Romanticism in Music (end). Musical Culture of Romanticism: Aesthetics, Themes, Genres and Musical Language Musical Genres of the Romantic Era

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1 PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in the specialty "Musical Art" in art history analysis and systematization of the material, development of research methods and skills of scientific thinking and scientific generalization. The candidate minimum is designed for graduates of conservatories with basic education. An important place in the training of scientific and creative personnel is given to acquaintance with the problems of modern musicology (including interdisciplinary), in-depth study of the history and theory of music, including such disciplines as the analysis of musical forms, harmony, polyphony, the history of domestic and foreign music. A worthy place in the program is given to the problems of creating, preserving and distributing music, questions of profiling the scientific research of graduate students (applicants), their scientific views and interests related to the subject of the dissertation. Postgraduate students (applicants) who take an exam in this specialty are also required to master special concepts of musicology, which make it possible to use new concepts and provisions in their scientific and creative activities. An important factor in the requirements is the mastery of modern research technologies, the ability and skills to use theoretical material in practical (performing, pedagogical, scientific) activities. the requirement factor is the mastery of modern research technologies, the ability and skills to use theoretical material in practical (performing, pedagogical, scientific) activities. The program was developed by the Astrakhan Conservatory on the basis of the minimum program of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory, approved by the expert council of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Ministry of Education for Philology and Art History. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM: 1. The theory of musical intonation. 2. Classic style in music XVIII century. 3. Theory of musical dramaturgy. 4. Musical baroque. 5. Methodology and theory of folklore.

2 6. Romanticism. His general and musical aesthetics. 7. Genre in music. 8. Artistic and stylistic processes in Western European music of the second half of the 19th century. 9. Style in music. Polystylistics. 10. Mozartianism in the music of the 19th and 20th centuries. 11. Theme and thematism in music. 12. Imitation forms of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. 13. Fugue: concept, genesis, typology of form. 14. Traditions of Mussorgsky in Russian music of the 20th century. 15. Ostinata and ostinato forms in music. 16. Mythopoetics of Rimsky-Korsakov's operatic work. 17. Musical rhetoric and its manifestation in the music of the XIX and XX centuries. 18. Stylistic processes in the musical art of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. 19. Modality. Modus. modal technique. Modal music of the Middle Ages and the 20th century. 20. "Faustian" theme in the music of the XIX and XX centuries. 21. Series. serial technology. Seriality. 22. Music of the 20th century in the light of the ideas of the synthesis of arts. 23. Opera genre and its typology. 24. Symphony genre and its typology. 25. Expressionism in music. 26. The theory of functions in musical form and in harmony. 27. Stylistic processes in Russian music of the second half of the twentieth century. 28. Characteristic features of the sound organization of the music of the twentieth century. 29. Artistic trends in Russian music of the 1900s. 30. Harmony in the music of the XIX century. 31. Shostakovich in the context of the musical culture of the twentieth century. 32. Modern musical-theoretical systems. 33. Creativity I.S. Bach and its historical significance. 34. The problem of classification of chord material in modern musical theories. 35. Symphony in modern Russian music. 36. Problems of tonality in modern musicology. 37. Stravinsky in the context of the era. 38. Folklorism in the music of the twentieth century. 39. Word and music. 40. Main trends in Russian music of the 19th century.

3 REFERENCES: Recommended basic literature 1. Alshvang A.A. Selected works in 2 vols. M., 1964, Alshvang A.A. Chaikovsky. M., Antique aesthetics. Introductory essay and collection of texts by A.F. Losev. M., Anton Webern. Lectures on music. Letters. M., Aranovsky M.G. Musical text: structure, properties. M., Aranovsky M.G. Thinking, language, semantics. //Problems of musical thinking. M., Aranovsky M.G. Symphonic quest. L., Asafiev B.V. Selected works, t M., Asafiev B.V. Book about Stravinsky. L., Asafiev B.V. Musical form as a process, book. 12 (). L., Asafiev B.V. Russian music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Asafiev B.V. Symphonic Etudes. L., Aslanishvili Sh. Principles of shaping in J.S. Bach's fugues. Tbilisi, Balakirev M.A. Memories. Letters. L., Balakirev M.A. Research. Articles. L., Balakirev M.V. and V.V. Stasov. Correspondence. M., 1970, Barenboim L.A. A.G. Rubinshtein. L., 1957, Barsova I.L. Essays on the history of score notation (XVI - first half of the XVIII century). M., Bela Bartok. Sat Articles. M., Belyaev V.M. Mussorgsky. Scriabin. Stravinsky. M., Bershadskaya T.S. Lectures on harmony. L., Bobrovsky V.P. On the variability of the functions of musical form. M., Bobrovsky V.P. Functional foundations of musical form. M., Bogatyrev S.S. Double canon. M. L., Bogatyrev S. S. Reversible counterpoint. M. L., Borodin A.P. Letters. M., Vasina-Grossman V.A. Russian classical romance. M., Volman B.L. Russian printed notes of the 18th century. L., Memories of Rachmaninoff. In 2 vols. M., Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. M., Glazunov A.K. musical heritage. In 2 vols. L., 1959, 1960.

4 32. Glinka M.I. literary heritage. M., 1973, 1975, Glinka M.I. Collection of materials and articles / Ed. Livanova T.M.-L., Gnesin M. Thoughts and memories of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Gozenpud A.A. Musical theater in Russia. From the origins to Glinka. L., Gozenpud A.A. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Themes and ideas of his operatic creativity. 37. Gozenpud A.A. Russian opera theater of the 19th and early 20th centuries. L., Grigoriev S.S. Theoretical course of harmony. M., Gruber R.I. History of musical culture. Volume 1 2. M. L., Gulyanitskaya N.S. Introduction to Modern Harmony. M., Danilevich L. Rimsky-Korsakov's last operas. M., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Autobiography. Letters. Memories. Pg., Dargomyzhsky A.S. Selected letters. M., Dianin S.A. Borodin. M., Diletsky N.P. The idea of ​​a Musikian grammar. M., Dmitriev A. Polyphony as a factor of shaping. L., Documents of the life and work of Johann Sebastian Bach. /Comp. H.- J. Schulze; per. with him. and comment. V.A. Erokhin. M., Dolzhansky A.N. On the modal basis of Shostakovich's compositions. (1947) // Features of the style of D.D. Shostakovich. M., Druskin M.S. On Western European music of the 20th century. M., Evdokimova Yu.K. History of polyphony. Issues I, II-a. M., 1983, Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance (cantus firmus and work with him). M., Evseev S. Russian folk polyphony. M., Zhitomirsky D.V. Ballets by Tchaikovsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphonic thinking of I. Stravinsky. M., Zaderatsky V. Polyphony in instrumental works by D. Shostakovich. M., Zakharova O. Musical rhetoric. M., Ivanov Boretsky M.V. Musical-historical reader. Issue 1-2. M., History of polyphony: in 7 editions. You.2. Dubrovskaya T.N. M., History of Russian music in materials / Ed. K.A. Kuznetsova. M., History of Russian music. In 10 vols. M.,

5 61. Kazantseva L.P. Author in musical content. M., Kazantseva L.P. Fundamentals of the theory of musical content. Astrakhan, Kandinsky A.I. From the history of Russian symphony of the late XIX - early XX centuries // From the history of Russian and Soviet music, vol. 1. M., Kandinsky A.I. Monuments of Russian musical culture (choral works a capella by Rakhmaninov) // Soviet music, 1968, Karatygin V.G. Selected articles. M. L., Catuar G. L. Theoretical course of harmony, part 1 2. M., Keldysh Yu.V. Essays and research on the history of Russian music. M., Kirillina L.V. Classical style in music of the 18th and early 19th centuries: 69. Self-awareness of the era and musical practice. M., Kirnarskaya D.K. musical perception. M., Claude Debussy. Articles, reviews, conversations. / Per. from French M. L., Kogan G. Questions of pianism. M., Kon Yu. To the question of the concept of "musical language". //From Lully to the present day. M., Konen V.D. Theater and symphony. M., Korchinsky E.N. On the question of the theory of canonical imitation. L., Korykhalova N.P. Music interpretation. L., Kuznetsov I.K. Theoretical foundations of polyphony of the twentieth century. M., Kurs E. Fundamentals of linear counterpoint. M., Kurt E. Romantic harmony and its crisis in Wagner's Tristan, M., Kushnarev H.S. Issues of history and theory of Armenian monodic music. L., Kushnarev Kh.S. About polyphony. M., Cui Ts. Selected Articles. L., Lavrentieva I.V. Vocal forms in the course of the analysis of musical compositions. M., Larosh G.A. Selected articles. Issue 5 L., Levaya T. Russian music of the late 19th - early 20th centuries in the artistic 86. context of the era. M., Livanova T.N. Bach's musical dramaturgy and its historical connections. M. L., Livanova T. N., Protopopov V. V. M.I. Glinka, t M.,

6 89. Lobanova M. Western European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics. M., Losev A.F. On the Concept of the Artistic Canon // The Problem of the Canon in the Ancient and Medieval Art of Asia and Africa. M., Losev A.F., Shestakov V.P. History of aesthetic categories. M., Lotman Yu.M. Canonical art as an informational paradox. // The problem of the canon in the ancient and medieval art of Asia and Africa. M., Lyadov An.K. Life. Portrait. Creation. Pg Mazel L.A. Questions of music analysis. M., Mazel L.A. About the melody. M., Mazel L.A. Problems of classical harmony. M., Mazel L.A., Zuckerman V.A. Analysis of musical works. M., Medushevsky V.V. intonation form of music. M., Medushevsky V.V. Musical style as a semiotic object. //SM Medushevsky V.V. On the regularities and means of the artistic influence of music. M., Medtner N. Muse and fashion. Paris, 1935, reprint N. Medtner. Letters. M., Medtner N. Articles. Materials. Memories / Comp. Z. Apetyan. M., Milka A. Theoretical foundations of functionality. L., Mikhailov M.K. Style in music. L., Music and musical life old Russia/ Ed. Asafiev. L musical culture ancient world / Ed. R.I. Gruber. L., Musical aesthetics of Germany in the 19th century. / Comp. Al.V. Mikhailov. In 2 vols. M., Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and Renaissance. Compiled by V.P. Shestakov. M., Musical aesthetics of France in the 19th century. M., Tchaikovsky's musical legacy. M., Music content: science and pedagogy. Ufa, Mussorgsky M.P. literary heritage. M., Muller T. Polyphony. M., Myaskovsky N. Musical and critical articles: in 2 vols. M., Myasoedov A.N. On the harmony of classical music (the roots of national specificity). M., 1998.

