Report on the musical styles of the new Middle Ages. Early music and the Middle Ages

Music medieval era - period of developmentmusical culture, spanning a period of time from about 5th to 14th centuries AD .
During the Middle Ages in Europe a new type of musical culture is emerging - feudal which combines professional art, amateur music and folklore. Since the church dominates in all areas of spiritual life, the basis of professional musical art is the activity of musicians in temples and monasteries . Secular professional art was initially represented only by singers who created and performed epic tales at court, in the houses of the nobility, among warriors, etc. ( bards, skalds and etc.). Over time, amateur and semi-professional forms of music-making develop. chivalry: in France - the art of troubadours and trouveurs (Adam de la Halle, XIII century), in Germany - minnesingers ( Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von der Vogelweide, XII - XIII centuries ), as well as urban artisans. In feudal castles and in the cities all sorts of genera are cultivated, genres and forms of songs (epic, "dawn", rondo, le, virele, ballads, canzones, laudas, etc.).
New people come into lifemusical instruments, including those who came from East (viola, lute etc.), ensembles (of unstable compositions) arise. Folklore flourishes among the peasantry. There are also "people's professionals": storytellers , itinerant synthetic artists ( jugglers, mimes, minstrels, shpilmans, buffoons ). Music again performs mainly applied and spiritual-practical functions. Creativity acts in unity withperformance(usually in one person).
And in the content of music, and in its form dominates collectivity ; the individual beginning obeys the general, without standing out from it (the musician-master is the best representative communities ). Strict reign in everything tradition and canonicity . Consolidation, preservation and dissemination traditions and standards.
Gradually, albeit slowly, the content of music, its genres, forms , means of expression. IN Western Europe from the 6th - 7th centuries . a strictly regulated system monophonic (monodic ) church music based diatonic modes ( Gregorian chant), combining recitation (psalmody) and singing (hymns ). At the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennium, the polyphony . New vocal (choral ) and vocal-instrumental (choir and organ) genres: organum, motet, conduct, then mass. France in the 12th century the first composer (creative) school at Notre Dame Cathedral(Leonin, Perotin). At the turn of the Renaissance (ars nova style in France and Italy, XIV century) in professional musicmonophony is being forced out polyphony , music begins to gradually free itself from purely practical functions (serving church rites ), it increases the value secular genres, including song Guillaume de Machaux).

Renaissance.

Music in the period of the XV-XVII centuries.
In the Middle Ages, music was the prerogative of the Church, so most musical works were sacred, they were based on church hymns(Gregorian chant), which have been part of the creed since the beginning of Christianity. At the beginning of the 17th century, cult melodies, with the direct participation of Pope Gregory I, were finally canonized. Gregorian chant was performed by professional singers. After church music mastered polyphony, Gregorian chant remained the thematic basis of polyphonic cult works (masses, motets, etc.).

The Middle Ages was followed by the Renaissance, which was for musicians an era of discovery, innovation and exploration, a renaissance of all layers of cultural and scientific expression of life from music and painting to astronomy and mathematics.
Although music remained largely religious, the weakening of church control over society opened up greater freedom for composers and performers to display their talents.
With the invention of the printing press, it became possible to print and distribute sheet music, and from that moment begins what we call classical music.
During this period, new musical instruments appeared. The most popular were the instruments on which music lovers could play easily and simply, without requiring special skills.
It was at this time that the viola, the predecessor of the violin, appeared. The frets (wood strips across the fretboard) made it easy to play, and the sound was quiet, gentle, and played well in small venues.
Wind instruments were also popular - recorder, flute and horn. The most complex music was written for the newly created harpsichord, virginal (English harpsichord, characterized by small size) and organ. At the same time, the musicians did not forget to compose simpler music, which did not require high performing skills. At the same time, there were changes in musical writing: heavy wooden printing blocks were replaced by mobile metal letters invented by the Italian Ottaviano Petrucci. Published musical works quickly sold out, more and more people began to join the music.
The end of the Renaissance was marked by the most important event in musical history- the birth of opera. A group of humanists, musicians, and poets gathered in Florence under the auspices of their leader, Count Giovanni De Bardi (1534 - 1612). The group was called "kamerata", its main members were Giulio Caccini, Pietro Strozzi, Vincenzo Galilei (father of the astronomer Galileo Galilei), Giloramo Mei, Emilio de Cavalieri and Ottavio Rinuccini in their younger years.
The first documented meeting of the group took place in 1573, and the most active years of work "Florentine Camerata "were 1577 - 1582. They believed that the music was "spoiled" and sought to return to form and style ancient Greece, believing that the art of music can be improved and, accordingly, society will also improve. Camerata criticized the existing music for its excessive use of polyphony at the expense of the intelligibility of the text and the loss of the poetic component of the work, and proposed the creation of a new musical style in which the text in monodic style was accompanied by instrumental music. Their experiments led to the creation of a new vocal-musical form - recitative, first used by Emilio de Cavalieri, subsequently directly related to the development of opera.
The first officially recognizedopera , corresponding to modern standards, was the opera "Daphne" (Daphne), first presented in 1598. The authors of "Daphne" were Jacopo Peri and Jacopo Corsi, libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini. This opera has not survived. The first surviving opera is "Eurydice" (1600) by the same authors - Jacopo Peri and Ottavio Rinuccini. This creative union still created many works, most of which have been lost.

