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To which European people are Russians closer genetically. Genetics of Russian Ukrainians, Belarusians and Tatars, Slavs and Caucasians, Jews, Finns and other populations

The Pentagon recognized experiments with biomaterials of Russian citizens

The apocalyptic assumption about the possible development of biological weapons by the Americans has received strong confirmation. The Pentagon acknowledged the fact of collecting biomaterials from Russian citizens.

According to Pentagon spokesman Bo Downey, the US Air Force 59th Air Medical Group's Center for Molecular Research is conducting musculoskeletal studies to identify various biomarkers associated with trauma. Samples of Russian origin are required only because the first batch was from Russia, and now an identical one is needed for control.

Recall that the US Air Force intends to purchase 12 samples of the RNA molecule and 27 samples of the synovial (articular) fluid of the Russians. The announcement was posted on the US Government Procurement Portal. At the same time, the contract emphasizes that among all residents of Russia, the customer is only interested in Europeans, and immigrants, for example, from Ukraine will not be considered.

The issue of collecting biomaterials from Russians began to be discussed in society after a public statement about this by Vladimir Putin. According to him, biomaterials are collected "for different ethnic groups and people living in different geographic points Russian Federation". “The question is, why are they doing this?” the president asked rhetorically at a meeting with human rights activists.

Later, Dmitry Peskov explained that it was about information received through the special services.

Putin's words provoked caustic ridicule from part of Russian society. “The ancient Incas were also afraid of such dirty tricks, so the supreme ruler even had special maids, whose task was to eat hair, spit, nail clippings and other biomaterial left over from the Great, in order to prevent garbage from falling into unkind hands,” teacher Andrey is quoted by the media Nikulin.

Nevertheless, the country is preparing to counteract the new threat at the legislative level. It is expected that in December the law on the protection of biomaterials will be submitted to the State Duma. “Today we have many laboratories that conduct clinical research, these are foreign laboratories, for example, Invitro. We let them into the most intimate,” Gennady Onishchenko, First Deputy Head of the State Duma Committee on Education and Science, explained the problem.

In "Invitro" they denied their involvement in the export of biomaterials. In turn, the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences "SP" reported that this institution was involved in the collection of biomaterials. “The scientific director of our institute, academician Nikolai Yankovsky, just organized and headed the program for the collection of biomaterials,” said Ilya Zakharov-Gezekhus, an employee of the institute. It was not possible to promptly contact Yankovsky "SP" himself.

Senior Researcher laboratory of genetics of the Institute of Developmental Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences Alexey Kulikov is inclined to justify his American colleagues.

You have to understand what the Americans were doing. They looked at how genes work in patients with affected musculoskeletal system and looked at the composition of the synovial fluid. They initially purchased biomaterials somewhere in Eastern Europe from sick representatives of the Slavic nation, and therefore they also need control samples of people who are fine with the musculoskeletal system from representatives of the Slavic nation: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, etc.

"SP": - Well, how? The tender explicitly states that biomaterials from Ukraine will not be considered. They need the Russians...

It still has nothing to do with any intentions. Genetic weapons are all nonsense. This is unrealistic, because people in the world are too polymorphic - very diverse. It's hard to come up with something that works for some and doesn't work for others. I think here we are talking just about the conditions of the experiment. Eat scientific experience and there is control. Control materials must be from the same region.

"SP": - Everything is so, if these "scientific studies" were not carried out by the military, the Pentagon ...

Scientific research can also be carried out by the military. We also have specific medical tasks that are solved by representatives of law enforcement agencies. Perhaps we are talking about the low mobility of the pilots. They must for a long time sit. Therefore, it is fundamentally important that there are no problems with the musculoskeletal system. Therefore, Americans are interested in these diseases and what specific genes are responsible for this.

In turn, the head of the laboratory of the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Sergey Kiselev, believes that it is too risky to create a genetic weapon and it is easier to kill people. traditional methods.

Biomaterials from Russia have been transferred and are being transferred. At least, as Onishchenko said, within the framework of clinical trials. Because over the past 25 years, dozens of foreign companies have been conducting clinical drug trials in Russia. Biomaterials are needed to understand how drugs work.

Of course, any such sample can be used both for the above purposes and for some others. Because it still remains a national biological sample. The main thing is how the information obtained using the sample will subsequently be used. Genetic information can be used for a variety of purposes, including for personal gain.

"SP": - What?

Today's technologies allow us to determine the genome of each person in detail. That is, by taking a DNA sample from a spoon in the dining room of the CIA building, you can determine whether the intelligence officer really comes from the state of Minnesota, as he wrote when applying for a job, or he is from Eastern Siberia. That is, you can very accurately tie a person to a place.

But for this you need to first create genetic map territories. I think that the interested intelligence services of many countries of the world have been making such maps of territories for a long time. To be able to identify people in different circumstances.

For example, people of dangerous professions. If one of them is torn to pieces, then it is possible, using a genetic map, to establish who he is, where he came from and pay tribute to him. That is, within the country. But if this information gets into third parties, it can be used in their interests.

"SP": - V this case we are interested in the probability of creating a genetic, ethnic weapon ...

In my opinion, creating such a weapon is pointless. Firstly, in order to kill a person, it is necessary to influence vital functions such as respiration, blood circulation, etc. There are few of them, and they are the same for all people. Finding an ethnically important vital function is hardly possible.

And, secondly, who are the Americans? They do not have a titular nation. Everyone mixed up there, including Russians, Chinese, Anglo-Saxons. Therefore, if a weapon is created against the Russians, some of the Americans will fall under its action, since they are either Russians or their descendants.

Therefore, the greater the spread of people around the planet, the mixing of genomes, the less likely it will be to create a genetic weapon. It's unprofitable. It is easier, cheaper and more efficient to “soak” in another way.