7 117. Nazaikinsky E.V. The logic of musical composition. M., Nazaikinsky E.V. On the psychology of musical perception. M., Nikolaeva N.S. "Gold of the Rhine" is the prologue of the Wagnerian concept of the universe. // 120. Problems of romantic music of the 19th century. M., Nikolaeva N.S. Symphonies by Tchaikovsky. M., Nosina V.B. The symbolism of J.S. Bach's music and its interpretation in the "Good 123. Tempered Clavier". M., On Rachmaninoff's symphony and his poem "The Bells" // Soviet Music, 1973, 4, 6, Odoevsky V.F. Musical and literary heritage. M., Pavchinsky S.E. Scriabin's works of the late period. M., Paisov Yu.I. Polytonality in the Works of Soviet and Foreign Composers of the 20th Century. M., In memory of S.I. Taneev. M., Prout E. Fuga. M., Protopopov V.V. "Ivan Susanin" Glinka. M., Protopopov V.V. Essays from the history of instrumental forms of the 16th - early 19th centuries. M., Protopopov V.V. Principles of the musical form of J.S. Bach. M., Protopopov V.V., Tumanina N.V. Opera works by Tchaikovsky. M., Rabinovich A.S. Russian opera before Glinka. M., Rachmaninov S.V. Literary heritage / Comp. Z. Apetyan M., Riemann H. Simplified harmony or the doctrine of the tonal functions of chords. M., Rimsky-Korsakov A.N. N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Life and art. M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Memoirs of V.V. Yastrebtsev. L., 1959, Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. literary heritage. T M., Rimsky-Korsakov N.A. Practical textbook of harmony. Complete Works, vol. iv. M., Richard Wagner. Selected works. M., Rovenko A. Practical foundations of stretto imitation polyphony. M., Romain Rolland. Muses. historical heritage. Vyp M., Rubinshtein A.G. literary heritage. T. 1, 2. M., 1983, 1984.

8 145. Russian book about Bach / Ed. T.N. Livanova, V.V. Protopopov. M., Russian music and the twentieth century. M., Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Book. 1, 3. M., 1969, Ruchevskaya E.A. Functions theme song. L., Savenko S.I. I.F. Stravinsky. M., Saponov M.L. Minstrels: essays on the musical culture of the Western Middle Ages. Moscow: Prest, Simakova N.A. Vocal genres of the Renaissance. M., Skrebkov S.S. Polyphony textbook. Ed. 4. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles musical styles. M., Skrebkov S.S. Artistic principles of musical styles. M., Skrebkova-Filatova M.S. Texture in music: Artistic possibilities, structure, functions. M., Skryabin A.N. To the 25th anniversary of his death. M., Skryabin A.N. Letters. M., Skryabin A.N. Sat. Art. M., Smirnov M.A. The emotional world of music. M., Sokolov O. To the problem of typology of music. genres. //Problems of music of the XX century. Gorky, Solovtsov A.A. Life and work of Rimsky-Korsakov. M., Sohor A. Questions of sociology and aesthetics of music. Part 2. L., Sohor A. Theory of Music. genres: tasks and prospects. // Theoretical problems musical forms and genres. M., Sposobin I.V. Lectures on the course of harmony. M., Stasov V.V. Articles. About music. In 5 issues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Dialogues. M., Stravinsky I.F. Correspondence with Russian correspondents. T / Red-comp. V.P. Varunts. M., Stravinsky I.F. Digest of articles. M., Stravinsky I.F. Chronicle of my life. M., Taneev S.I. Analysis of modulations in Beethoven's sonatas // Russian book about Beethoven. M., Taneev S.I. From the scientific and pedagogical heritage. M., Taneev S.I. Materials and documents. M., Taneev S.I. Movable counterpoint of strict writing. M., Taneev S.I. The doctrine of the canon. M., Tarakanov M.E. Alban Berg Musical Theatre. M., 1976.

9 176. Tarakanov M.E. New tonality in the music of the twentieth century // Problems of musical science. M., Tarakanov M.E. New images, new means // Soviet music, 1966, 1, Tarakanov M.E. Creativity of Rodion Shchedrin. M., Telin Yu.N. Harmony. Theoretical course. M., Timofeev N.A. Convertibility of simple canons of strict writing. M., Tumanina N.V. Chaikovsky. In 2 vols. M., 1962, Tyulin Yu.N. The art of counterpoint. M., Tyulin Yu.N. On the Origin and Initial Development of Harmony in Folk Music // Questions of Musical Science. M., Tyulin Yu.N. Modern harmony and its historical origin /1963/. // Theoretical problems of music of the XX century. M., Tyulin Yu.N. Doctrine of Harmony (1937). M., Franz Liszt. Berlioz and his symphony "Harold" // Liszt F. Izbr. articles. M., Ferman V.E. Opera theatre. M., Frid E.L. Past, present and future in Mussorgsky's Khovanshchina. L., Kholopov Yu.N. Changing and unchanging in the evolution of muses. thinking. // Problems of traditions and innovations in modern music. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Lada Shostakovich // Dedicated to Shostakovich. M., Kholopov Yu.N. About three foreign systems of harmony // Music and modernity. M., Kholopov Yu.N. Structural levels of harmony // Musica theorica, 6, MGK. M., 2000 (manuscript) Kholopova V.N. Music as an art form. SPb., Kholopova V.N. Musical themes. M., Kholopova V.N. Russian musical rhythm. M., Kholopova V.N. Texture. M., Zukkerman V.A. "Kamarinskaya" by Glinka and its traditions in Russian music. M., Zukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: Variation form. M., Zukkerman V.A. Analysis of musical works: General principles of development and shaping in music, simple forms. M., 1980.

10 200. Zuckerman V.A. Expressive means of Tchaikovsky's lyrics. M., Zukkerman V.A. Musical-theoretical essays and etudes. M., 1970, Zukkerman V.A. Musical-theoretical essays and etudes. M., 1970., no. II. M., Zukkerman V.A. Music genres and fundamentals of musical forms. M., Zukkerman V.A. Sonata in B minor by Liszt. M., Tchaikovsky M.I. Life of P.I. Tchaikovsky. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. and Taneev S.I. Letters. M., Tchaikovsky P.I. literary heritage. T M., Tchaikovsky P.I. Guide to the practical study of harmony / 1872 /, Complete collection of works, vol. iii-a. M., Cherednichenko T.V. On the problem of artistic value in music. // Problems of musical science. Issue 5. M., Chernova T.Yu. Dramaturgy in instrumental music. M., Chugaev A. Features of the structure of Bach's clavier fugues. M., Shakhnazarova N.G. Music of the East and Music of the West. M., Etinger M.A. Early classical harmony. M., Yuzhak K.I. Theoretical essay on the polyphony of free writing. L., Yavorsky B.L. Basic elements of music // Art, 1923, Yavorsky B.L. The structure of musical speech. Ch M., Yakupov A.N. Theoretical problems of musical communication. M., Das Musikwerk. Eine Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte. Hrsg. von K. G. Fellerer. Koln: Arno Volk Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Osterreich (DTO) [Multi-volume series "Monuments musical art in Austria"] Denkmaler Deutscher Tonkunst (DDT) [Multi-volume series "Monuments of German Art"].

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation PROGRAM - MINIMUM candidate exam in the specialty 17.00.02 "Musical Art" in art criticism The minimum program contains 19 pages.

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Although romanticism touched all kinds of art, it favored music most of all. German romantics created a real cult of her; they had a soil, they were contemporaries and heirs of the great German music - J.S. Bach, K.V. Gluka, F.J. Haydn, V.A. Mozart, L. Beethoven.

In music, romanticism as a trend takes shape in the 1820s; the final period of its development, called neo-romanticism, covers the last decades of the 19th century. Musical romanticism first appeared in Austria (F. Schubert), Germany (K. M. Weber, R. Schumann, R. Wagner) and Italy (N. Paganini, V. Bellini, early G. Verdi, etc.), somewhat later - in France (G. Berlioz, D.F. Ober), Poland (F. Chopin), Hungary (F. Liszt). In every country it took on a national form; sometimes in one country there were various romantic currents ( Leipzig school and the Weimar School in Germany).