Early baroque music (1600-1654)

The creation of his recitative style by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) and the consistent development of Italian opera can be considered a conditional transition point between the Baroque and Renaissance eras. The beginning of opera performances in Rome and especially in Venice already meant the recognition and spread of the new genre throughout the country. All this was only part of a larger process that captured all the arts, and especially clearly manifested itself in architecture and painting.
Renaissance composers paid attention to the elaboration of each part of a musical work, paying little or no attention to the juxtaposition of these parts. Separately, each part could sound excellent, but the harmonious result of the addition was more a matter of chance than regularity. The appearance of the figured bass indicated a significant change in musical thinking - namely, that harmony, which is "the addition of parts into one whole", is as important as the melodic parts (polyphony) themselves. More and more, polyphony and harmony looked like two sides of the same idea of ​​composing euphonious music: when composing harmonic sequences, the same attention was paid to tritones when creating dissonance. Harmonic thinking also existed among some composers of the previous era, such as Carlo Gesualdo, but in the Baroque era it became generally accepted.
Those parts of the works where it is impossible to clearly separate modality from tonality, he marked as mixed major, or mixed minor (later for these concepts he introduced the terms "monal major" and "monal minor", respectively). The table shows how tonal harmony already in the early Baroque period almost supplants the harmony of the previous era.
Italy becomes the center of a new style. The papacy, although captured by the struggle against the reformation, but nevertheless possessing huge financial resources replenished by the military campaigns of the Habsburgs, was looking for ways to spread the Catholic faith through the expansion of cultural influence. With the splendor, grandeur and complexity of architecture, fine arts and music, Catholicism, as it were, argued with ascetic Protestantism. The wealthy Italian republics and principalities also competed vigorously in the fine arts. One of important centers musical art was Venice, which at that time was under both secular and ecclesiastical patronage.
Giovanni Gabrieli was a significant figure in the early baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, which opposed the growing ideological, cultural and social influence of Protestantism. His works belong to the style of the "High Renaissance" (the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (the assignment of specific tasks to a certain instrument) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.
One of the requirements imposed by the church on the composition of sacred music was that the texts in works with vocals were legible. This required a move away from polyphony to musical techniques, where the words came out on foreground. The vocals became more complex, ornate compared to the accompaniment. This is how homophony developed.
Monteverde Claudio(1567-1643), Italian composer. Nothing attracted him like the exposure of the inner, peace of mind a person in his dramatic collisions and conflicts with the outside world. Monteverdi is the true founder of the conflict dramaturgy of the tragic plan. He is a true singer of human souls. He persistently strove for the natural expressiveness of music. "Human speech is the mistress of harmony, and not its servant."
"Orpheus" (1607) - The music of the opera is focused on revealing inner world tragic hero. His part is extraordinarily multifaceted; various emotional and expressive currents and genre lines merge in it. He enthusiastically calls out to his native forests and coasts or mourns the loss of his Eurydice in artless folk songs.

Music of the mature baroque (1654-1707)