"SP": - Nevertheless, the Pentagon conducts such studies, and today its representative directly admitted this ...

I looked at the terms of the tender. This air force base requested RNA samples. But RNA is subgenetic material. It is an intermediary between the human genome and the functional state of the cell. RNA reflects the specialization of each individual cell at one time or another. That is, the genome - DNA in each cell of the body is always the same. And the RNA in each cell is different, because it is a portrait of how the genome works every minute. Therefore, an RNA sample taken from the big toe will be different from RNA from any other organ. The Americans did not indicate where exactly they need the RNA.

The second thing they asked for was synovial fluid from the joint capsule. Moreover, in the terms of the tender, it was stipulated that the liquid could be taken from another donor, not from the one from whom the RNA was taken. That is, the Americans do not need any connection between RNA and synovial fluid. It looks like they took samples for different studies, not related to each other.

"SP": - However, this did not increase clarity ...

Maybe they laundered money there. Or students learned how to write tenders.

But the former member of the UN Commission on Biological Weapons, Igor Nikulin, has no doubts about the aggressive plans of the Pentagon.

Of course, this is an attempt by the Americans to conduct research for military purposes. The Pentagon is not a charitable or humanitarian organization designed to benefit mankind. Rather, on the contrary. Here it is possible to use viruses that will act selectively.

Such viruses still exist today. For example, Ebola, Lassa, Marburg. The hemorrhagic fevers that they cause act mainly on the Negroid race, bird flu - on the Mongoloid, SARS on the Indo-Europeans.

"SP": - In the conditions of the competition, for some reason, an exception is made for Ukraine ...

In Ukraine, the American program was carried out 5-7 years ago. And now they have only epidemics. Either measles, or rubella, or tuberculosis, or tetanus, or cholera, etc. And then the Americans offer them vaccines against this. Very comfortably.

Over the past ten years, the United States has spent tens of billions of dollars, set up more than four hundred laboratories around the world, in which new types of biological weapons and vaccines are being developed. About forty laboratories are located in countries former USSR. These are Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Such is the controlled chaos.

"SP": - But our Russian geneticists are skeptical about the likely development of weapons aimed at one or another ethnic group ...

What else is left for them to do? Many of them are on grants. If I were on a grant, I would also be silent. But, since the Americans will not offer me any grants, I can speak freely on these topics.

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Partner news: By nature, the genetic code of all people is arranged in such a way that each has 23 pairs of chromosomes, which store all the hereditary information inherited from both parents.

The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes about half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal, which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely transmitted from father to son like a relay baton. I will clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.

In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain regions of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations. masculine.

It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genus. There are only about 400 loci on the Y chromosome, but only about a hundred are used for comparative haplotype analysis and genera reconstruction.

In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, overall picture which is unique to each individual. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus it will be seen on the common tree that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for the haplotype group.

The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of bygone days, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