If the aesthetics of classicism focused on the plastic arts with their inherent stability and completeness of the artistic image, then for the romantics, music became the expression of the essence of art as the embodiment of the endless dynamics of inner experiences.

Musical romanticism adopted such important general tendencies of romanticism as anti-rationalism, the primacy of the spiritual and its universalism, focus on the inner world of a person, the infinity of his feelings and moods. Hence the special role of the lyrical element, emotional immediacy and freedom of expression. Like romantic writers, romantic composers have an interest in the past, in distant exotic countries, love for nature, admiration for folk art. Numerous folk tales, legends and beliefs were translated into their writings. They considered the folk song as the ancestral basis of professional musical art. Folklore was a true carrier of national color, outside of which they could not imagine art.

Romantic music differs significantly from the preceding music of the Viennese classical school; it is less generalized in content, reflects reality not in an objectively contemplative way, but through the individual, personal experiences of a person (artist) in all the richness of their shades; it tends to gravitate towards the sphere of the characteristic and, at the same time, the portrait-individual, while being characteristically fixed in two main varieties - psychological and genre-everyday. Irony, humor, even the grotesque are much more widely represented; at the same time, national-patriotic and heroic-liberation themes are intensified (Chopin, as well as Liszt, Berlioz, etc.) Great importance acquire musical figurativeness, sound writing.

Significantly updated means of expression. The melody becomes more individualized and embossed, internally changeable, “responsive” to the subtlest shifts in mental states; harmony and instrumentation - richer, brighter, more colorful; in contrast to the balanced and logically ordered structures of the classics, the role of comparisons, free combinations of different characteristic episodes, increases.

The focus of attention of many composers has become the most synthetic genre - the opera, based among the romantics mainly on fairy-tale-fantastic, "magic" chivalric adventure and exotic plots. Hoffmann's Ondine was the first romantic opera.

In instrumental music, symphonies, chamber instrumental ensembles, sonatas for piano and other instruments remain defining genres, but they have been transformed from within. In instrumental compositions of various forms, tendencies towards musical painting are more pronounced. New genre varieties arise, for example, the symphonic poem, which combines features of the sonata allegro and the sonata-symphony cycle; its appearance is due to the fact that musical programming appears in romanticism as one of the forms of art synthesis, enrichment in instrumental music through unity with literature. The instrumental ballad was also a new genre. The tendency of romantics to perceive life as a motley series of individual states, paintings, scenes led to the development of various kinds of miniatures and their cycles (Tomashek, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, young Brahms).

In the musical and performing arts, romanticism manifested itself in the emotional richness of the performance, the richness of colors, in bright contrasts, and virtuosity (Paganini, Chopin, Liszt). In musical performance, as well as in the work of less significant composers, romantic features are often combined with outward efficiency and salonism. Romantic music remains an artistic enduring value and a living, effective heritage for subsequent eras.

Romanticism in music took shape under the influence of the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general. This was expressed in the appeal to synthetic genres, primarily to theatrical genres (especially opera), songs, instrumental miniatures, as well as in musical programming. On the other hand, the affirmation of programmaticity, as one of the brightest features of musical Romanticism, occurs as a result of the desire of progressive romantics for the concreteness of figurative expression.

Another important prerequisite is the fact that many romantic composers acted as music writers and critics (Hoffmann, Weber, Schumann, Wagner, Berlioz, Liszt, Verstovsky, etc.). Despite the inconsistency of romantic aesthetics in general, the theoretical work of representatives of progressive romanticism made a very significant contribution to the development of the most important issues of musical art (content and form in music, nationality, programming, connection with other arts, updating the means of musical expression, etc.), and this also influenced program music.

Programming in instrumental music is a characteristic feature of the era of romanticism, but by no means a discovery. The musical embodiment of various images and pictures of the surrounding world, adherence to the literary program and sound representation in a variety of ways can be observed even in baroque composers (for example, Vivaldi's The Four Seasons), French clavicinists (Couperin's sketches) and virginalists in England, in the work of Viennese classics ("program" symphonies, overtures by Haydn and Beethoven). And yet, the programmatic nature of romantic composers is on a somewhat different level. It is enough to compare the so-called genre of "musical portrait" in the works of Couperin and Schumann to realize the difference.

Most often, the programming of composers of the era of romanticism is a consistent deployment in musical images of a plot borrowed from one or another literary and poetic source or created by the imagination of the composer himself. Such a plot-narrative type of programming contributed to the concretization of the figurative content of music.

R. Schumann often relied on the images of literary romanticism (Jean Paul and E.T.A. Hoffmann), many of his works are characterized by literary and poetic programming. Schumann often turns to a cycle of lyrical, often contrasting miniatures (for piano or voice with piano), which allow revealing the complex range of psychological states of the hero, constantly balancing on the verge of reality and fiction. In Schumann's music, a romantic impulse alternates with contemplation, a whimsical scherzo with genre-humorous and even satirical-grotesque elements. A distinctive feature of Schumann's works is improvisation. Schumann concretized the polar spheres of his artistic worldview in the images of Florestan (the embodiment of a romantic impulse, aspirations for the future) and Euzebius (reflection, contemplation), constantly "present" in Schumann's musical and literary works as an hypostasis of the personality of the composer himself. At the center of music critical and literary activity Schumann - a brilliant critic - the fight against banality in art and life, the desire to transform life through art. Schumann created the fantastic Union of David, which combined, along with images of real people (N. Paganini, F. Chopin, F. Liszt, K. Schumann), fictional characters (Florestan, Euzebius; Maestro Raro as the personification of creative wisdom). The struggle between the “Davidsbündlers” and the philistines (“Philistines”) became one of the plot lines of the program piano cycle “Carnival”.

Historical role Hector Berlioz is to create a programmatic symphony of a new type. The pictorial descriptiveness characteristic of Berlioz's symphonic thinking, plot specificity, along with other factors (such as the intonational origins of music, the principles of orchestration, etc.) make the composer a characteristic phenomenon of French national culture. All Berlioz's symphonies have program names - "Fantastic", "Funeral-Triumphal", "Harold in Italy", "Romeo and Juliet". On the basis of the symphony, Berlioz created original genres - such as the dramatic legend "The Condemnation of Faust", the monodrama "Lelio".

Being an active and staunch propagandist of programming in music, a close and organic connection between music and other arts (poetry, painting), Franz Liszt especially persistently and fully implemented this leading creative principle in symphonic music. Among everything symphonic creativity Liszt is distinguished by two program symphonies - "After reading Dante" and "Faust", which are high examples of program music. Liszt is also the creator of a new genre, the symphonic poem, which synthesizes music and literature. The genre of the symphonic poem became a favorite among composers from different countries and received great development and original creative implementation in Russian classical symphony of the second half of the 19th century. The prerequisites for the genre were examples of free form by F. Schubert (piano fantasy "Wanderer"), R. Schumann, F. Mendelssohn ("Hybrids"), later R. Strauss, Scriabin, Rachmaninov turned to the symphonic poem. main idea such a work - through music to convey a poetic idea.

Liszt's twelve symphonic poems constitute an excellent monument of program music, in which musical images and their development are connected with a poetic or moral-philosophical idea. The symphonic poem "What is heard on the mountain" based on the poem by V. Hugo embodies the romantic idea of ​​opposing the majestic nature to human sorrows and suffering. The symphonic poem "Tasso", written on the occasion of the celebration of the centenary of the birth of Goethe, depicts the suffering of the Italian Renaissance poet Torquato Tasso during his lifetime and the triumph of his genius after death. As the main theme of the work, Liszt used the song of the Venetian gondoliers, performed to the words of the opening stanza of Tasso's main work, the poem "Jerusalem Liberated".

The work of romantic composers was often the antithesis of the petty-bourgeois atmosphere of the 1820s and 1840s. It called to the world of high humanity, sang the beauty and power of feeling. Hot passion, proud masculinity, subtle lyricism, capricious variability of an endless stream of impressions and thoughts are the characteristic features of the music of the composers of the Romantic era, clearly manifested in instrumental program music.

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Content

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

XIXcentury………………………………………………………………..6

1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism………………………………….6

   Features of Romanticism in Germany……………………………………...10

2.1. General characteristics of the tragic category………………………….13

Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism…………………………………………………...33

3.1. The critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel…………………………..

3.2. The critical position of Friedrich Nietzsche…………………………………..

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………

Bibliographic list………………………………………………………

Introduction

Relevance this study is, firstly, in the perspective of considering the problem. The work combines the analysis of worldview systems and the work of two prominent representatives of German romanticism from different areas of culture: Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Arthur Schopenhauer. This, according to the author, is the element of novelty. The study attempts to combine the philosophical foundations and works of two well-known personalities on the basis of the predominance of the tragic orientation of their thinking and creativity.

Secondly, the relevance of the chosen topic lies indegree of knowledge of the problem. There are many major studies on German romanticism, as well as on the tragic in various spheres of life, but the topic of the tragic in German romanticism is presented mainly in small articles and separate chapters in monographs. Therefore, this area has not been thoroughly studied and is of interest.

Thirdly, the relevance of this work lies in the fact that the research problem is considered from different positions: not only representatives of the era of romanticism, who proclaim romantic aesthetics with their worldview positions and creativity, are characterized, but also criticism of romanticism by G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.