The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism. Absolutism reached its zenith under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, the court of Louis was a role model. Including the music performed at the court. The increased availability of musical instruments (especially keyboards) gave impetus to the development of chamber music.
The mature baroque differs from the early baroque in the ubiquity of the new style and in the increased separation of musical forms, especially in opera. As in literature, the advent of streaming printing of musical works led to an expansion of the audience; the exchange between the centers of musical culture intensified.
An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lulli (1632-1687). Already at the age of 21, he received the title of "court composer of instrumental music." creative work Lully was strongly associated with the theater from the very beginning. Following the organization of court chamber music and the composition of "airs de cour", he began to write ballet music. Louis XIV himself danced in ballets, which were then the favorite entertainment of the court nobility. Lully was an excellent dancer. He happened to participate in productions, dancing with the king. He is known for his collaboration with Molière, whose plays he wrote music for. But the main thing in the work of Lully was still writing operas. Surprisingly, Lully created a complete type French opera; the so-called lyrical tragedy in France (fr. tragedie lyrique), and reached undoubted creative maturity in the very first years of his work in opera house. Lully often used the contrast between the majestic sound of the orchestral section and the simple recitatives and arias. musical language Lully is not very complex, but certainly new: the clarity of harmony, rhythmic energy, the clarity of articulation of form, the purity of texture speak of the victory of the principles of homophonic thinking. To a large extent, his success was also facilitated by his ability to select musicians for the orchestra, and his work with them (he himself conducted rehearsals). An integral element of his work was attention to harmony and the solo instrument.
In England, the mature baroque was marked by the brilliant genius of Henry Purcell (1659-1695). He died young, at the age of 36, having written a large number of works and becoming widely known during his lifetime. Purcell was familiar with the work of Corelli and other Italian baroque composers. However, his patrons and customers were of a different sort than the Italian and French secular and ecclesiastical nobility, so Purcell's writings are very different from the Italian school. Purcell worked in a wide range of genres; from simple religious hymns to marching music, from large format vocal compositions to staged music. His catalog contains over 800 works. Purcell became one of the first composers of keyboard music, whose influence extends to the present.
Unlike the above composers, Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) was not a court composer. Buxtehude worked as an organist, first at Helsingborg (1657-1658), then at Elsinore (1660-1668), and then from 1668 at St. Mary in Lübeck. He did not earn money by publishing his works, but by performing them, and he preferred composing music to church texts and performing his own organ works over the patronage of the nobility. Unfortunately, not all the works of this composer have been preserved. Buxtehude's music is largely built on the scale of ideas, richness and freedom of imagination, a penchant for pathos, drama, and somewhat oratorical intonation. His work had a strong influence on composers such as J. S. Bach and Telemann.

Late Baroque Music (1707-1760)

The exact line between mature and late Baroque is a matter of debate; it lies somewhere between 1680 and 1720. Much of the complexity of its definition is the fact that in different countries styles changed out of sync; innovations already accepted as the rule in one place were fresh discoveries in another
The forms discovered by the previous period have reached maturity and great variability; the concerto, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had sharply expressed national characteristics. Generally accepted schemes of works have been established everywhere: a repeating two-part form (AABB), a simple three-part form (ABC) and a rondo.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) - Italian composer, born in Venice. In 1703 he received the rank of Catholic priest. It was to these, at that time still developing instrumental genres (baroque sonata and baroque concerto), that Vivaldi made his most significant contribution. Vivaldi composed over 500 concertos. He also gave programmatic titles to some of his works, such as the famous The Four Seasons.
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757) was one of the leading keyboard composers and performers of his time. But perhaps the most famous court composer was Georg Friedrich Handel (1685-1759). He was born in Germany, studied in Italy for three years, but left London in 1711, where he began his brilliant and commercial career. successful career an independent opera composer performing commissions for the nobility. Possessing tireless energy, Handel reworked the material of other composers, and constantly reworked his own compositions. For example, he is known for having reworked the famous oratorio "Messiah" so many times that now there is no version that can be called "authentic".
After his death, he was recognized as a leading European composer, and was studied by musicians of the Classical era. Handel mixed in his music the rich traditions of improvisation and counterpoint. The art of musical ornaments reached a very high level of development in his works. He traveled all over Europe to study the music of other composers, in connection with which he had a very wide circle of acquaintances among composers of other styles.
Johann Sebastian Bach Born March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. During his lifetime, he composed over 1,000 works in various genres, except for opera. But during his lifetime he did not achieve any significant success. Moving many times, Bach changed one not too high position after another: in Weimar he was a court musician at the Weimar Duke Johann Ernst, then became the caretaker of the organ in the church of St. Boniface in Arnstadt, a few years later accepted the position of organist in the church of St. Vlasia in Mühlhausen, where he worked for only about a year, after which he returned to Weimar, where he took the place of court organist and organizer of concerts. He held this position for nine years. In 1717, Leopold, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, hired Bach as Kapellmeister, and Bach began to live and work in Köthen. In 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig, where he remained until his death in 1750. In the last years of his life and after the death of Bach, his fame as a composer began to decline: his style was considered old-fashioned compared to the burgeoning classicism. He was more known and remembered as a performer, teacher and father of the Bachs Jr., primarily Carl Philipp Emmanuel, whose music was more famous.
Only the performance of the Passion according to Matthew by Mendelssohn, 79 years after the death of J.S. Bach, revived interest in his work. Now J.S. Bach is one of the most popular composers
Classicism
Classicism - style and direction in art XVII - early XIX centuries
This word comes from the Latin classicus - exemplary. Classicism was based on the belief in the rationality of being, in the fact that human nature is harmonious. They saw their ideal of the classics in ancient art, which was considered the highest form of perfection.
In the eighteenth century, a new stage in the development of social consciousness begins - the Age of Enlightenment. The old social order is being destroyed; ideas of respect for human dignity, freedom and happiness are of paramount importance; the individual acquires independence and maturity, uses his mind and critical thinking. The ideals of the Baroque era with its pomp, grandiloquence and solemnity are being replaced by a new lifestyle based on naturalness and simplicity. The time is coming for the idealistic views of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, calling for a return to nature, to natural virtue and freedom. Along with nature, Antiquity is idealized, since it was believed that it was during Antiquity that people managed to embody all human aspirations. Ancient art is called classical, it is recognized as exemplary, the most truthful, perfect, harmonious and, unlike the art of the Baroque era, it is considered simple and understandable. In the center of attention, along with other important aspects, are education, the position of the common people in the social structure, genius as a property of a person.