peoples	Human
Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs.
Russians(north)	395	34	6	10	8	35	2		1
Russians(center)	388	52	8	5	10	16	4		1
Russians(south)	424	50	4	4	16	10	5		3
Russians (All Great Russians)	1207	47	7	5	12	20	4	3	2
Belarusians	574	52	10	3	16	10	3	Russians, Slavs, Indo-Europeans and haplogroups R1a, R1b, N1c, I1 and I2 In ancient times, about 8-9 thousand years ago, there was a linguistic group that laid the foundation for the Indo-European family of languages (in initial stage most likely these are haplogroups R1a and R1b). The Indo-European family includes such linguistic groups as Indo-Iranians (South Asia), Slavs and Balts ( Eastern Europe), Celts (Western Europe), Germans (Central, Northern Europe). Perhaps they also had common genetic ancestors, who about 7 thousand years ago, as a result of migrations, ended up in different parts of Eurasia, some went south and east (R1a-Z93), laying the foundation for the Indo-Iranian peoples and languages (largely taking part in the ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples), and part remained on the territory of Europe and laid the foundation for the formation of many European peoples (R1b-L51), including the Slavs and Russians in particular (R1a-Z283, R1b-L51). At different stages of formation, already in antiquity there were intersections of migration flows, which caused the presence of a large number of haplogroups in all European ethnic groups. The Slavic languages emerged from the once unified group of Balto-Slavic languages (presumably the archaeological culture of the late Corded Ware). According to the calculations of the linguist Starostin, this happened about 3.3 millennia ago. Period from the 5th century BC to the 4th-5th century AD can be considered conditionally Proto-Slavic, tk. The Balts and Slavs had already split up, but there were no Slavs themselves yet, they will appear a little later, in the 4th-6th centuries AD. At the initial stage of the formation of the Slavs, probably about 80% were haplogroups R1a-Z280 and I2a-M423. At the initial stage of the formation of the Balts, probably about 80% were haplogroups N1c-L1025 and R1a-Z92. The influence and intersection of the migrations of the Balts and Slavs was from the very beginning, because in many respects this division is arbitrary, and in general reflects only the main trend, without details. The Iranian languages are Indo-European, and their dating is as follows - the most ancient, from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 4th century BC, the middle one - from the 4th century BC. to the 9th century AD, and a new one - from the 9th century AD. Until now. That is, the most ancient Iranian languages appear after the departure of part of the tribes who spoke Indo-European languages from Central Asia to India and Iran. Their main haplogroups were probably R1a-Z93, J2a, G2a3. The Western Iranian group of languages appeared later, around the 5th century BC. Thus, the Indo-Aryans, Celts, Germans and Slavs in academic science became Indo-Europeans, this term is the most adequate for such a vast and diverse group. This is absolutely correct. In the genetic aspect, the heterogeneity of the Indo-Europeans is striking both in Y-haplogroups and in autosomes. The Indo-Iranians are characterized to a greater extent by the Western Asian genetic influence of BMAC. According to the Indian Vedas, it was the Indo-Aryans who came to India (South Asia) from the north (from Central Asia), and it was their hymns and legends that formed the basis of the Indian Vedas. And, continuing further, let's touch on linguistics, because this Russian language (and its related Baltic languages, for example, Lithuanian as part of the once existing Balto-Slavic linguistic community) is relatively close to Sanskrit along with Celtic, Germanic and other languages of the large Indo-European family . But in the genetic plan, the Indo-Aryans were already to a greater extent Western Asians, as they approached India, the Vedoid influence also intensified. So it became clear that haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy, this is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (because naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups in their environment), part haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain, they became part of the Finno-Ugric peoples, for example, the Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes (for haplogroup R1a1 this is a subclade of Z93) during migrations they brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran about 3500 years ago, that is, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In India, by the labors of the great Panini, it was converted into Sanskrit in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and in Persia-Iran, the Aryan languages became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. These data are confirmed: DNA genealogy and linguistics are correlated here. Large part haplogroups R1a1-Z93 even in ancient times, they joined the Turkic ethnic groups and today mark the migration of the Turks in many ways, which is not surprising in view of antiquity haplogroup R1a1 while the representatives haplogroups R1a1-Z280 were part of the Finno-Ugric tribes, but during the settlement of the Slavic colonists, many of them were assimilated by the Slavs, but even now among many peoples, for example, the Erzya is still the dominant haplogroup R1a1-Z280. All this new data was able to provide us DNA genealogy, in particular, the approximate dates of the migrations of haplogroup carriers in the territory of the modern Russian Plain and Central Asia in prehistoric times. So scientists to all Slavs, Celts, Germans, etc. gave the name of the Indo-Europeans, which is true from the point of view of linguistics. Where did these Indo-Europeans come from? In fact, there were Indo-European languages long before the migrations to India and Iran, all over the Russian Plain and as far as the Balkans in the south, and as far as the Pyrenees in the west. Later, the language was spread to South Asia - both to Iran and India. But in genetic terms, the correlations are much smaller. “The only justified and accepted at the present time in science is the use of the term “Aryans” only in relation to the tribes and peoples who spoke the Indo-Iranian languages.” So in which direction did the Indo-European flow go - to the west, to Europe, or vice versa, to the east? According to some estimates, the Indo-European language family is about 8500 years old. The ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans has not yet been determined, but according to one of the versions it could be the Black Sea region - southern or northern. In India, as we already know, the Indo-Aryan language was introduced about 3500 years ago, presumably from the territory of Central Asia, and the Aryans themselves were a group with different genetic Y-lines, such as R1a1-L657, G2a, J2a, J2b, H, etc. Haplogroup R1a1 in Western and Southern Europe Analysis of 67 marker haplotypes haplogroup R1a1 from all European countries made it possible to determine the approximate path of migration of R1a1 ancestors in the direction of Western Europe. And calculations showed that almost throughout Europe, from Iceland in the north to Greece in the south, the common ancestor of the haplogroup R1a1 was one approximately 7000 years ago! In other words, the descendants, like a relay race, passed on their haplotypes to their own descendants from generation to generation, dispersing in the process of migration from the same historical place - which turned out to be presumably the Urals or the Black Sea Lowland. On a modern map, these are countries mainly in Eastern and Central Europe - Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia. But the range of more ancient haplotypes of the haplogroup R1a1 leads to the east - to Siberia. And the lifetime of the first ancestor, which is indicated by the most ancient, most mutated haplotypes, is 7.5 thousand years ago. In those days there were no Slavs, no Germans, no Celts. Central and Eastern Europe Poland, the common ancestor of R1a1 lived about 5000 years ago (mainly a subclade of R1a1-M458 and Z280). For Russian-Ukrainian - 4500 years ago, which practically coincides within the accuracy of calculations. And even if four generations is not a difference for such terms. In modern Poland haplogroup R1a1 an average of 56%, and in some areas up to 62%. The rest are mostly Western European haplogroup R1b(12%), Scandinavian haplogroup I1(17%) and Baltic haplogroup N1c1 (8%). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, a common Proto-Slavic ancestor lived 4200 years ago. Just a little less than the Russians and Ukrainians. That is, we are talking about settling in the territories of modern Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia - all within just a few generations, but more than four thousand years ago. In archeology, such accuracy of dating is completely unthinkable. In Czech and Slovakia descendants haplogroup R1a1 about 40%. The rest have mostly Western European R1b(22-28%) Scandinavian I1 and Balkan haplogroup I2a(cumulatively 18%) On the territory of modern Hungary, the common ancestor R1a1 lived 5000 years ago. There are now up to a quarter of the descendants of the haplogroup R1a1. The rest have mainly the Western European haplogroup R1b (20%) and the combined Scandinavian I1 and Balkan I2 (26% in total) haplogroups. Given that the Hungarians speak the language of the Finno-Ugric group of languages, the most common haplogroup in which is N1c1 in the ancient Hungarian rich graves of the Magyars, the remains of men with the haplogroup are mainly found N1c1, who were the first leaders of the tribes that participated in the formation of the empire. In Lithuania and Latvia, the common ancestor is reconstructed to a depth of 4800 years. Basically there today subclade Z92, Z280 and M458. The most common among Lithuanians is the Baltic haplogroup N1c1, reaching 47%. In general, Lithuania and Latvia are characterized by the South Baltic subclade L1025 of the haplogroup N1c1. In general, the situation is clear. I will only add that in European countries - Iceland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Belgium, Lithuania, France, Italy, Romania, Albania, Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Spain, Greece, Bulgaria, Moldova - the common ancestor lived 5000-5500 years ago , it is impossible to be more precise. This is a common ancestor haplogroup R1a for all the countries listed. The common European ancestor, so to speak, not counting the Balkan region shown above, the possible ancestral home, of the Indo-Europeans about 7500 years ago. Share of carriers haplogroup R1a1 in the following countries varies, from 4% in Holland and Italy, 9% in Albania, 8-11% in Greece (up to 14% in Thessaloniki), 12-15% in Bulgaria and Herzegovina, 14-17% in Denmark and Serbia, 15-25% in Bosnia and Macedonia, 3% in Switzerland, 20% in Romania and Hungary, 23% in Iceland, 22-39% in Moldova, 29-34% in Croatia, 30-37% in Slovenia (16% in in the Balkans as a whole), and at the same time - 32-37% in Estonia, 34-38% in Lithuania, 41% in Latvia, 40% in Belarus, 45-54% in Ukraine. In Eastern European Russia haplogroup R1a, as I already mentioned, an average of 47%, due to the high share of the Baltic haplogroup N1c1 in the north and north-west of Russia, but in the south and in the center of Russia, the share of different subclades of the haplogroup R1a reaches 55%. Turks and haplogroup R1a1 Haplotypes of ancestors are different everywhere, different regions are characterized by their own subclades. The peoples of Altai and other Turks also have high percentages of the haplogroup R1a1, the Bashkirs reach 40% of the subclade Z2123. This is a child line from Z93 and can be called typically Turkic and not related to the migrations of the Indo-Iranians. Today a large number haplogroup R1a1 to be in the Sayano-Altai region, among the Turkic population of Central Asia. Among the Kyrgyz, reaching 63%. You can't call them Russians or Iranians. It turns out to name all haplogroup R1a1 a single name - gross exaggeration, at least, but mostly - ignorance. Haplogroups are not ethnic groups; the linguistic and ethnic affiliation of the carrier is not recorded on them. Haplogroups also have no direct relation to genes. The Türks are mainly characterized by various subclades of Z93, but in the Volga region there are also R1a1-Z280, possibly transferred to the Volga Türks from the Volga Finns. Haplogroup R1a1-Z93 is also typical for Arabs in moderate frequency, for Levites - a subgroup of Ashkenazi Jews (the subclade CTS6 was confirmed in the latter). This line already at the earliest stages took part in the ethnogenesis of these peoples. Territory of initial distribution haplogroup R1a1 in Europe - this is probably the territory of Eastern Europe and possibly the Black Sea lowland. Prior to that, probably in Asia, possibly South Asia or North China. Caucasian R1a1 haplotypes Armenia. Age of the common ancestor of the haplogroup R1a1- 6500 years ago. Basically also a subclade of R1a1-Z93, although there is also R1a1-Z282. Asia Minor, Anatolian Peninsula. A historic crossroads between the Middle East, Europe and Asia. It was the first or second candidate for the "Indo-European homeland". However, the common ancestor of the haplogroup R1a1 lived there about 6500 years ago. It is clear that this ancestral home, judging by the haplotypes, can practically be in Anatolia, or the original Indo-Europeans were carriers haplogroup R1b. But there is a high probability of low representation of individuals from Turkey in the general haplotype database. So, both Armenians and Anatolians - they all have the same ancestor, or the ancestors are very close in time, within several generations - this is a subclade of Z93 and Z282 . It should be noted that 4500 years before the common ancestor of the R1a1-Z93 haplogroup in Anatolia is in good agreement with the time of the appearance of the Hittites in Asia Minor in the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC, although many R1a1-Z93 lines could have appeared there after the migrations of the Turkic peoples to the peninsula already in our era. Alexey Zorrin ******

