of "social change" covers wide circle social change, regardless of its direction.

Thus, the concept "social change" denotes various changes occurring over time in social communities, groups, institutions, organizations, in their relationships with each other, as well as with individuals. Such changes can occur at the level of interpersonal relations (for example, changes in the structure and functions of the family), at the level of organizations and institutions (education, science are constantly subject to changes both in terms of their content and in terms of their organization), at the level of small and large social groups.

There are four type of social change :

1) structural changes regarding the structures of various
social formations(for example, families, any other community, society as a whole);

2) changes affecting social processes (relationships of solidarity, tension, conflict, equality and subordination, etc.);

3) functional social changes concerning the functions of various social systems (in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993, there were changes in the functions of the legislative and executive authorities);

4) motivational social changes (recently
for significant masses of the population, the motives of personal money earnings, profits come to the fore, which affects their behavior, thinking, consciousness).

All these changes are closely related. Changes in one kind inevitably entail changes in other kinds.

The study of development is dialectics . This concept originated in Ancient Greece, where the ability to argue, argue, convince, proving one's case was highly valued. Dialectics was understood as the art of dispute, dialogue, discussion, during which the participants put forward alternative points of view. In the course of the dispute, one-sidedness is overcome, and a correct understanding of the phenomena under discussion is developed. The well-known expression “truth is born in a dispute” is quite applicable to the discussions of philosophers of antiquity.

Ancient dialectics represented the world as constantly moving, changing, and all phenomena as interconnected. But at the same time, they did not single out the category of development as the emergence of something new. In ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of the great cycle dominated, according to which everything in the world is subject to cyclic recurrent changes and, like the change of seasons, everything eventually returns “to its full circle”.

The concept of development as a process of qualitative changes appeared in medieval Christian philosophy. Augustine the Blessed compared history with human life passing through the stages of childhood, youth, maturity and old age. The beginning of history was compared with the birth of a person, and its end (the Last Judgment) - with death. This concept overcame the notion of cyclical changes, introduced the concept of progressive movement and the uniqueness of events.

In the era of bourgeois revolutions, the idea arose historical development , put forward by the famous French enlighteners Voltaire and Rousseau. It was developed by Kant, who raised the question of the development of morality and social development person.

The holistic concept of development was developed by Hegel. He found diverse changes in nature, but he saw true development in the history of society and, above all, in its spiritual culture. Hegel identified the main principles of dialectics : universal connection of phenomena, unity of opposites, development through negation.

Dialectical opposites are inextricably linked, inconceivable without each other. Thus, content is impossible without form, a part is impossible without a whole, a consequence is impossible without a cause, and so on. In a number of cases, opposites converge and even pass into each other, for example, illness and health, material and spiritual, quantity and quality. Thus, the law of the unity and struggle of opposites establishes that internal contradictions are the source of development.

Dialectics pays special attention to the relationship between quantitative and qualitative changes. Any object has a quality that distinguishes it from other objects, and quantitative characteristics of its volume, weight, etc. Quantitative changes can accumulate gradually and not affect the quality of the item. But at a certain stage, a change in quantitative characteristics leads to a change in quality. Thus, an increase in pressure in a steam boiler can lead to an explosion, the constant implementation of reforms that are unpopular among the people causes discontent, the accumulation of knowledge in any field of science leads to new discoveries, etc.

The development of society is progressive, passing through certain stages. Each subsequent stage, as it were, denies the previous one. As development proceeds, a new quality appears, a new negation occurs, which in science is called negation of negation. However, negation cannot be considered the destruction of the old. Along with more complex phenomena, there are always simpler ones. On the other hand, the new, highly developed, emerging from the old, retains everything valuable that was in it.

Hegel's concept is based on reality, generalizes a huge historical material. However, Hegel put the spiritual processes of social life in the first place, believing that the history of peoples is the embodiment of the development of ideas.

Using Hegel's concept, Marx created the materialist dialectic, which is based on the idea of development not from the spiritual, but from the material. Marx considered the basis of development to be the improvement of the instruments of labor (productive forces), which entails a change public relations. Development was considered by Marx, and then by Lenin, as a single natural process, the course of which is carried out not in a straight line, but in a spiral. On a new turn, the passed steps are repeated, but at a higher quality level. Forward movement occurs spasmodically, sometimes catastrophically. The transition of quantity into quality, internal contradictions, the clash of various forces and tendencies give impetus to development.