Reason also reigns in art. Wishing to emphasize the lofty purpose of art, its social and civic role, the French philosopher and educator Denis Diderot wrote: "Each work of sculpture or painting should express some great rule of life, should teach."

The theater was at the same time a textbook of life, and life itself. In addition, in the theater the action is highly ordered, measured; it is divided into acts and scenes, which, in turn, are divided into separate replicas of characters, creating an ideal of art so dear to the 18th century, where everything is in its place and is subject to logical laws.
The music of classicism is extremely theatrical; it seems to copy the art of the theater and imitate it.
The division of a classical sonata and a symphony into large sections - parts, in each of which there are many musical "events", is like dividing a play into actions and scenes.
In the music of the classical age, a plot is often implied, a certain action that unfolds before the audience in the same way that the theatrical action unfolds before the audience.
The listener only needs to turn on the imagination and recognize the characters of a classic comedy or tragedy in "musical clothes".
The art of the theater helps to explain the great changes in the performance of music that took place in the 18th century. Previously, the main place where music sounded was the temple: in it, a person was below, in a huge space, where the music seemed to help him look up and devote his thoughts to God. Now, in the 18th century, music is heard in an aristocratic salon, in the ballroom of a noble estate or in a town square. The listener of the Age of Enlightenment seems to treat music “to you” and no longer experiences the delight and timidity that she inspired in him when she sounded in the temple.
The powerful, solemn sound of the organ is no longer in music; the role of the choir has diminished. Music classical style it sounds light, it has much less sounds, as if it "weighs less" than the heavy, layered music of the past. The sound of the organ and choir was replaced by the sound of a symphony orchestra; sublime arias gave way to light, rhythmic and dance music.
Thanks to the boundless faith in the possibilities of the human mind and the power of knowledge, the 18th century began to be called the Age of Reason or the Age of Enlightenment.
The heyday of Classicism comes in the 80s of the eighteenth century. In 1781, J. Haydn created several innovative works, including his String Quartet op. 33; the premiere of the opera by V.A. Mozart's "Abduction from the Seraglio"; F. Schiller's drama "Robbers" and "Criticism pure mind» I. Kant.

The brightest representatives of the classical period are the composers of the Vienna Classical School Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Their art delights with the perfection of compositional technique, the humanistic orientation of creativity and the desire, especially noticeable in the music of W. A. ​​Mozart, to display perfect beauty by means of music.

The very concept of the Vienna Classical School arose shortly after the death of L. Beethoven. Classical art is distinguished by a delicate balance between feelings and reason, form and content. The music of the Renaissance reflected the spirit and breath of its era; in the Baroque era, human states became the subject of reflection in music; the music of the era of Classicism sings of the actions and deeds of a person, the emotions and feelings experienced by him, the attentive and holistic human mind.

Ludwig van Beethoven(1770–1827)
German composer, often considered the greatest composer of all time.
His work is attributed to both classicism and romanticism.
Unlike his predecessor Mozart, Beethoven composed with difficulty. Beethoven's notebooks show how gradually, step by step, a grandiose composition emerges from uncertain sketches, marked by convincing logic of construction and rare beauty. It is the logic main source Beethoven's greatness, his incomparable ability to organize contrasting elements into a monolithic whole. Beethoven erases traditional caesuras between sections of the form, avoids symmetry, merges parts of the cycle, develops extended constructions from thematic and rhythmic motifs, which at first glance do not contain anything interesting. In other words, Beethoven creates musical space by the power of his mind, by his own will. He anticipated and created those artistic trends that became decisive for the musical art of the 19th century.

Romanticism.
covers conditionally 1800-1910
Romantic composers tried to express the depth and richness of a person's inner world with the help of musical means. Music becomes more embossed, individual. Song genres are developing, including the ballad.
The main representatives of romanticism in music are: in Austria - Franz Schubert ; in Germany - Ernest Theodor Hoffmann, Carl Maria Weber, Richard Wagner , Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann , Ludwig Spohr ; V
etc.................