Target research - to identify the specific features of the philosophy of art by Goethe and Schopenhauer, as representatives of German romanticism, taking as a basis the tragic orientation of their worldview and creativity.

Tasks research:

Identify the common characteristic features of romantic aesthetics.

Identify the specific features of German romanticism.

Show the change in the immanent content of the tragic category and its understanding in different historical epochs.

To identify the specifics of the manifestation of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism on the example of a comparison of worldview systems and creativity of the two largest representatives of German cultureXIXcentury.

Reveal the limits of romantic aesthetics, considering the problem through the prism of the views of G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche.

Object of study is the culture of German romanticism,subject - the mechanism of the constitution of romantic art.

Research sources are:

Monographs and articles on romanticism and its manifestations in GermanyXIXcentury: Asmus V., “Musical aesthetics of philosophical romanticism”, Berkovsky N.Ya., “Romanticism in Germany”, Vanslov V.V., “Aesthetics of romanticism”, Lucas F.L., “The decline and collapse of the romantic ideal”, "Musical Aesthetics of GermanyXIXcentury”, in 2 volumes, comp. Mikhailov A.V., Shestakov V.P., Solleritinsky I.I., “Romanticism, its general and musical aesthetics”, Teteryan I.A., “Romanticism as an integral phenomenon”.

Proceedings of the studied personalities: Hegel G.F. "Lectures on Aesthetics", "On the Essence of Philosophical Criticism"; Goethe I.V., "The Suffering of Young Werther", "Faust"; Nietzsche F., "The Fall of the Idols", "Beyond Good and Evil", "The Birth of the Tragedy of Their Spirit of Music", "Schopenhauer as an Educator"; Schopenhauer A., ​​"The World as Will and Representation" in 2 volumes, "Thoughts".

Monographs and articles dedicated to the personalities under study: Antiks A.A., “Goethe's creative path”, Vilmont N.N., “Goethe. The history of his life and work”, Gardiner P., “Arthur Schopenhauer. Philosopher of German Hellenism", Pushkin V.G., "Hegel's philosophy: the absolute in man", Sokolov V.V., "Historical and philosophical concept of Hegel", Fischer K., "Arthur Schopenhauer", Eckerman I.P., " Conversations with Goethe in the last years of his life.

Textbooks on the history and philosophy of science: Kanke V.A., “Main philosophical trends and concepts of science”, Koir A.V., “Essays on the history of philosophical thought. On the influence of philosophical concepts on the development of scientific theories”, Kuptsov V.I., “Philosophy and methodology of science”, Lebedev S.A., “Fundamentals of the philosophy of science”, Stepin V.S., “Philosophy of science. Common problems: a textbook for graduate students and applicants for the degree of candidate of sciences.

Reference literature: Lebedev S.A., “Philosophy of Science: Dictionary of Basic Terms”, “Modern Western Philosophy. Dictionary, comp. Malakhov V.S., Filatov V.P., “Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary”, comp. Averintseva S.A., “Aesthetics. Theory of Literature. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Terms”, comp. Borev Yu.B.

Chapter 1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism and its manifestations in Germany XIX century.

1. General characteristics of the aesthetics of romanticism

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic movement in European culture that embraced all types of art and science, the flowering of which falls on the end ofXVIII- StartXIXcentury. The term "romanticism" itself has a complex history. In the Middle Ages, the wordromance" meant the national languages ​​formed from the Latin language. Terms "enromancier», « roman car" And "romanz" meant writing books in the national language or translating them into the national language. INXVIIcentury English word "romance” was understood as something fantastic, bizarre, chimerical, too exaggerated, and its semantics was negative. In French, it differedromanesque" (also with negative coloration) and "romanticism”, which meant “gentle”, “soft”, “sentimental”, “sad”. In England, in this sense, the word was used inXVIIIcentury. In Germany, the wordromanticism» used inXVIIcentury in the French senseromanesque", and from the middleXVIIIcentury in the meaning of "soft", "sad".

The concept of "romanticism" is also ambiguous. According to the American scientist A.O. Lovejoy, the term has so many meanings that it means nothing, it is both irreplaceable and useless; and F.D. Lucas, in his book The Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal, counted 11,396 definitions of romanticism.

The first to use the termromanticism» in the literature F. Schlegel, and in relation to music - E.T. A. Hoffman.

Romanticism was generated by a combination of many reasons, both socio-historical and intra-artistic. The most important among them was the impact of the new historical experience that the French Revolution brought with it. This experience required reflection, including artistic, and forced to reconsider creative principles.

Romanticism arose in the pre-stormy conditions of social storms and was the result of public hopes and disappointments in the possibilities of a reasonable transformation of society on the basis of the principle of freedom, equality and fraternity.

The system of ideas became an invariant of the artistic conception of the world and personality for the Romantics: evil and death cannot be removed from life, they are eternal and immanently contained in the very mechanism of life, but the struggle against them is also eternal; world sorrow is a state of the world that has become a state of the spirit; resistance to evil does not give him the opportunity to become the absolute ruler of the world, but it cannot radically change this world and eliminate evil completely.

A pessimistic component appears in the Romance culture. The "morality of happiness" asserted by philosophyXVIIIcentury is replaced by an apology for heroes deprived of life, but also drawing inspiration from their misfortune. Romantics believed that the history and spirit of man move forward through tragedy, and recognized universal variability as the basic law of being.

Romantics are characterized by duality of consciousness: there are two worlds (the world of dreams and the world of reality), which are opposite. Heine wrote: "The world split, and the crack went through the poet's heart." That is, the consciousness of a romantic split into two parts - the real world and the illusory world. This dual world is projected onto all spheres of life (for example, the characteristic romantic opposition of the individual and society, the artist and the crowd). From here comes the desire for a dream that is unattainable, and as one of the manifestations of this, the desire for exotic (exotic countries and their cultures, natural phenomena), unusualness, fantasy, transcendence, various kinds of extremes (including in emotional states) and motive of wandering, wandering. This is because real life, according to the Romantics, is in unreal world-world dreams. Reality is irrational, mysterious and opposes human freedom.

Another characteristic feature of romantic aesthetics is individualism and subjectivity. The creative person becomes the central figure. The aesthetics of romanticism put forward and for the first time developed the concept of the author and recommended creating a romantic image of the writer.

It was in the era of romanticism that special attention to feeling and sensitivity appeared. It was believed that the artist must have a sensitive heart, sympathize with his heroes. Chateaubriand emphasized that he strives to be a sensitive writer, appealing not to the mind, but to the soul, to the feelings of readers.

In general, the art of the era of romanticism is metaphorical, associative, symbolic and tends to synthesis and interaction of genres, types, as well as to connect with philosophy and religion. Each art, on the one hand, strives for immanence, but on the other hand, it tries to go beyond its own boundaries (this expresses another characteristic feature of the aesthetics of romanticism - the desire for transcendence, transcendence). For example, music interacts with literature and poetry, as a result of which program musical works appear, such genres as a ballad, a poem, later a fairy tale, a legend are borrowed from literature.

ExactlyXIXcentury, the genre of the diary appeared in literature (as a reflection of individualism and subjectivity) and the novel (according to the romantics, this genre combines poetry and philosophy, eliminates the boundaries between artistic practice and theory, becomes a reflection in miniature of the entire literary era).

Small forms appear in music, as a reflection of a certain moment of life (this can be illustrated by the words of Faust Goethe: “Stop, moment, you are beautiful!”). In this moment, romantics see eternity and infinity - this is one of the signs of the symbolism of romantic art.

In the era of romanticism, interest arises in the national specifics of art: in the folklore of romance, they saw a manifestation of the nature of life, in a folk song - a kind of spiritual support.

In romanticism, the features of classicism are lost - evil begins to be depicted in art. A revolutionary step in this was taken by Berlioz in his Fantastic Symphony. It was in the era of romanticism that a special figure appeared in music - a demonic virtuoso, vivid examples of which are Paganini and Liszt.

Summing up some results of the research section, the following should be noted: since the aesthetics of romanticism was born as a result of disappointment in the French Revolution and similar idealistic concepts of the Enlightenment, it has a tragic orientation. The main characteristic features of romantic culture are the duality of the worldview, subjectivity and individualism, the cult of feeling and sensitivity, interest in the Middle Ages, the Eastern world and, in general, all manifestations of the exotic.

The aesthetics of romanticism manifested itself most clearly in Germany. Next, we will try to identify the specific features of the aesthetics of German romanticism.

1. Peculiarities of Romanticism in Germany.

In the era of romanticism, when disappointment in the bourgeois transformations and their consequences became universal, the peculiar features of the spiritual culture of Germany received pan-European significance and had a strong impact on social thought, aesthetics, literature and art in other countries.

German Romanticism can be divided into two stages:

Jena (circa 1797-1804)

Heidelberg (after 1804)

There are different opinions about the period of development of romanticism in Germany during its heyday. For example: N.Ya. Berkovsky in the book “Romanticism in Germany” writes: “Almost all early romanticism comes down to the affairs and days of the Jena school, which took shape in Germany at the very end of the 17thIcenturies. The history of German romance has long been divided into two periods: the rise and fall. The heyday falls on the Jena time. A.V. Mikhailov in the book "The Aesthetics of the German Romantics" emphasizes that the heyday was the second stage in the development of romanticism: "Romantic aesthetics in its central," Heidelberg "time is a living aesthetics of the image."