However, the process of development cannot be understood as a rigorous movement from the lower to the higher. Different peoples on Earth differ in their development from each other. Some nations developed faster, some slower. In the development of some, gradual changes prevailed, while in the development of others they were of a spasmodic nature. Depending on this, allocate evolutionary And revolutionary development.

Evolution are gradual, slow quantitative changes that eventually lead to a transition to a qualitatively different state. The evolution of life on Earth is the most a prime example such changes. In the development of society, evolutionary changes manifested themselves in the improvement of tools, the emergence of new, more complex forms of human interaction in different areas their lives.

Revolution- it's in the highest degree radical changes involving a radical breakdown of pre-existing relations, which are universal in nature and rely, in some cases, on violence. The revolution is in leaps and bounds.

Depending on the duration of the revolution, there are short-term And long-term. The former include social revolutions - radical qualitative changes in the entire social life, affecting the foundations of the social system. Such were the bourgeois revolutions in England (XVII century) and France (XVIII century), the socialist revolution in Russia (1917). Long-term revolutions are of global importance, affect the process of development different peoples. The first such revolution was neolithic revolution . It lasted for several thousand years and led to the transition of mankind from an appropriating economy to a producing economy, i.e. from hunting and gathering to cattle breeding and agriculture. The most important process that took place in many countries of the world in the 18th-19th centuries was industrial revolution , as a result of which there was a transition from manual labor to machine labor, mechanization of production was carried out, which made it possible to significantly increase the volume of output at lower labor costs.

In the description of the development process in relation to the economy, extensive and intensive development paths are often distinguished. extensive path associated with an increase in production by attracting new sources of raw materials, labor resources, increased exploitation work force, expansion of sown areas in agriculture. intensive way associated with the use of new production methods based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress. The extensive development path is not endless. At a certain stage, the limit of its capabilities comes, and development comes to a standstill. The intensive path of development, on the contrary, involves the search for a new one, which is actively used in practice, society is moving forward at a faster pace.

The development of society is a complex process that continues uninterruptedly throughout the history of human existence. It began from the moment of the separation of man from the animal world and is unlikely to end in the foreseeable future. The process of development of society can be interrupted only with the death of mankind. If man himself does not create the conditions for self-destruction in the form of a nuclear war or an ecological catastrophe, the limits of human development can only be associated with the end of existence. solar system. But it is likely that by that time science will reach a new qualitative level and a person will be able to move in outer space. The possibility of settling other planets, star systems, galaxies can remove the question of the limit of the development of society.

Questions and tasks

1. What is meant by the category "change"? What types of changes can you name?

2. How is development different from other types of change?

3. What types of social change do you know?

4. What is dialectics? When and where did it originate?

5. How did ideas about the development of the history of philosophy change?

6. What are the laws of dialectics? Give examples that support them.

7. What is the difference between evolution and revolution? How did these processes manifest themselves in the life of individual peoples, of all mankind?

8. Give examples of extensive and intensive development paths. Why can't they exist one without the other?

9. Read the statement by N.A. Berdyaev:

“History cannot make sense if it never ends, if there is no end; the meaning of history is the movement towards the end, towards completion, towards the end. Religious consciousness sees in history a tragedy that has a beginning and will have an end. IN historical tragedy there are a number of acts, and in them the final catastrophe is brewing, an all-solving catastrophe...”.

What does he see as the meaning of history? How are his ideas related to the problem of social development?

10. Conduct a discussion on the topic “Is there a limit to the development of mankind?”

Before considering the mechanism for changing social relations, it is necessary to briefly address the question of the structure of social relations - cells public relations. At a minimum, it consists of two subjects, potential or real interaction between them, as well as an object to which their interests are directed (Fig. 8). If we reveal the content of the interaction between the subjects, then it will be reduced to the statuses (positions) of the subjects relative to each other and/or the actions of one or both of them, aimed at satisfying the interest. Action (behavior) is divided into elements of an objective (external, physical) and subjective (internal, psychological) character.

Rice. 8.