The professional musical culture of the Middle Ages in Europe is associated primarily with the church, that is, with the area of ​​cult music. Full of religiosity, art is canonical and dogmatic, but, nevertheless, it has not frozen, it is turned from worldly fuss to the detached world of serving the Lord. However, along with such "higher" music, there was also folklore, and the work of itinerant musicians, as well as a noble culture of chivalry.

Spiritual musical culture of the early Middle Ages

In the era early medieval professional music sounded only in the cathedrals and the singing schools that were attached to them. The center of the musical culture of the Middle Ages in Western Europe was the capital of Italy - Rome - the very city where the "supreme church authorities" were located.

In the years 590-604, Pope Gregory I carried out a reform of cult singing. He ordered and collected various chants in the collection "Gregorian Antiphonary". Thanks to Gregory I, a direction called Gregorian chant is being formed in Western European sacred music.

choral- this is, as a rule, a monophonic chant, which reflects the centuries-old traditions of European and Middle Eastern peoples. It was this smooth monophonic melody that was intended to guide the parishioners to comprehend the foundations of Catholicism and accept a single will. Basically, the chorale was performed by the choir, and only some parts by soloists.

The basis of the Gregorian chant was a gradual movement along the sounds of diatonic modes, but sometimes in the same chant there were also slow, severe psalmodies and melismatic chanting of individual syllables.

The performance of such melodies was not trusted to just anyone, as it required professional vocal skills from the singers. Just like music, the text of the hymns in the Latin language, incomprehensible to many parishioners, evokes humility, detachment from reality, and contemplation. Often, the rhythmic design of the music also depended on following the text. Gregorian chant cannot be taken as ideal music, it is rather a chant of a prayerful text.

Mass – main genre composer music of the Middle Ages

catholic mass is the main liturgy of the church. She combined such types of Gregorian chant as:

• antiphonal (when two choirs sing in turn);
• responsorial (alternately singing soloists and choir).

The community took part only in the singing of common prayers.
Later, in the XII century. hymns (psalms), sequences, and tropes appeared in the mass. They were additional texts that had a rhyme (unlike the main chorale) and a special tune. These religious rhyming texts were much better remembered by parishioners. Singing along with the monks, they varied the melody, and elements of folk began to seep into sacred music and served as an occasion for authorial creativity (Notker Zaika and Tokelon monk - the monastery of St. Golene). Later, these tunes generally replaced the psalmodic parts and significantly enriched the sound of the Gregorian chant.

The first samples of polyphony come from monasteries, such as organum - movement in parallel fourths or fifths, gimel, foburdon - movement in sixth chords, conduct. Representatives of such music are the composers Leonin and Perotin (Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris- XII-XIII centuries).

Secular musical culture of the Middle Ages

The secular side of the musical culture of the Middle Ages was represented by: in France - jugglers, mimes, minstrels , in Germany - shpilmans, in Spain - hoglars, in Rus' - buffoons. All of them were itinerant artists and combined in their work playing instruments, singing, dancing, magic, puppet show, circus art.

Another component of secular music was chivalrous, the so-called courtly culture . A special knightly code was formed, which stated that each of the knights must have not only courage and bravery, but also refined manners, education and be devoted to the Beautiful Lady. All these aspects of the life of knights are reflected in the work troubadours(southern France - Provence), Trouvers(northern France), minnesingers(Germany).

Their work is presented mainly in love lyrics, its most common genre was canzona (albs - “Morning Songs” among the minnesingers). Widely applying the experience of the troubadours, the trouveurs created their own genres: “May songs”, “weaving songs”.

The most important area of ​​musical genres of representatives of the courtly culture was song and dance genres, such as rondo, virele, ballad, heroic epic. The role of the instruments was very insignificant, it was reduced to framing the vocal melodies with an introduction, interlude, postlude.

Mature Middle Ages XI-XIII centuries.

A characteristic feature of the mature Middle Ages is the development burgher culture . Its focus was anti-church, free-thinking, connection with comic and carnival folklore. New genres of polyphony appear: motet, which is characterized by melodic dissimilarity of voices, moreover, in a motet they sing simultaneously different texts and even on different languages; madrigal - song mother tongue(Italian), caccia is a vocal piece with lyrics describing a hunt.

From the 12th century to folk art the vagantes and goliards joined, who, unlike the rest, were literate. Universities became carriers of the musical culture of the Middle Ages. Since the modal system of the Middle Ages was developed by representatives of sacred music, they began to be called church modes (Ionian mode, Aeolian mode).

The doctrine of hexachords was also put forward - only 6 steps were used in frets. The monk Guido Aretinsky made a more perfect system of recording notes, which consisted in the presence of 4 lines, between which there was a tertian ratio and key sign or line coloring. He also introduced the syllabic name of the steps, that is, the height of the steps began to be indicated by letters.