By nature, the genetic code of all people is arranged in such a way that each has 23 pairs of chromosomes, which store all the hereditary information inherited from both parents. The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes about half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal, which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.

Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery, it is completely transmitted from father to son like a baton. I will clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.
In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain regions of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations by male gender. It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genus. There are only about 1000 loci on the Y chromosome, but only a little more than a hundred are used for the comparative analysis of haplotypes and the reconstruction of genera.
In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR-markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, the overall pattern of which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus it will be seen on the common tree that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for the haplotype group.

What haplogroups are most common among Russians?

peoples	qty, Human	R1a1,	R1b1,	I1,	I2,	N1c1,	E1b1b1,	J2,	G2a,
Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs.
Russians(north)	395	34	6	10	8	35	2	1	1
Russians(center)	388	52	8	5	10	16	4	1	1
Russians(south)	424	50	4	4	16	10	5	4	3
Russians (All Great Russians)	1207	47	7	5	12	20	4	3	2
Belarusians	574	52	10	3	16	10	3	2	2
Ukrainians	93	54	2	5	16	8	8	6	3
Russians(together with Ukrainians and Belarusians)	1874	48	7	4	13	16	4	3	3
Poles	233	56	16	7	10	8	4	3	2
Slovaks	70	47	17	6	11	3	9	4	1
Czechs	53	38	19	11	12	3	8	6	5
Slovenians	70	37	21	12	20	0	7	3	2
Croatians	108	24	10	6	39	1	10	6	2
Serbs	113	16	11	6	29	1	20	7	1
Bulgarians	89	15	11	5	20	0	21	11	5
Balts, Finns, Germans, Greeks, etc.
Lithuanians	164	34	5	5	5	44	1	0	0
Latvians	113	39	10	4	3	42	0	0	0
Finns (east)	306	6	3	19	0	71	0	0	0
Finns (west)	230	9	5	40	0	41	0	0	0
swedes	160	16	24	36	3	11	3	3	1
Germans	98	8	48	25	0	1	5	4	3
Germans (Bavarians)	80	15	48	16	4	0	8	6	5
English	172	5	67	14	6	0.1	3	3	1
Irish	257	1	81	6	5	0	2	1	1
Italians	99	2	44	3	4	0	13	18	8
Romanians	45	20	18	2	18	0	7	13	7
Ossetians	359	1	7	0		0	1	16	67
Armenians	112	2	26	0	4	0	6	20	10
Greeks	116	4	14	3	10	0	21	23	5
Turks	103	7	17	1	5	4	10	24	12