Take, for example, labor relations in a market economy. The subjects are an employee and an entrepreneur. The interaction between them is the rights and obligations of each relating to the labor process, wages, social guarantees, etc. The object of interest is labor and its equivalent (wage). All these elements are very significant for these two individuals, and they acquire even greater significance on a social scale when we are talking not about two subjects, but about an "army of hired workers" and an "army of entrepreneurs".

Here it is time to turn to Marx's Capital, but we will confine ourselves to the more modest task of analyzing the mechanisms of the emerging conflict.

In what part of this structure can its deformation begin? For what reason? These questions cannot be answered unambiguously. In essence, a change in the relationship between two subjects can begin with any element: goals, motives of behavior, external actions, interests, as well as from incidental circumstances (such as, for example, the environment for the interaction of subjects, the actions of third forces). It is all the more difficult to determine in theoretical reasoning the initial moment of deformation of social relations as a mass, social phenomenon, especially considering that in different spheres of life these changes can have different causes.

So, labor relations can be violated due to failure by one of the subjects of their duties. A common cause of labor conflicts in our time are factors external to production: rising prices, poor living conditions, national tension, etc. All of them can cause changes in requirements for employers, lead to strikes and other actions. Instead of the harmonious labor relations of past years, although they concealed deep social problems, we are now dealing with direct conflicts at work, fraught with further economic collapse.

And yet, the following can be said about the mechanism of deformation of social relations in general. Firstly, social relations are more stable than social values, and in order to change them, much more weighty objective reasons are needed. This explains the relative stability of social (class, national, group, etc.) ties in society compared, for example, with social preferences, moods, fashion, etc.

Secondly, changes in social relations, as we shall see later, most often follow changes in other elements of social life. Strikes, interethnic conflicts, armed clashes do not start, but complete the process of social tension in the city, region, region. And the very intensity of changes in social relations reflects the nature and depth of deformations in the elements discussed above: value orientations, institutions, norms. One can apparently say that social relations are deformed the more, the more seriously distorted value orientations in certain segments of the population, the less effective are the social norms and institutions operating in the sphere of human relations.

Analysis of changes in social relations in recent years has been carried out by sociologists repeatedly. The most obvious changes are in interethnic relations. It is known that during periods of crisis, some interethnic processes take on a social connotation. This is what began to characterize the state of affairs in a number of regions of the country. The "parade of sovereignties" led to the opposition of local and central leadership, people of different nationalities and religions, to the incitement of ethnic discord and conflicts. Needless to say, the thesis about "friendship of the peoples of the USSR" turned out to be untenable; the principles of internationalism were replaced by clear manifestations of nationalism and great-power chauvinism.

At the same time, socio-psychological studies have shown that many negative processes and manifestations in the sphere of interethnic relations pretty superficial. According to the results of the elections to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR in February 1990 and the people's deputies of the USSR in 1989, supporters of the "national-patriotic bloc" gained an average of 2-4% of the votes. "Sovereign" types of mass consciousness, according to experts, have an impact on about 20% of the population of Russia. According to the same data, about 14% of respondents expressed a positive attitude towards the “Memory” society. When it comes to everyday, everyday connections and relationships of people at the interpersonal level, nationalistic manifestations recede into the background, traditional feelings of neighborhood, fellowship, friendship, acquaintance, camaraderie take over. This suggests that internationalism, as a feature of the psychology of the bulk of the population, has not been lost, but only clogged, deformed.

If we return to the list of types of social relations given in the previous paragraph, then in general we can say that during deformations there is a transition from relations of cooperation to conflicts, confrontation, struggle. Ultimately, there is a rupture of social relations, their atomization. And the collapse of social ties is already a sure sign of a deep crisis in society.

See: Deepening social disintegration in 1990 ... S. 33 et seq.

Philosophers distinguish two main paths of progressive development human society- evolution and revolution.

Evolution is slow, gradual quantitative change existing social relations, economic and socio-political system, leading, ultimately, to their qualitative transformation.

The evolutionary development of society can be carried out consciously. Then they take the form of social reforms.

Reform- this is the transformation of any side of public life or public institutions while maintaining the foundations of the existing social order, carried out by the state.

The reforms are aimed at improving various spheres of public life, at improving the economic, social, political situation of the population and expanding opportunities to meet their basic needs.