One of the features of German Romanticism is its universality.

A.V. Mikhailov writes: “Romanticism claimed a universal view of the world, a comprehensive coverage and generalization of all human knowledge, and to a certain extent it really was a universal worldview. His ideas related to philosophy, politics, economics, medicine, poetics, etc., and always acted as ideas of extremely general significance.

This universality was represented in the Jena school, which united people of different professions: the Schlegel brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich, were philologists, literary critics, art historians, publicists; F. Schelling - philosopher and writer, Schleiermacher - philosopher and theologian, H. Steffens - geologist, I. Ritter - physicist, Gulsen - physicist, L. Tiek - poet, Novallis - writer.

The romantic philosophy of arts received a systematic form in the lectures of A. Schlegel and the writings of F. Schelling. Also, representatives of the Jena school created the first examples of the art of romanticism: L. Tieck's comedy "Puss in Boots" (1797), "Hymns to the Night" lyric cycle (1800) and the novel "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" (1802) by Novalis.

The second generation of German romantics, the "Heidelberg" school, was distinguished by an interest in religion, national antiquity, and folklore. The most important contribution to German culture was the collection of folk songs "The Magic Horn of a Boy" (1806-1808), compiled by L. Arnim and C. Berntano, as well as "Children's and Family Tales" by the brothers J. and V. Grimm (1812-1814). Lyric poetry also reached high perfection at that time (we can cite the poems of I. Eichendorff as an example).

Based on the mythological ideas of Schelling and the Schlegel brothers, the Heidelberg romantics finally formalized the principles of the first deep scientific direction in folklore and literary criticism - the mythological school.

The next characteristic feature of German romanticism is the artistry of its language.

A.V. Mikhailov writes: “German romanticism is by no means reduced to art, literature, poetry, however, both in philosophy and in the sciences, it does not cease to use artistic and symbolic language. The aesthetic content of the romantic worldview is equally contained in poetic creations and in scientific experiments.

In late German romanticism, the motifs of tragic hopelessness, a critical attitude towards modern society and a sense of a discord between dreams and reality are growing. The democratic ideas of late romanticism found their expression in the work of A. Chamisso, the lyrics of G. Müller, and in the poetry and prose of Heinrich Heine.

Another characteristic feature related to the late period of German romanticism was the growing role of the grotesque as a component of romantic satire.

Romantic irony has become more cruel. The ideas of the representatives of the Heidelberg school often came into conflict with the ideas of the early stage of German romanticism. If the romantics of the Jena school believed in correcting the world with beauty and art, they called Raphael their teacher,

(self-portrait)

the generation that replaced them saw the triumph of ugliness in the world, turned to the ugly, in the field of painting perceived the world of old age

(old woman reading)

and decay, and called Rembrandt her teacher at this stage.

(self-portrait)

The mood of fear of an incomprehensible reality intensified.

German romanticism is a special phenomenon. In Germany, the tendencies characteristic of the entire movement received a peculiar development, which determined the national specificity of romanticism in this country. Having existed for a relatively short time (according to A.V. Mikhailov, from the very endXVIIIcentury until 1813-1815), it was in Germany that romantic aesthetics acquired its classical features. German romanticism had a strong influence on the development of romantic ideas in other countries and became their fundamental basis.

2.1. General characteristics of the tragic category.

The tragic is a philosophical and aesthetic category that characterizes the destructive and unbearable aspects of life, the insoluble contradictions of reality, presented in the form of an insoluble conflict. The clash between man and the world, individual and society, hero and fate is expressed in the struggle of strong passions and great characters. Unlike the sad and terrible, the tragic, as a kind of threatening or accomplishing destruction, is not caused by random external forces, but stems from the internal nature of the dying phenomenon itself, its insoluble self-dividing in the process of its realization. The dialectic of life turns towards the tragic and pathetic side of man. The tragic is akin to the sublime in that it is inseparable from the idea of ​​the dignity and greatness of man, manifested in his very suffering.

The first awareness of the tragic was the myths relating to the "dying gods" (Osiris, Serapis, Adonis, Mithras, Dionysus). On the basis of the cult of Dionysus, in the course of its gradual secularization, the art of tragedy developed. The philosophical understanding of the tragic was formed in parallel with the formation of this category in art, in reflections on the painful and gloomy sides in private life and in history.

The tragic in ancient times is characterized by a certain underdevelopment of the personal principle, above which the good of the policy rises (on its side are the gods, the patrons of the policy), and the objectivist-cosmological understanding of fate as an indifferent force that dominates nature and society. Therefore, the tragic in antiquity was often described through the concepts of fate and fate, in contrast to modern European tragedy, where the source of the tragic is the subject himself, the depths of his inner world and the actions conditioned by it. (like Shakespeare).

Ancient and medieval philosophy does not know a special theory of the tragic: the doctrine of the tragic here constitutes an undivided moment in the doctrine of being.

An example of the understanding of the tragic in ancient Greek philosophy, where it acts as an essential aspect of the cosmos and the dynamics of the opposing principles in it, is the philosophy of Aristotle. Summarizing the practice of Attic tragedies played out during the annual festivities dedicated to Dionysus, Aristotle highlights the following moments in the tragic: the warehouse of action, characterized by a sudden turn for the worse (ups and downs) and recognition, the experience of extreme misfortune and suffering (pathos), purification (catharsis).

From the point of view of the Aristotelian doctrine of nous (“mind”), the tragic arises when this eternal self-sufficing “mind” is given into the power of other being and becomes temporal from eternal, from self-sufficient to subject to necessity, from blissful to suffering and mournful. Then human “action and life” begins with its joys and sorrows, with its transitions from happiness to unhappiness, with its guilt, crimes, retribution, punishment, desecration of the eternally blissful integrity of the “nous” and restoration of the desecrated. This exit of the mind into the power of "necessity" and "accident" constitutes an unconscious "crime." But sooner or later there is a recollection or "recognition" of the former blissful state, the crime is caught and evaluated. Then comes the time of tragic pathos, caused by the shock of the human being from the contrast of blissful innocence and the darkness of vanity and crime. But this recognition of the crime signifies at the same time the beginning of the restoration of the trampled, which takes place in the form of retribution, carried out through "fear" and "compassion". As a result, there comes the "purification" of passions (catharsis) and the restoration of the disturbed balance of the "mind".

Ancient Eastern philosophy (including Buddhism, with its heightened awareness of the pathetic essence of life, but its purely pessimistic assessment), did not develop the concept of the tragic.

The medieval worldview, with its unconditional faith in divine providence and final salvation, overcoming the tangles of fate, essentially removes the problem of the tragic: the tragedy of the world's fall into sin, the falling away of created humanity from the personal absolute, is overcome in the atoning sacrifice of Christ and the restoration of the creature in its original purity.

Tragedy received a new development in the Renaissance, then gradually transformed into a classicist and romantic tragedy.

In the Age of Enlightenment, interest in the tragic in philosophy is revived; at this time, the idea of ​​a tragic conflict as a clash of duty and feeling was formulated: Lessing called the tragic "school of morality." Thus, the pathos of the tragic was reduced from the level of transcendental understanding (in antiquity, fate, inevitable fate was the source of the tragic) to a moral conflict. In the aesthetics of classicism and the Enlightenment, analyzes of tragedy as a literary genre appear - in N. Boileau, D. Diderot, G.E. Lessing, F. Schiller, who, developing the ideas of Kantian philosophy, saw the source of the tragic in the conflict between the sensual and moral nature of man (for example, the essay "On the Tragic in Art").

Isolation of the category of tragic and its philosophical reflection carried out in German classical aesthetics, primarily in Schelling and Hegel. According to Schelling, the essence of the tragic lies in "... the struggle of freedom in the subject and the need for the objective ...", and both sides "... simultaneously appear to be victorious and defeated, in complete indistinguishability." Necessity, fate makes the hero guilty without any intent on his part, but by virtue of a predetermined set of circumstances. The hero must struggle with necessity - otherwise, if he passively accepted it, there would be no freedom - and be defeated by it. The tragic guilt lies in "voluntarily bearing the punishment for an inevitable crime, in order to prove precisely this freedom by the very loss of one's freedom and perish, declaring one's free will." Schelling considered the work of Sophocles to be the pinnacle of the tragic in art. He placed Calderon above Shakespeare, since the key concept of fate was mystical in him.

Hegel sees the theme of the tragic in the self-dividing of moral substance as an area of ​​will and fulfillment. The moral forces that make it up and the acting characters are different in their content and individual manifestation, and the development of these differences necessarily leads to conflict. Each of the various moral forces strives to realize a certain goal, is overwhelmed by a certain pathos, realized in action, and in this one-sided certainty of its content inevitably violates the opposite side and collides with it. The death of these colliding forces restores the disturbed balance on a different, higher level, and thereby moves the universal substance forward, contributing to historical process self-development of the spirit. Art, according to Hegel, tragically reflects a special moment in history, a conflict that has absorbed all the sharpness of the contradictions of a particular “state of the world”. He called this state of the world heroic, when morality had not yet taken the form of established state laws. The individual bearer of tragic pathos is the hero, who completely identifies himself with the moral idea. In tragedy, the isolated moral forces are presented in various ways, but they can be reduced to two definitions and the contradiction between them: "moral life in its spiritual universality" and "natural morality", that is, between the state and the family.