Particularly noteworthy are the 4 most common haplogroups among Russians:
R1a1 47.0%, N1c1 20.0%, I2 10.6%, I1 6.2%
talking in simple terms: genetic composition Russians along the straight male lines of the Y-chromosome is as follows:
Eastern Europeans - 47%
Baltics - 20%
And two haplogroups of original Europeans since the Paleolithic
Scandinavians - 6%
Balkans - 11%

The names are conditional and given in accordance with the territorial maximums European subclades for haplogroups R1a1, N1c1, I1 and I2. The fundamental point is that there were no descendants of the Mongols after the two hundred year Tatar-Mongol yoke. Either left, but a very small number of direct genetic heirs from such relationships. With these words, I do not want to question historical sources about the Mongols in Rus', but only to pay attention to the supposed genetic influence from the Mongol-Tatars on the Russians - it is not there, or it is insignificant. By the way, there are also a large number of carriers in the genome of the Bulgar Tatars haprogroups R1a1(about 30%) and N1c1(about 20%), but they are mostly non-European.

Another important point, southern Russians do not differ from Ukrainians within the margin of error, and northern Russians, having one of the predominant haplogroups R1a1, also have a higher percentage of haplogroup N1c1. But the percentage of N1c1 haplotypes is on average 20% in Russians.

Emperors. Nicholas 2
The first known ancestor of the Grand Ducal House of Oldenburg was Egilmar, Count of Lerigau (d. 1108), mentioned in the annals for 1091.
Nicholas II turned out to be the carrier of the haplogroup R1b1a2- a representative of the Western European line, from the Holstein-Gottorp dynasty. This German dynasty is characterized by the terminal snip U106, which is most common in northwestern Europe in places of settlement of the Germanic tribes. It's not exactly typical Russian people DNA marker, but its presence among Russians could also be associated with early contacts between Germans and Slavs.

natural princes. Rurikovichi
Vladimir Monomakh and his descendants, referred to as "Monomachis" belong to the haplogroup N1c1-L550, which is widespread in the South Baltic region (subclade L1025) and in Fennoscandia (subclades Y7795, Y9454, Y17113, Y17415, Y4338). The Rurik dynasty is characterized by the terminal snip Y10931.
Some of those whom historians call the Olgoviches (named after Oleg Svyatoslavich - the main rival of Vladimir Monomakh in the feudal struggle - and, as all sources assure, his cousin) are not related to the Rurikovichs from the Monomashich family (in a direct male line). These are the descendants of Yuri Tarussky

Russians, Slavs, Indo-Europeans and haplogroups R1a, R1b, N1c, I1 and I2

In ancient times, about 8-9 millennia ago, there was a linguistic group that laid the foundation for the Indo-European family of languages (at the initial stage, these are most likely the haplogroups R1a and R1b). The Indo-European family includes such linguistic groups as Indo-Iranians (South Asia), Slavs and Balts (Eastern Europe), Celts (Western Europe), Germans (Central, Northern Europe). Perhaps they also had common genetic ancestors, who about 7 thousand years ago, as a result of migrations, ended up in different parts of Eurasia, some went south and east (R1a-Z93), laying the foundation for the Indo-Iranian peoples and languages (largely taking part in the ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples), and part remained on the territory of Europe and laid the foundation for the formation of many European peoples (R1b-L51), including the Slavs and Russians in particular (R1a-Z283, R1b-L51). At different stages of formation, already in antiquity there were intersections of migration flows, which caused the presence of a large number of haplogroups in all European ethnic groups.

The Slavic languages emerged from the once unified group of Balto-Slavic languages (presumably the archaeological culture of the late Corded Ware). According to the calculations of the linguist Starostin, this happened about 3.3 millennia ago. Period from the 5th century BC to the 4th-5th century AD can be considered conditionally Proto-Slavic, tk. The Balts and Slavs had already split up, but there were no Slavs themselves yet, they will appear a little later, in the 4th-6th centuries AD. At the initial stage of the formation of the Slavs, probably about 80% were haplogroups R1a-Z280 and I2a-M423. At the initial stage of the formation of the Balts, probably about 80% were haplogroups N1c-L1025 and R1a-Z92. The influence and intersection of the migrations of the Balts and Slavs was from the very beginning, because in many respects this division is arbitrary, and in general reflects only the main trend, without details.

The Iranian languages are Indo-European, and their dating is as follows - the most ancient, from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 4th century BC, the middle one - from the 4th century BC. to the 9th century AD, and a new one - from the 9th century AD. Until now. That is, the most ancient Iranian languages appear after the departure of part of the tribes who spoke Indo-European languages from Central Asia to India and Iran. Their main haplogroups were probably R1a-Z93, J2a, G2a3. The Western Iranian group of languages appeared later, around the 5th century BC.

Thus, the Indo-Aryans, Celts, Germans and Slavs in academic science became Indo-Europeans, this term is the most adequate for such a vast and diverse group. This is absolutely correct. In the genetic aspect, the heterogeneity of the Indo-Europeans is striking both in Y-haplogroups and in autosomes. The Indo-Iranians are characterized to a greater extent by the Western Asian genetic influence of BMAC.

According to the Indian Vedas, it was the Indo-Aryans who came to India (South Asia) from the north (from Central Asia), and it was their hymns and legends that formed the basis of the Indian Vedas. And, continuing further, let's touch on linguistics, because this Russian language (and its related Baltic languages, for example, Lithuanian as part of the once existing Balto-Slavic linguistic community) is relatively close to Sanskrit along with Celtic, Germanic and other languages of the large Indo-European family . But in the genetic plan, the Indo-Aryans were already to a greater extent Western Asians, as they approached India, the Vedoid influence also intensified.