Ars Nova XIII-XV centuries

The transitional period between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was the XIV century. This period in France and Italy was called Ars Nova, that is, "new art". The time has come for new experiments in art. Composers began to compose works, the rhythm of which became much more complicated than the previous ones (Philippe de Vitry).

Also unlike sacred music, semitones were introduced here, as a result of which random rises and falls of tones began to occur, but this is not yet modulation. As a result of such experiments, works were obtained that were interesting, but far from always euphonious. Solage was the brightest experimenter-musician of that time. musical culture The Middle Ages is more developed in comparison with the culture ancient world, despite the limitations of funds and contains the prerequisites for the flourishing of music in the Renaissance.

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Books

• Illustrated History of Art. Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, Lyubke V. Lifetime edition. St. Petersburg, 1884. Edition of A. S. Suvorin. Edition with 134 drawings. Owner's binding with leather spine and corners. Bandage spine. Security is good.…
• Illustrated History of Art. Architecture, sculpture, painting, music (for schools, self-study and information), Lübke. Life edition. St. Petersburg, 1884. Edition of A. S. Suvorin. Book with 134 drawings. Typographic cover. The safety is good. Small tears on the cover. Richly illustrated…

In the conditions of the early Middle Ages, the entire musical culture is reduced to two main "terms". At one of its poles is professional liturgical music legalized by the church, which is in principle the same for all peoples who have adopted Christianity (the unity of the language is Latin, the unity of singing is the Gregorian chant). On the other side - folk music persecuted by the church in various local languages, connected with folk life, with the activities of wandering musicians.

Despite the absolute inequality of forces (in terms of support from the state, material conditions, etc.), folk music developed intensively and even partially penetrated the church in the form of various inserts into the canonized Gregorian chant. Among them, for example, tropes and sequences created by gifted musicians.

trails - these are text and musical additions inserted into the middle of the chorale. A kind of trail is a sequence. Medievalsequences These are subtexts of complex vocalizations. One of the reasons that caused their occurrence was the significant difficulty in remembering long melodies sung in one vowel. Over time, the sequences began to be based on the melodies of the folk warehouse.

A monk is named among the authors of the first sequences.Notker nicknamed Zaika from the monastery of St. Gallen (in Switzerland, near lake constance). Notker (840-912) wascomposer, poet, musical theorist, historian, theologian. He taught at the monastery school and, despite his stutter, was known as an excellent teacher. For his sequences, Notker partially used famous tunes, partly composed by himself.

By decree of the Council of Trent (1545-63), almost all sequences were expelled from church service, with the exception of four. Among them, the most famous was the sequenceDies irae ("Day of Wrath"), telling about the day of judgment . Later, the fifth sequence was admitted into Catholic church use,Stabat mater ("There was a grieving mother").

The spirit of worldly art was brought into church life andhymns - spiritual chants, close folk songs to the poetic text.

From the end XIcentury in musical life Western Europe includes new types of creativity and music-making associated with the knightly culture. Singers-knights, in essence, marked the beginning of secular music. Their art was in contact with the folk-everyday musical tradition (the use of folk-song intonations, the practice of cooperation with folk musicians). In a number of cases, the troubadours probably selected common folk melodies for their texts.

The greatest achievement of the musical culture of the Middle Ages was the birth of a professional Europeanpolyphony . Its beginning refers toIXcentury, when the unison performance of Gregorian chant was sometimes replaced by a two-voice one. The earliest type of two-voice was parallelorganum , in which the Gregorian chant was dubbed into an octave, quart or fifth. Then a non-parallel organum appeared with indirect (when only one voice moved) and opposite movement. Gradually, the voice accompanying the Gregorian chant became more and more independent. This style of double voice is calledtreble (in translation - “pe-nie apart”).

For the first time such organums began to be writtenLeonin , the first known composer-polyphonist (XIIcentury). He served as regent in the famous Notre Dame Cathedral, where a large polyphonic school developed.

Leonin's work was associated withars antiqua (ars antiqua, which means " old art"). This name was given to the cult polyphonyXII- XIIIcenturies musicians early renaissance, which opposed itars nova ("new art").

At first XIIIcenturies the tradition of Leonin continuedPerotin , according to the nickname Great. He no longer composed two-voice, but 3 x and 4 x - vocal organs. Perotin's upper voices sometimes form a contrasting two-voice, sometimes he skillfully uses imitation.

At the time of Perotin formed and new type polyphony -conductor , the basis of which was no longer Gregorian chant, but a popular everyday or freely composed melody.

An even bolder polyphonic form wasmotet - a combination of melodies with different rhythms and different texts, often even in different languages. Motet was the first musical genre, equally common in the church and in court life.