Hegel and the romantics (A. Schlegel, Schelling) provide a typological analysis of the new European understanding of the tragic. The latter comes from the fact that man himself is guilty of the horrors and suffering that befell him, while in antiquity he acted rather as a passive object of the fate he endured. Schiller understood the tragic as a contradiction between the ideal and reality.

In the philosophy of romanticism, the tragic moves into the area of ​​subjective experiences, the inner world of a person, primarily an artist, which is opposed to the falsity and inauthenticity of the external, empirical social world. The tragic was partly supplanted by irony (F. Schlegel, Novalis, L. Tieck, E.T.A. Hoffmann, G. Heine).

For Solger, the tragic is the basis of human life, it arises between essence and existence, between the divine and the phenomenon, the tragic is the death of the idea in the phenomenon, the eternal in the temporal. Reconciliation is possible not in a finite human existence, but only with the destruction of existing existence.

S. Kierkegaard's understanding of the tragic is close to romantic, who connects it with the subjective experience of "desperation" by a person who was at the stage of his ethical development (which is preceded by an aesthetic stage and which leads to a religious one). Kierkugaard notes a different understanding of the tragedy of guilt in antiquity and in modern times: in antiquity, tragedy is deeper, pain is less, in modern it is the other way around, since pain is associated with awareness of one's own guilt and reflection on it.

If the German classical philosophy, and above all the philosophy of Hegel, in its understanding of the tragic proceeded from the reasonableness of the will and the meaningfulness of the tragic conflict, where the victory of the idea was achieved at the cost of the death of its bearer, then in the irrationalist philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche there is a break with this tradition, because the very existence of any meaning in the world is called into question. Considering the will to be immoral and unreasonable, Schopenhauer sees the essence of the tragic in the self-confrontation of the blind will. In the teachings of Schopenhauer, the tragic lies not only in a pessimistic view of life, for misfortunes and suffering constitute its essence, but in the denial of its higher meaning, as well as the world itself: “the principle of the existence of the world has absolutely no foundation, i.e. represents the blind will to live." The tragic spirit therefore leads to the renunciation of the will to live.

Nietzsche characterized the tragic as the original essence of being - chaotic, irrational and formless. He called the tragic "power pessimism". According to Nietzsche, the tragic was born from the Dionysian principle, opposite to the "Apollonian instinct of beauty." But the “Dionysian underground of the world” must be overcome by the enlightened and transforming Apollonian power, their strict correlation is the basis of the perfect art of the tragic: chaos and order, frenzy and serene contemplation, horror, blissful delight and wise peace in images is tragedy.

INXXcentury, the irrationalistic interpretation of the tragic was continued in existentialism; the tragic began to be understood as an existential characteristic of human existence. According to K. Jaspers, the truly tragic is the realization that "... universal collapse is the main characteristic of human existence." L. Shestov, A Camus, J.-P. Sartre associated the tragic with the groundlessness and absurdity of existence. The contradiction between the thirst for life of a person “of flesh and blood” and the evidence of the mind about the finiteness of his existence is the core of the teachings of M. de Unamuno about “The tragic feeling of life among people and peoples” (1913). Culture, art and philosophy itself are considered by him as a vision of "dazzling Nothing", the essence of which is total randomness, lack of legality and absurdity, "the logic of the worst". T. Hadrono considers the tragic from the point of view of criticism of bourgeois society and its culture from the standpoint of "negative dialectics".

In the spirit of the philosophy of life, G. Simmel wrote about the tragic contradiction between the dynamics of the creative process and those stable forms in which it crystallizes, F. Stepun - about the tragedy of creativity as an objectification of the inexpressible inner world of the individual.

The tragic and its philosophical interpretation have become a means of criticizing society and human existence. In Russian culture, the tragic was understood as the futility of religious and spiritual aspirations, extinguished in the vulgarity of life (N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky).

Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1794-1832)- German poet, writer, thinker. His work spans the last three decadesXVIIIcentury - the period of pre-romanticism - and the first thirty yearsXIXcentury. The first most significant period of the poet's work, which began in 1770, is associated with the aesthetics of Sturm und Drang.

"Sturm und Drang" is a literary movement in Germany in the 70sXVIIIcentury, named after the drama of the same name by F. M. Klinger. The work of the writers of this trend - Goethe, Klinger, Leisewitz, Lenz, Burger, Schubert, Voss - reflected the growth of anti-feudal sentiments, was imbued with the spirit of rebellious rebellion. This movement, which owed much to Rousseauism, declared war on aristocratic culture. In contrast to classicism with its dogmatic norms, as well as Rococo mannerisms, the "stormy geniuses" put forward the idea of ​​" characteristic art”, original in all its manifestations; they demanded from literature the depiction of bright, strong passions, characters that were not broken by a despotic regime. The main area of ​​\u200b\u200bcreativity of the writers of "storm and onslaught" was dramaturgy. They sought to establish a third-class theater that actively influenced public life, as well as a new dramatic style, the main features of which were emotional richness and lyricism. Having made the inner world of a person the subject of artistic representation, they developed new methods of individualization of characters and created a lyrically colored, pathetic and figurative language.

Goethe's lyrics of the period of "storm and onslaught" are one of the most brilliant pages in the history of German poetry. The lyrical hero of Goethe appears as the embodiment of nature or in an organic merger with it ("The Wayfarer", "The Song of Mohammed"). He refers to mythological images, comprehending them in a rebellious spirit (“Song of the Wanderer in the Storm”, Prometheus’s monologue from the unfinished drama).

The most perfect creation of the Sturm und Drang period is the novel in letters The Sorrows of Young Werther, written in 1774, which brought the author worldwide fame. This is the work that appeared at the endXVIIIcentury, can be considered a foreshadowing and symbol of the entire coming era of romanticism. Romantic aesthetics is the semantic center of the novel, manifesting itself in many aspects. Firstly, the very theme of the suffering of the individual and the derivation of the subjective experiences of the hero is not the foreground, the special confession inherent in the novel is a purely romantic tendency. Secondly, in the novel there is a dual world characteristic of romanticism - the world of dreams, objectified in the form of the beautiful Lotta and faith in mutual love and peace. cruel reality in which there is no hope for happiness and where the sense of duty and the opinion of the world are above the most sincere and deepest feelings. Thirdly, there is a pessimistic component inherent in romanticism, which grows to gigantic scales of tragedy.

Werther is a romantic hero who, with the final shot, challenges the cruel unjust world - the world of reality. He rejects the laws of life, in which there is no place for happiness and the fulfillment of his dreams, and prefers to die than to give up the passion born of his fiery heart. This hero is the antipode of Prometheus, and yet Werther-Prometheus is the final links of one chain of Goethe's images of the Sturm und Drang period. Their existence equally unfolds under the sign of doom. Werther devastates himself in an attempt to defend the reality of the world he imagines, Prometheus seeks to perpetuate himself in the creation of "free" creatures independent of the power of Olympus, creates slaves of Zeus, people subordinate to transcendent forces above them.

The tragic conflict associated with Lotta's line, in contrast to Werther's, is to a large extent connected with the classicist type of conflict - the conflict of feeling and duty, in which the latter wins. Indeed, according to the novel, Lotta is very attached to Werther, but the duty to her husband and younger brothers and sisters left by her dying mother in her care takes precedence over the feeling, and the heroine has to choose, although she does not know until the last moment that she will have to choose between life and the death of someone dear to her. Lotta, like Werther, is a tragic heroine, because, perhaps, only in death she will know the true extent of her love and Werther's love for her, and the inseparability of love and death is another feature inherent in romantic aesthetics. The theme of the unity of love and death will be relevant throughoutXIXcentury, all the major artists of the Romantic era will turn to it, but it was Goethe who was one of the first to reveal its potential in his early tragic novel The Sorrows of Young Werther.

Despite the fact that during his lifetime Goethe was, above all, the celebrated author of The Sufferings of Young Werther, his most grandiose creation is the tragedy Faust, which he wrote over the course of almost sixty years. It began in the period of Sturm und Drang, but ended in an era when the romantic school dominated German literature. Therefore, "Faust" reflects all the stages that the poet's work followed.

The first part of the tragedy is in the closest connection with the period of "Sturm und Drang" in the work of Goethe. The theme of an abandoned beloved girl, in a fit of despair becoming a child killer, was very common in the literature of the direction "Sturmanddrang” (“The Child Killer” by Wagner, “The Daughter of the Priest from Taubenheim” by Burger). Appeal to the age of fiery Gothic, knittelfers, monodrama - all this speaks of a connection with the aesthetics of "Sturm und Drang".

The second part, reaching a special artistic expressiveness in the image of Elena the Beautiful, is more connected with the literature of the classical period. Gothic contours give way to ancient Greek ones, Hellas becomes the scene of action, the knittelfers is replaced by verses of the ancient warehouse, the images acquire some special sculptural compaction (this expresses Goethe's passion in maturity for the decorative interpretation of mythological motifs and purely spectacular effects: masquerade - 3 scene 1 act, classic Walpurgis Night and the like). In the final scene of the tragedy, Goethe already pays tribute to romanticism, introducing a mystical choir and opening the gates of paradise to Faust.

"Faust" occupies a special place in the work of the German poet - it contains the ideological result of all his creative activity. The novelty and unusualness of this tragedy is that its subject was not one life conflict, but a consistent, inevitable chain of deep conflicts over a single life path, or, in the words of Goethe, "a series of ever higher and purer activities of the hero."