So it became clear that haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy, this is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (because naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups in their environment), part haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain, they became part of the Finno-Ugric peoples, for example, the Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes (for haplogroup R1a1 this is a subclade of Z93) during migrations they brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran about 3500 years ago, that is, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In India, by the labors of the great Panini, it was converted into Sanskrit in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and in Persia-Iran, the Aryan languages became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. These data are confirmed: DNA genealogy and linguistics are correlated here.

Large part haplogroups R1a1-Z93 even in ancient times, they joined the Turkic ethnic groups and today mark the migration of the Turks in many ways, which is not surprising in view of antiquity haplogroup R1a1 while the representatives haplogroups R1a1-Z280 were part of the Finno-Ugric tribes, but during the settlement of the Slavic colonists, many of them were assimilated by the Slavs, but even now among many peoples, for example, the Erzya is still the dominant haplogroup R1a1-Z280.
All this new data was able to provide us DNA genealogy, in particular, the approximate dates of the migrations of haplogroup carriers in the territory of the modern Russian Plain and Central Asia in prehistoric times.
So scientists to all Slavs, Celts, Germans, etc. gave the name of the Indo-Europeans, which is true from the point of view of linguistics.
Where did these Indo-Europeans come from? In fact, there were Indo-European languages long before the migrations to India and Iran, all over the Russian Plain and as far as the Balkans in the south, and as far as the Pyrenees in the west. Later, the language was spread to South Asia - both to Iran and India. But in genetic terms, the correlations are much smaller.
“The only justified and accepted at the present time in science is the use of the term “Aryans” only in relation to the tribes and peoples who spoke the Indo-Iranian languages.”

So in which direction did the Indo-European flow go - to the west, to Europe, or vice versa, to the east? According to some estimates, the Indo-European language family is about 8500 years old. The ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans has not yet been determined, but according to one of the versions it could be the Black Sea region - southern or northern. In India, as we already know, the Indo-Aryan language was introduced about 3500 years ago, presumably from the territory of Central Asia, and the Aryans themselves were a group with different genetic Y-lines, such as R1a1-L657, G2a, J2a, J2b, H, etc.

Haplogroup R1a1 in Western and Southern Europe

Analysis of 67 marker haplotypes haplogroup R1a1 from all European countries made it possible to determine the approximate path of migration of R1a1 ancestors in the direction of Western Europe. And calculations showed that almost throughout Europe, from Iceland in the north to Greece in the south, the common ancestor of the haplogroup R1a1 was one approximately 7000 years ago! In other words, the descendants, like a relay race, passed on their haplotypes to their own descendants from generation to generation, dispersing in the process of migration from the same historical place - which turned out to be presumably the Urals or the Black Sea Lowland. On a modern map, these are countries mainly in Eastern and Central Europe - Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia. But the range of more ancient haplotypes of the haplogroup R1a1 leads to the east - to Siberia. And the lifetime of the first ancestor, which is indicated by the most ancient, most mutated haplotypes, is 7.5 thousand years ago. In those days there were no Slavs, no Germans, no Celts.

The disadvantage of the method
If you did the test, and it pleased you greatly, then I hasten to bring in my ladle of tar. Yes, the Y chromosome is transmitted from father to son practically unchanged, but actually genetically useful information not in it, in other pairs of chromosomes there are much more genes.
And these other 22 are shuffled in a very random way, with no trace of such mixing left on Y.
Imagine. Anglo-Saxon sailors captured the Negro state. Women are not taken on such trips, and you have to establish contact with the local population. What are the options?
1) The Anglo-Saxons have children from black women, but the nationality is transferred only to boys. In this case, the Y chromosome will be transferred to the European one, but the proportion of actually significant European genes will decrease. The first generation will be half blacks and the former "aristocracy" in such a case will quickly dissolve, although Y will be from this ethnic group. It just won't make much sense. Perhaps something similar happened to the Finns and Indians. The Yakuts and Finns have the highest percentage of the N1c1 haplogroup characteristic of them, but genetically these are completely different peoples with different subclades of the N1c1 haplogroup with their own unique history, separated more than 6 millennia ago. And vice versa, Indians - having a high percentage haplogroup R1a1 genetically they have very little in common with the European representatives of this haplogroup, tk. also various subclades with their own history, separated more than 6 millennia ago.
2) Indo-Aryans are satisfied caste system. The first generation will also be semi-Negro, but then, if the aristocracy interbreeds only among themselves, then the percentage of original genetics will float around 50%. But in practice, marriages will be mainly with local women, and even more so it will be impossible to get the original gene pool of the conquerors. And this happened in the history of the Earth. upper castes Indians from 20% to 72% have haplogroup R1a1(an average of 43%), but genetically they have very little in common with the European or Turkic representatives of the same haplogroup R1a1, and again the reason is the various subclades with their own special history.
A similar situation probably occurred in Cameroon, a Central African country where Y is up to 95% common. haplogroup R1b-V88, but at the same time among a typical anthropologically African Negroid population.
It can be concluded that the presence of a marker and a haplogroup is an important condition for determining nationality, but not sufficient. To determine the national-territorial origin of a person, Family Tree DNA has an autosomal test called Family Finder

Alexey Zorrin

Scientists have recently come close to deciphering the human genetic code. In many ways, this made it possible to take a fresh look at the history of the Russian ethnos, which turned out to be more ancient and not as homogeneous as previously thought.

In the depths of centuries

The human genome is a variable thing. In the course of the evolution of mankind, its haplogroups have undergone mutations more than once. Today, scientists have already learned to determine the approximate time when this or that mutation arose. So, American geneticists found that one of these mutations occurred about 4,500 years ago on the Central Russian plain. A boy was born who had a different set of nucleotides from his father - he was assigned the genetic classification R1a1, which arose instead of the paternal R1a.