Directions of reforms in modern Russia:

^ social - pension reform, implementation of national projects: "Health of the nation", "Maternity capital", "Housing for a young family", "Education", etc.;

^ political - changes in the political sphere of public life, in the Constitution, in the electoral system, the fight against corruption, etc.;

^ economic - privatization, measures to overcome the financial crisis, monetary reforms;

^ in the spiritual sphere - education reform, an attempt to create national idea integrating Russians, the revival of historical traditions, the promotion of citizenship, patriotism, etc.

The degree of reformist transformations can be very significant, up to changes in the social system or the type of economic system: the reforms of Peter I, the reforms in Russia in the early 90s. 20th century

Evolution can be carried out spontaneously, for example, as a result of the division of labor, there was a division of duties and roles between people, this gave rise to a process of differentiation in society.

Another example is the constant process of raising the average standard of living of the world's population. In this case, innovation plays a significant role.

Innovation- an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in certain conditions.

Thus, the mechanism of evolution follows from the very nature of human society - the need for self-realization and improvement of society, improving the quality of life.

However, social evolution, under certain circumstances, sometimes encounters such obstacles that it is impossible to remove with the help of reforms, and then society takes the path of social revolution.

Revolution- a radical, qualitative change in all or most aspects of public life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system.

Signs of a revolution:

these are radical changes, as a result of which there is a radical breakdown of the social object;
are of a general, fundamental nature;
usually rely on violence;
organized consciously;
cause unusually strong emotions and mass activity.

Revolution- the seizure by violent methods of state power by the leaders of mass movements and its subsequent use for large-scale reform of all spheres of public life.

G. Hegel did not consider the revolution a violation of the normal course of history. On the contrary, a revolution is a natural interruption in the continuity historical process, a leap in the development of society. But the revolution, in his opinion, plays a predominantly destructive role in history, freeing society from the barriers that hinder its free development. Positive creativity is realized only through gradual development.

The theory of revolution has been developed most thoroughly in Marxism. Karl Marx argues that the social revolution sweeps away all obstacles from the path of historical progress and opens up new horizons for it. It means a giant leap in social development, the transition to new, more progressive forms of social life. Therefore, revolutions are the "locomotives of history."

The economic basis of the social revolution is the conflict between the productive forces and production relations.

Opponents of Marxism actively developed the idea of the inefficiency of social revolutions. Revolutions, in their opinion, can turn into their opposite and, instead of liberation, bring new forms of violence and oppression to the peoples.

According to P. Sorokin, the revolution is the worst way to improve the material and spiritual conditions of life of the masses, because it does not increase, but reduces all basic freedoms, does not improve, but rather worsens the economic and cultural situation of the working class. The philosopher prefers the evolutionary path of development of society.

social revolution is an extreme form of resolving social contradictions. It does not arise at the will or arbitrariness of individuals or parties, but is a necessary consequence of the previous development of society and becomes historically necessary only in the presence of certain objective conditions and circumstances. Now only extreme extremists consider revolution as the only means of transforming society. Modern Marxists have abandoned the revolutionary methods of struggle for power and rely mainly on democratic and parliamentary forms.

A revolution can be viewed as a radical transformation in any area of human activity, entailing a radical, fundamental, deep, qualitative change, a leap in the development of society, nature or knowledge, associated with an open break with the previous state.

There are revolutions:

neolithic(transition from a mining to a producing economy, i.e., the birth of agriculture and cattle breeding);
industrial(transition from manual labor to machine labor, from manufactory to factory);
cultural(fundamental changes in the spiritual life of society, transformation and change basic values dominant way of life and way of life);
"green"(the process of introducing the achievements of scientific and technological progress in agriculture, ways, methods and means of a sharp increase in crop productivity, its prerequisite

was introduced in the mid-1950s. new hybrid high-yielding varieties of food crops; demographic (fundamental changes in the reproduction of the population in the process of its historical development); scientific (a radical change in the process and content of scientific knowledge, associated with the transition to new theoretical and methodological premises, to a new system of fundamental concepts and methods, to a new scientific picture world, as well as with qualitative transformations of material means of observation and experimentation, with new ways of evaluating and interpreting empirical data, with new ideals of explanation, validity and organization of knowledge).

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