In the tragedy "Faust", as in the novel "The Suffering of Young Werther", there are many characteristic signs of romantic aesthetics. The same duality in which Werther lived is also characteristic of Faust, but unlike Werther, the doctor has a fleeting pleasure in the fulfillment of his dreams, which, however, leads to even greater sorrow due to the illusory nature of dreams and the fact that they collapse, bringing grief not only to himself. As in the novel about Werther, in Faust the subjective experiences and sufferings of the individual are put at the center, but unlike in The Sufferings of Young Werther, where the theme of creativity is not the leading one, in Faust it plays a very important role. In Faust, at the end of the tragedy, creativity takes on a huge scope - this is his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bcolossal construction on the land reclaimed from the sea for the happiness and well-being of the whole world.

It is interesting that the main character, although he is in alliance with Satan, does not lose his morality: he strives for sincere love, beauty, and then universal happiness. Faust does not use the forces of evil for evil, but as if he wants to turn them into good, therefore his forgiveness and salvation are natural and expected - the cathartic moment of his ascension to paradise is not unexpected.

Another characteristic feature for the aesthetics of romanticism is the theme of the inseparability of love and death, which in Faust goes through three stages: the love and death of Gretchen and their daughter with Faust (as an objectification of this love), the final departure of Elena the Beautiful to the realm of the dead and their death with Faust's son (as in the case of Gretchen's daughter, the objectification of this love), Faust's love for life and all mankind, and the death of Faust himself.

"Faust" is not only a tragedy about the past, but about the future of human history, as it seemed to Goethe. After all, Faust, according to the poet, is the personification of all mankind, and his path is the path of all civilization. Human history is a history of search, trial and error, and the image of Faust embodies faith in the limitless possibilities of man.

Now let us turn to the analysis of Goethe's work from the point of view of the tragic category. In favor of the fact that the German poet was an artist of a tragic orientation, for example, the predominance of tragic-dramatic genres in his work speaks: “Getz von Berlichingen”, the tragically ending novel “The Sufferings of Young Werther”, the drama “Egmont”, the drama “Torquato Tasso”, the tragedy "Iphigenia in Tauris", the drama "Citizen General", the tragedy "Faust".

The historical drama Goetz von Berlichingen, written in 1773, reflected the events on the eve of the Peasant WarXVIcentury, sounding a harsh reminder of princely arbitrariness and the tragedy of a fragmented country. In the drama "Egmont", written in 1788 and connected with the ideas of "Storm and Onslaught", the conflict between foreign oppressors and the people, whose resistance is suppressed, but not broken, is at the center of events, and the finale of the drama sounds like a call to fight for freedom. The tragedy "Iphigenia in Tauris" is written on the plot ancient Greek myth, and its main idea is the victory of humanity over barbarism.

The Great French Revolution is directly reflected in Goethe's "Venetian Epigrams", the drama "Citizen General" and the short story "Conversations of German Emigrants". The poet does not accept revolutionary violence, but at the same time recognizes the inevitability of social reorganization - on this topic he wrote the satirical poem "Reinecke the Fox", denouncing feudal arbitrariness.

One of the most famous and significant works of Goethe, along with the novel "The Suffering of Young Werther" and the tragedy "Faust", is the novel "The Years of the Teaching of Wilhelm Meister". In it, one can again trace the romantic tendencies and themes inherent inXIXcentury. In this novel, the theme of the death of a dream appears: the stage hobbies of the protagonist subsequently appear as a youthful delusion, and in the finale of the novel, he sees his task in practical economic activity. Meister is the antipode of Werther and Faust - creative heroes burning with love and dreams. His life drama lies in the fact that he abandoned his dreams, choosing the ordinary, boredom and the actual meaninglessness of existence, because his creativity, which gives the true meaning of being, went out when he gave up his dream of becoming an actor and playing on stage. Much later in literatureXXcentury, this theme is transformed into the theme of the tragedy of a little man.

The tragic orientation of Goethe's work is obvious. Despite the fact that the poet did not create a complete philosophical system, his works set forth a deep philosophical concept associated with both the classicist picture of the world and romantic aesthetics. Goethe's philosophy, revealed in his works, is in many respects contradictory and ambiguous, like his main work of life "Faust", but it clearly shows, on the one hand, almost Schopenhauer's vision of the real world as bringing the strongest suffering to a person, awakening dreams and desires, but not fulfilling them, preaching injustice, routine, routine and death of love, dreams and creativity, but on the other hand, faith in the unlimited possibilities of man and the transforming powers of creativity, love and art. In his polemic against the nationalist tendencies that developed in Germany during and after the Napoleonic Wars, Goethe put forward the idea of ​​"world literature" without sharing the Hegelian skepticism about the future of art. Goethe also saw in literature and in art in general a powerful potential for influencing a person and even the existing social order.

Thus, perhaps Goethe's philosophical concept can be expressed as follows: the struggle of the creative creative forces of man, expressed in love, art and other aspects of being, with the injustice and cruelty of the real world and the victory of the first. Despite the fact that most of the struggling and suffering heroes of Goethe die in the end. The catharsis of his tragedies and the victory of a bright beginning are obvious and large-scale. In this regard, the end of Faust is indicative, when both the main character and his beloved Gretchen receive forgiveness and go to heaven. Such an end can be projected onto most of the searching and suffering heroes of Goethe.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1786-1861) - a representative of the irrational trend in the philosophical thought of Germany in the first halfXIXcentury. The main role in the formation of Schopenhauer's worldview system was played by influences from three philosophical traditions: Kantian, Platonic and ancient Indian Brahminist and Buddhist philosophy.

The views of the German philosopher are pessimistic, and his concept reflects the tragedy of human existence. The center of the philosophical system of Schopenhauer is the doctrine of the denial of the will to live. He considers death as a moral ideal, as the highest goal of human existence: “Death, undoubtedly, is the real goal of life, and at the moment when death comes, everything happens that we have only been preparing and starting throughout our lives. Death is the final conclusion, the summary of life, its result, which immediately unites all the partial and disparate lessons of life into one whole and tells us that all our aspirations, the embodiment of which life was, that all these aspirations were vain, vain and contradictory. and that in the renunciation of them lies salvation.

Death is the main goal of life, according to Schopenhauer, because this world, by his definition, is the worst possible: - Worst possible world .

Human existence is placed by Schopenhauer in the world of "inauthentic being" of representations, determined by the world of Will - truly existing and self-identical. Life in the temporal stream seems to be a bleak chain of suffering, a continuous series of major and minor misfortunes; a person cannot find peace in any way: "... in the sufferings of life we ​​console ourselves with death and in death we console ourselves with the sufferings of life."

In the works of Schopenhauer one can often find the idea that both this world and people should not exist at all: “... the existence of the world should not please us, but rather sadden us; ... its non-existence would be preferable to its existence; something that really shouldn't be."

The existence of man is just an episode that disturbs the peace of absolute being, which should end with the desire to suppress the will to live. Moreover, according to the philosopher, death does not destroy the true being (the world of Will), since it represents the end of a temporary phenomenon (the world of ideas), and not the innermost essence of the world. In the chapter “Death and its relation to the indestructibility of our being” of his large-scale work “The World as Will and Representation”, Schopenhauer writes: “... nothing invades our consciousness with such irresistible force as the thought that the emergence and destruction does not affect the real essence of things that the latter is inaccessible to them, that is, imperishable, and that therefore everything that wills life really and continues to live without end ... Thanks to him, despite millennia of death and decay, nothing has yet died, not a single atom of matter, and even less not a single fraction of that inner essence that appears to us as nature.

The timeless being of the world of Will knows neither gains nor losses, it is always identical to itself, eternal and true. Therefore, the state into which death takes us is the "natural state of the Will." Death destroys only the biological organism and consciousness, and understanding the insignificance of life and defeating the fear of death, according to Schopenhauer, allows knowledge. He expresses the idea that with knowledge, on the one hand, a person’s ability to feel grief, the true nature of this world that brings suffering and death, increases: “Man, along with reason, inevitably arose a terrifying certainty in death” . But, on the other hand, the ability of cognition leads, in his opinion, to the realization by a person of the indestructibility of his true being, which manifests itself not in his individuality and consciousness, but in the world will: “The horrors of death are mainly based on the illusion that with itI disappears, but the world remains. In fact, rather the opposite is true: the world disappears, and the innermost coreI , the bearer and creator of that subject, in whose conception the world alone has its existence, remains.

Awareness of the immortality of the true essence of man, according to the views of Schopenhauer, is based on the fact that one cannot identify oneself only with one's own consciousness and body and make distinctions between the external and internal world. He writes that "death is a moment of liberation from the one-sidedness of the individual form, which does not constitute the innermost core of our being, but rather is a kind of perversion of it."

Human life, according to the concept of Schopenhauer, is always accompanied by suffering. But he perceives them as a source of purification, since they lead to the denial of the will to live and do not allow a person to embark on the false path of its affirmation. The philosopher writes: “All human existence says quite clearly that suffering is the true destiny of man. Life is deeply gripped by suffering and cannot get rid of it; our entry into it is accompanied by words about it, in its essence it always proceeds tragically, and its end is especially tragic ... Suffering, this is truly the cleansing process that alone in most cases sanctifies a person, that is, deflects him from the false path of the will of life ” .