This mutation, unlike many others, proved to be viable. The R1a1 genus not only survived, but also settled in a significant part of the Eurasian continent. Currently, approximately 70% of the male population of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine are carriers of the R1a1 haplogroup, and in old Russian cities this number reaches 80%. Thus, R1a1 serves as a kind of marker of the Russian ethnic group. It turns out that the blood of an ancient boy who lived in the late Neolithic era flows in the veins of most men in modern Russia.

Approximately 500 years after the birth of the R1a1 haplogroup, the migration flows of its representatives spread to the east - beyond the Urals, to the south - to Hindustan and to the west - to the territory of modern European countries. The fact that the inhabitants of the Central Russian plain went far beyond their original range is also confirmed by archaeologists. Analysis of the bone remains of burials in Altai of the 1st millennium BC. e. showed that in addition to the Mongoloids, pronounced Caucasians also lived there.

There is no Tatar

In one of the issues of the popular science publication The American Journal of Human Genetics, an article was published about the research by the Russian-Estonian team of scientists of the gene pool of the Russian people. The findings of the researchers were quite unexpected. First: the Russian ethnos is heterogeneous by its genetic nature. One part of the Russians living in the central and southern regions of the country is close to the neighboring Slavic peoples, the other part - in the north of Russia - is genetically closely related to the Finno-Ugric peoples.

The next conclusion is more interesting. Scientists have not been able to detect the notorious Asian element in the Russian genome. There is no Tatar-Mongolian set of genes in any noticeable amount in any of the Russian populations. It turns out that the stable expression "Scratch a Russian - you will find a Tatar" is erroneous.

Professor Oleg Balanovsky, head of the laboratory of genomic geography at the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, considers the Russian gene pool “almost completely European”, and calls its differences from the Central Asian one “really great”, as if they are two different worlds.

Academician Konstantin Skryabin, head of the genomic direction at the Kurchatov Institute, agrees with Balanovsky. He says the following: "We did not find noticeable Tatar introductions in the Russian genome, which refutes theories about the destructive influence of the Mongol yoke." In addition, Siberians, according to the scientist, are genetically identical to the Old Believers - they have the same "Russian genome".

The researchers also draw attention to a slight difference in the genotype between the Russians on the one hand and the neighboring Slavic peoples - Ukrainians, Belarusians and Poles - on the other. The difference between the southern and western Slavs from the inhabitants of the Russian North is more pronounced.

Special Markers

According to anthropologist Vasily Deryabin, the Russian genotype also has its own clear physiological markers. One of them is the predominance of light shades of eyes in Russians: gray, blue, gray-blue, blue. We have 45 percent of them, in Western Europe less - about 35 percent. Many among Russians and fair-haired. According to anthropologists, Russians with natural black hair color are no more than 5 percent. In Western Europe, the chance of meeting a black-haired one is 45%.

Contrary to popular belief, there are not so many snub-nosed people among Russians - about 7%, in about 75% of cases the nose is straight. Also, among Russians, epicanthus is not found - a fold typical of representatives of Mongoloid peoples at the inner corner of the eye.

The Russian ethnic group is characterized by the predominance of I and II blood groups, among Jews, for example, group IV is more common. Biochemical studies also showed that in the blood of Russians, as well as other European peoples, there is a special gene PH-c, but it is absent in the Mongoloids.

Northerners are closer

Research Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Anthropology. D.N. Anuchin Moscow State University conducted an in-depth study of the gene pool of the Russian people, during which a difference in the genotype between the Russians and our northern neighbors, the Finns, was established - it amounted to thirty conventional units. But the genetic differences between the Russian ethnic group and the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Veps, Karelians, Komi-Zyryans, Izhors), who traditionally lived in the north of our country, correspond to only three units.

Scientists are talking not just about the genetic unity of Russians with the Finno-Ugric peoples, but about their common origin. Moreover, the specific structure of the Y-chromosomes of these ethnic groups is largely identical to the peoples of Hindustan. But this is not surprising, given the direction of the settlement of the genetic ancestors of the Russian people.

Human haplogroups are transmitted through direct male and female lines. But for the genetics of both men and women, the information stored in the autosomes of DNA is responsible. Autosomes are the first 22 pairs of human chromosomes that are passed down from both parents after crossing over, a process of recombination. Thus, approximately half of the genetic information is transmitted from father and mother to descendants.
IN this study more than 80,000 autosomal snips are used, fiducial points are very a high resolution, which makes it possible to catch even relatively small influences at the genetic level in the bulk of the people. Comparative analysis data are taken from an open study by V.Verenich, a specialist in comparative analysis genetic components. The genetic calculators themselves are on the GedMatch service, and allow anyone to find out their comparative position on the genetic graph. To do this, it is enough to have the results of an autosomal test from FTDNA, or 23andMe. Maps are provided at the end of the study. geographical distribution and frequency maxima for major autosomal components from the MDLP World-22 project.
The graphs below show the main components and their average percentage for each of the populations. In one line - percentage breakdown for one population. Each division (vertical bar) corresponds to 10%, and the names of the autosomal components are in the same sequence from left to right as in the legend from top to bottom. The more similar the percentage composition of common genetics in different peoples, the more similar the figure in the above graph looks. So let's get started...

Genetics of Germans, Lithuanians, Russians, Swedes, Finns, etc.

This graph shows the main genetic components for European peoples and aligned with the decrease in the East European component (North-East-European) in various populations. As you can see, all European peoples are quite different in genetic terms, and having genetic components in their set of the same origin, they are nonetheless in very different percentages. For all Slavs and Balts in general, one of the most significant is this component of Eastern Europe, which is at its maximum among Lithuanians and Belarusians. Probably from the time of the archaeological "Corded Ware culture" the territory of these countries was the center of origin of this component. It is represented by more than 80% among Lithuanians, and only 20% among Italians.
The purple color indicates the Atlanto-Mediterranean component, and it increases as it moves from northeast to southwest. So among the Finns it reaches an average of 15%, and among the Italians 40%. The rest of the components are less pronounced.