The development of polyphony, the departure from the simultaneous pronunciation of each syllable of the text in all voices (in motets), required the improvement of notation, the exact designation of durations. Appearsmensural notation (from Latin mensura - measure; literally - measured notation), which made it possible to fix both the height and the relative duration of sounds.

In parallel with the development of polyphony, there was a process of formationmasses - a polyphonic cyclic work on the text of the main divine service of the Catholic Church. The ritual of the mass took shape over many centuries. It acquired its final form only toXIve-ku. How holistic musical composition Mass took shape even later, inXIVcentury, becoming the leading musical genre of the Renaissance.

The Middle Ages is a great era of human history, the time of the domination of the feudal system.

Periodization of culture:

Early Middle Ages - 5th - 10th centuries

Mature Middle Ages - XI - XIV centuries.

In 395, the Roman Empire split into two parts: Western and Eastern. In the western part on the ruins of Rome in the 5th-9th centuries there were barbarian states: Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, etc. In the 9th century, as a result of the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne, three states were formed here: France, Germany, Italy. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the Greek colony of Byzantium - hence the name of the state.

§ 1. Western European Middle Ages

The material basis of the Middle Ages was feudal relations. Medieval culture is formed in the conditions rural estate. Further social basis culture becomes urban environment - burghers. With the formation of states, the main estates are formed: the clergy, the nobility, the people.

The art of the Middle Ages is closely connected with church . christian creed- the basis of philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, the entire spiritual life of this time. Filled with religious symbolism, art aspires from the earthly, transient to the spiritual, eternal.

Along with official church culture (high) existed secular culture (grassroots) - folklore(lower social classes) and knightly(courtly).

Main foci professional music of the early Middle Ages - cathedrals, singing schools attached to them, monasteries - the only centers of education of that time. They studied Greek and Latin, arithmetic and music.

The main center of church music in Western Europe Rome was in the Middle Ages. At the end of VI - beginning of VII century. the main variety of Western European church music is being formed - Gregorian chant , named after Pope Gregory I, who carried out the reform of church singing, bringing together and streamlining various church hymns. Gregorian chant - monophonic Catholic chant, in which the centuries-old singing traditions of various Middle Eastern and European peoples (Syrians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, etc.) have merged. It was the smooth monophonic unfolding of a single melody that was intended to personify a single will, the focus of attention of the parishioners in accordance with the tenets of Catholicism. The nature of music is strict, impersonal. The chorale was performed by the choir (hence the name), some sections by the soloist. Stepwise movement based on diatonic modes prevails. Gregorian chant allowed many gradations, ranging from severely slow choral psalmody and ending anniversaries(melismatic chanting of a syllable), requiring virtuoso vocal skills for their performance.

Gregorian singing alienates the listener from reality, causes humility, leads to contemplation, mystical detachment. The text on latin, incomprehensible mass of parishioners. The rhythm of singing was determined by the text. It is vague, indefinite, due to the nature of the accents of the recitation of the text.

The diverse types of Gregorian chant were brought together in the main worship service of the Catholic Church - mass, in which five stable parts were established:

Kyrie eleison(Lord have mercy)

Gloria(glory)

Credo(believe)

Sanctus(holy)

Agnus Dei(Lamb of God).

As time passes, elements begin to seep into Gregorian chant. folk music through hymns, sequences and tropes. If the psalmody was performed by a professional choir of singers and clergy, then the hymns at first were performed by parishioners. They were inserts into official worship (they had features of folk music). But soon the hymn parts of the mass began to supplant the psalmodic ones, which led to the appearance polyphonic mass.

The first sequences were a subtext to the melody of the anniversary so that one sound of the melody would have a separate syllable. The sequence becomes a common genre (the most popular « Veni, sancte spiritus» , « Dies irae», « Stabat mater» ). "Dies irae" was used by Berlioz, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninov (very often as a symbol of death).

The first samples of polyphony come from monasteries - organum(movement in parallel fifths or fourths), gimel, fobourdon(parallel sixth chords), conductor. Composers: Leonin and Perotin (12-13 centuries - Notre Dame Cathedral).

carriers secular folk music in the Middle Ages mimes, jugglers, minstrels in France, shpilmans- in countries German culture, hoglars - in Spain, buffoons - in Rus'. These itinerant artists were universal masters: they combined singing, dancing, playing the various tools with magic, circus art, puppet theater.

the other side secular culture was knightly (courtly) culture (culture of secular feudal lords). Almost all noble people were knights - from poor warriors to kings. A special knightly code is being formed, according to which a knight, along with courage and valor, had to have refined manners, be educated, generous, magnanimous, faithfully serve the Beautiful Lady. All aspects of knightly life are reflected in the musical and poetic art troubadours(Provence - southern France) , trouvers(northern France), minnesingers(Germany). The art of troubadours is associated mainly with love lyrics. The most popular genre of love lyrics was canzone(among the minnesingers - "Morning Songs" - albs).