Genetics of Russian Ukrainians Belarusians

This graph shows the Eastern Slavs - Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians. Attention is drawn to the similarity of the genetic patterns of the three listed peoples, and within the margin of error they differ very little - Ukrainians and southern Russians have a slight increase in the West Asian component, and northern Russians have a slight increase in one of the Siberian components, conditionally called Samoyedic, and an increase components of the Mesolithic of Europe to about 10%, which, according to the latter indicator, brings them closer to the German-speaking population of Scandinavia - the Swedes.

This chart depicts all the Slavs, including the Western - Poles and Czechs, as well as the southern - Serbs, Bulgarians, Macedonians, etc.
All Slavs have 2 main components. These are Eastern European and Atlanto-Mediterranean. The first is at the maximum for Belarusians, and the second for all southern Slavs - Serbs, Macedonians, Bulgarians. The Eastern European component is more primary in origin among the Slavs, and the Atlanto-Mediterranean component is more acquired as the Slavs migrated to the Balkans. Western Ukrainians and Slovaks have a slight increase in the Samoyedic component relative to neighboring Slavic peoples- Belarusians, Czechs, Poles; this is probably the genetic trace of the medieval migrations of the Huns and Ugrians to Central Europe.

Genetics of Slavs, Russians and Tatars, Germans, Caucasians, Jews, etc.

This graph displays the different origins among the peoples of Russia. As can be seen, among the Slavs, the main component is the Eastern European one, while among the peoples of the Volga region, the share of the Siberian components increases. While for Caucasians, the West Asian component, the Mediterranean and the Middle East are the most characteristic.

Genetics of the Finns, Ugrians, Udmurts, Hungarians, Saami, etc.

As can be seen, the Finns, Vepsians and Karelians are characterized by similar genetic origin with the Slavs. They also have the largest East European component, decreasing closer to the Urals and the Volga region, with an increase in the Siberian components in this region. Also, all the Finno-Ugric peoples have a significant component of the Mesolithic of Europe, which reaches almost 80% among the Saami and is associated with the pre-Indo-European and pre-Neolithic populations of Europe. For the Hungarians as a whole, a set of those genetic components is characteristic, as for other populations of the Carpathian region and Central Europe.

As can be seen, the entire Caucasus is characterized by a relatively similar genetic origin - this is a large proportion of the West Asian component and the Mediterranean. Only the Nogais stand out a little - they have an increased share of Siberian components.

As can be seen in Ashkenazim and Sephardim, there is a high frequency of the West Asian, Atlanto-Mediterranean and Middle Eastern components. At the same time, the Ashkenazim have a slight increase in the Siberian component, which is probably due to the Khazar heritage and an increase of up to 30% of the Eastern European component, which, according to this indicator, brings them closer to the countries of southern Europe.
Only Ethiopian Jews and Indian Jews are especially knocked out of their "company". The former have a high proportion of sub-Saharan Africa (up to 40%), while the latter have a share of the South Asian genetic component, conditionally called Indian (up to 50%).

Genetics of Tatars, Bashkirs, Azerbaijanis, Chuvashs, etc.

The Turks in genetic terms turned out to be one of the most heterogeneous ethnic groups, because their genetic components differ significantly. So, given that the primary homeland of the Turks is Siberia, then such peoples as the Yakuts, Tuvans, Khakasses have retained the East Siberian autosomal component in the largest percentage, which reaches from 30 to 65% in them. This genetic component is also the main one among the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs. The remaining components bring the Turks closer to the peoples from the regions of residence. So, for the Yakuts and Tuvans, these are the North Siberian and Samoyed components. In total, these 3 Siberian components among the Yakuts they make up to 90%, among the Tuvans up to 70%, with an increase to 20% of the East-South Asian component, which is associated to a greater extent with migration flows of the population East Asia. For the Bashkirs, the share of the 3 Siberian components is up to 45%, and the Southeast Asian component is up to 10%. Tatars have the data of 3 Siberian genetic components on average from 25 to 50%. At the same time, the proportion of components characteristic of the Caucasoid population among the Bashkirs is up to 45%, and among the Tatars, on average, from 50 to 70%. The genetics of Azerbaijanis and Turks practically do not differ within the margin of error; they, like other peoples of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, have a significant presence of the West Asian component (reaches 50%) and the Atlanto-Mediterranean component (up to 20% on average). The share of 3 Siberian components is represented by Azerbaijanis, Turks and Balkars - at the level of 3-7%.

Conclusion

The genetics of peoples does not have a direct and significant correlation with the distribution of language families, or with the percentage of uniparental markers - Y-DNA and mt-DNA haplogroups, represented in a particular population. The greatest correlation can be traced according to the territorial-geographical principle. Thus, the share of the Siberian components, which are generally characteristic of Mongoloid race gradually decreases from East to West, and the proportion of components characteristic of the Caucasoid race increases accordingly. In the border territories along the line from the north of the Urals to Central Asia approximately equal ratio. In the regions east of Lake Baikal, the genetic components characteristic of the large Caucasian race are practically not represented, while at the same time, in the regions west of the Pechora-Volga line, the Siberian components characteristic of the large Mongoloid race are disappearing.
The spread of the Eastern European genetic component to Siberia occurred to a large extent already in the Bronze Age (the cultures of the Andronov Circle), although individual peaks in the extreme east of Siberia among the Chukchi may already be associated with Russian migrations in the 17th century.
The share of the Sub-Saharan component, characteristic of the Negroid race, is distributed throughout Africa - up to the southern Mediterranean and the northern border of the African continent, reaching a maximum in its equatorial part, and is practically never found outside it; a light background is distributed on the Arabian Peninsula and the southern part of the Iranian plateau.