Trouvers, widely using the experience of troubadours, created their own original genres: weaving songs», « May songs". An important area of ​​musical genres of troubadours, trouvers and minnesingers was song and dance genres: rondo, ballad, virele(refrain forms), as well as heroic epic(French epic "Song of Roland", German - "Song of the Nibelungs"). Minnesingers were common crusader songs.

Characteristic features of the art of troubadours, trouvers and minnesingers:

monophony- is a consequence of the inseparable connection between the melody and the poetic text, which follows from the very essence of musical and poetic art. The monophony also corresponded to the attitude towards the individualized expression of one's own experiences, to a personal assessment of the content of the statement (often the expression of personal experiences was framed by the depiction of pictures of nature).

Mainly vocal performance. The role of the instruments was not significant: it was reduced to the performance of introductions, interludes and postludes framing the vocal melody.

It is still impossible to speak of chivalrous art as professional, but for the first time in conditions secular music-making, a powerful musical and poetic direction was created with a developed complex of expressive means and relatively perfect musical writing.

One of the important achievements mature middle ages starting from the X-XI centuries, was urban development(burgher culture) . The main features of urban culture were anti-church, freedom-loving orientation, connection with folklore, its comical and carnival character. The Gothic architectural style develops. New polyphonic genres are being formed: from the 13th-14th to the 16th centuries. - motet(from French - “word”. For a motet, a melodic dissimilarity of voices is typical, intoning different texts at the same time - often even in different languages), madrigal(from Italian - “song in the native language”, i.e. Italian. Texts are love-lyrical, pastoral), caccha(from Italian - “hunting” - a vocal piece based on a text depicting hunting).

Folk wandering musicians are moving from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary one, populating entire city blocks and forming a kind of "musician workshops". Starting from the XII century, folk musicians joined vagants and goliards- declassed people from different classes (school students, runaway monks, wandering clerics). Unlike illiterate jugglers - typical representatives of the art of oral tradition - vagantes and goliards were literate: they knew the Latin language and the rules of classical versification, composed music - songs (the range of images is associated with school science and student life) and even complex compositions such as conducts and motets .

A significant center of musical culture has become universities. Music, more precisely - musical acoustics - together with astronomy, mathematics, physics was part of the quadrium, i.e. a cycle of four disciplines studied at universities.

Thus, in the medieval city there were centers of musical culture, different in character and social orientation: associations of folk musicians, court music, music of monasteries and cathedrals, university musical practice.

Musical theory of the Middle Ages was closely associated with theology. In the few musical-theoretical treatises that have come down to us, music was considered as a "servant of the church." Among the prominent treatises of the early Middle Ages, 6 books “On Music” by Augustine, 5 books by Boethius “On the Establishment of Music”, etc. stand out. A large place in these treatises was given to abstract scholastic issues, the doctrine of the cosmic role of music, etc.

The medieval modal system was developed by representatives of the church professional musical art- therefore, the name “church modes” was assigned to the medieval frets. Ionian and Aeolian became established as the main modes.

The musical theory of the Middle Ages put forward the doctrine of hexachords. In each fret, 6 steps were used in practice (for example: do, re, mi, fa, salt, la). Xi was then avoided, because. formed, together with the F, a move to an enlarged quart, which was considered very dissonant and was figuratively called the "devil in music."

Non-mandatory notation was widely used. Guido Aretinsky improved the system of musical notation. The essence of his reform was as follows: the presence of four lines, a tertiary relationship between individual lines, a key sign (originally literal) or coloring of lines. He also introduced syllabic notation for the first six steps of the mode: ut, re, mi, fa, salt, la.

Introduced mensural notation, where a certain rhythmic measure was assigned to each note (Latin mensura - measure, measurement). Names of durations: maxim, longa, brevis, etc.

XIV century - the transitional period between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The art of France and Italy of the XIV century was called " Ars nova"(from Latin - new art), and in Italy it had all the properties of the early Renaissance. Main features: refusal to use exclusively church music genres and turning to secular vocal and instrumental chamber genres (ballad, kachcha, madrigal), rapprochement with everyday song, use of various musical instruments. Ars nova is the opposite of the so-called. ars antiqua (lat. ars antiqua - old art), implying the art of music before the beginning of the XIV century. The largest representatives ars nova were Guillaume de Macho (14th century, France) and Francesco Landino (14th century, Italy).

Thus, the musical culture of the Middle Ages, despite the relative limited means, represents a higher level in comparison with the music of the Ancient World and contains the prerequisites for the flourishing of musical art in the Renaissance.