An important place in the philosophical system of A. Schopenhauer is occupied by his concept of art. He believes that the highest goal of art is to free the soul from suffering and find spiritual peace. However, he is attracted only by those types and types of art that are close to his own worldview: tragic music, the dramatic and tragic genre of stage art, and the like, because they are able to express the tragic essence of human existence. He writes about the art of tragedy: “The peculiar effect of tragedy, in essence, is based on the fact that it shakes the indicated inborn error (that a person lives in order to be happy - approx.), clearly embodying vanity in a great and striking example. human aspirations and the insignificance of all life and thereby revealing the deepest meaning of being; that is why tragedy is considered the most exalted kind of poetry.

The German philosopher considered music to be the most perfect art. In his opinion, in her highest achievements, she is capable of mystical contact with the transcendent World Will. Moreover, in strict, mysterious, mystically colored and tragic music, the World Will finds its most possible embodiment, and this is the embodiment of just that feature of the Will, which contains its dissatisfaction with itself, and hence the future attraction to its redemption and self-denial. In the chapter “On the Metaphysics of Music”, Schopenhauer writes: “... music, considered as an expression of the world, is an extremely universal language, which even relates to the universality of concepts almost as they relate to individual things ... music differs from all other arts in that that it does not reflect the phenomena, or, more correctly, the adequate objectivity of the will, but directly reflects the will itself and, thus, for everything physical in the world shows the metaphysical, for all phenomena, the thing in itself. Therefore, the world can be called both embodied music and embodied will.

The category of the tragic is one of the most important in the philosophical system of A. Schopenhauer, since human life itself is perceived by him as tragic mistake. The philosopher believes that from the moment a person is born, endless suffering begins, lasting a lifetime, and all joys are short-lived and illusory. Being contains a tragic contradiction, which lies in the fact that a person is endowed with a blind will to live and an endless desire to live, but his existence in this world is finite and full of suffering. Thus, there is a tragic collision between life and death.

But Schopenhauer's philosophy contains the idea that with the advent of biological death and the disappearance of consciousness, the true human essence does not die, but continues to live forever, incarnated in something else. This idea of ​​the immortality of the true essence of man is akin to the catharsis that comes at the end of a tragedy; therefore, we can conclude not only that the category of the tragic is one of the basic categories of Schopenhauer's worldview system, but also that his philosophical system as a whole reveals similarities with tragedy.

As mentioned earlier, Schopenhauer assigns an important place to art, especially music, which he perceives as the embodied will, the immortal essence of being. In this world of suffering, according to the philosopher, a person can follow the right path only by denying the will to live, embodying asceticism, accepting suffering and purifying both with their help and thanks to the cathartic effect of art. Art and music, in particular, contribute to a person's knowledge of his true essence and the desire to return to the realm of true being. Therefore, one of the ways of purification, according to the concept of A. Schopenhauer, runs through art.

Chapter 3. Criticism of Romanticism

3.1. Critical position of Georg Friedrich Hegel

Despite the fact that Romanticism became for a time an ideology that spread throughout the world, the Romantic aesthetic was criticized both during its existence and in subsequent centuries. In this part of the work, we will consider the criticism of romanticism carried out by Georg Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche.

There are significant differences in the philosophical concept of Hegel and the aesthetic theory of romanticism, which caused criticism of the romantics by the German philosopher. Firstly, romanticism from the very beginning ideologically opposed its aesthetics to the Enlightenment: it appeared as a protest against enlightenment views and in response to the failure of the French Revolution, on which the Enlightenment had great hopes. The classicist cult of the romantic mind was opposed by the cult of feeling and the desire to deny the basic postulates of the aesthetics of classicism.

In contrast, G. F. Hegel (like J. W. Goethe) considered himself the heir to the Enlightenment. Criticism of the Enlightenment by Hegel and Goethe never turned into a denial of the heritage of this period, as is the case with the Romantics. For example, for the question of cooperation between Goethe and Hegel, it is extremely characteristic that Goethe in the early yearsXIXcenturies discovers and, having translated, immediately publishes Diderot's "Ramo's Nephew" with his comments, and Hegel immediately uses this work to reveal with extraordinary plasticity a specific form of Enlightenment dialectics. The images created by Diderot occupy a decisive place in the most important chapter of the Phenomenology of the Spirit. Therefore, the position of opposition between the romantics of their aesthetics and the aesthetics of classicism was criticized by Hegel.

Secondly, the two worlds characteristic of romantics and the conviction that everything beautiful exists only in the world of dreams, and the real world is a world of sadness and suffering, in which there is no place for the ideal and happiness, is opposed to the Hegelian concept that the embodiment of the ideal is this is not a departure from reality, but, on the contrary, its deep, generalized, meaningful image, since the ideal itself is presented as rooted in reality. The vitality of the ideal rests on the fact that the main spiritual meaning, which should be revealed in the image, completely penetrates into all the particular aspects of the external phenomenon. Therefore, the image of the essential, characteristic, embodiment spiritual meaning, the transfer of the most important tendencies of reality is, according to Hegel, the disclosure of the ideal, which in such an interpretation coincides with the concept of truth in art, artistic truth.

The third aspect of the Hegelian critique of romanticism is subjectivity, which is one of the most important features of romantic aesthetics; Hegel is especially critical of subjective idealism.

In subjective idealism, the German thinker sees not just a certain false trend in philosophy, but a trend whose emergence was inevitable, and to the same extent it was inevitably false. Hegel's proof of the falsity of subjective idealism is at the same time a conclusion about its inevitability and necessity, and about the limitations associated with it. Hegel arrives at this conclusion in two ways, which for him are closely and inextricably linked—historically and systematically. From the historical point of view, Hegel proves that subjective idealism arose from the deepest problems of modernity and its historical significance, the preservation of its greatness for a long time, is explained precisely by this. At the same time, however, he shows that subjective idealism, of necessity, can only guess at the problems posed by the times and translate these problems into the language of speculative philosophy. Subjective idealism has no answers to these questions, and this is where it fails.

Hegel believes that the philosophy of the subjective idealists consists of a flood of emotions and empty declarations; he criticizes the romantics for the dominance of the sensuous over the rational, as well as for the lack of systematization and incompleteness of their dialectics (this is the fourth aspect of the Hegelian criticism of romanticism)

An important place in Hegel's philosophical system is occupied by his concept of art. Romantic art, according to Hegel, begins with the Middle Ages, but he includes Shakespeare, Cervantes, and artists in it.XVII- XVIIIcenturies, and German romantics. The romantic art form, according to his conception, is the disintegration of romantic art in general. The philosopher hopes that a new form of free art will be born from the collapse of romantic art, the germ of which he sees in the work of Goethe.

Romantic art, according to Hegel, includes painting, music and poetry - those types of art that, in his opinion, can best express the sensual side of life.

The means of painting is a colorful surface, a lively play of light. It is freed from the sensual spatial fullness of the material body, as it is limited to a plane, and therefore is able to express the whole scale of feelings, mental states, depict actions full of dramatic movement.

The elimination of spatiality is achieved in the next form of romantic art - music. Its material is sound, the vibration of a sounding body. Matter appears here no longer as a spatial, but as a temporal ideality. Music goes beyond the limits of sensual contemplation and embraces exclusively the area of ​​inner experiences.

In the last romantic art, poetry, sound enters as a sign of no significance in itself. The main element of the poetic image is the poetic representation. According to Hegel, poetry can depict absolutely everything. Its material is not just sound, but sound as meaning, as a sign of representation. But the material here is not formed freely and arbitrarily, but according to the rhythmic musical law. In poetry, all kinds of art seem to be repeated again: it corresponds to the visual arts as an epic, as a calm narrative with rich images and picturesque pictures of the history of peoples; it is music as lyrics, because it reflects the inner state of the soul; it is the unity of these two arts, like dramatic poetry, like the depiction of the struggle between active, conflicting interests rooted in the characters of individuals.

We briefly reviewed the main aspects of the critical position of G. F. Hegel in relation to romantic aesthetics. Now let's move on to the criticism of romanticism carried out by F. Nietzsche.

3.2. Critical position of Friedrich Nietzsche

The worldview system of Friedrich Nietzsche can be defined as philosophical nihilism, since criticism occupied the most important place in his work. The characteristic features of Nietzsche's philosophy are: criticism of church dogmas, reassessment of all established human concepts, recognition of the limitations and relativity of any morality, the idea of ​​eternal becoming, the thought of a philosopher and historian as a prophet who overthrows the past for the sake of the future, problems of the place and freedom of the individual in society and history , the denial of the unification and leveling of the people, the passionate dream of a new historical era, when the human race matures and realizes its tasks.

In the development of the philosophical views of Friedrich Nietzsche, two stages can be distinguished: the active development of the culture of the vulgar - literature, history, philosophy, music, accompanied by a romantic worship of antiquity; criticism of the foundations of Western European culture ("The Wanderer and His Shadow", "Morning Dawn", "Merry Science") and the overthrow of idolsXIXcentury and the past centuries ("Fall of idols", "Zarathustra", the doctrine of the "superman").

At an early stage of his work, Nietzsche's critical position had not yet taken shape. At this time, he was fond of the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer, calling him his teacher. However, after 1878, his position was reversed, and a critical thrust of his philosophy began to emerge: in May 1878, Nietzsche published Humanity Too Human, subtitled A Book for Free Minds, in which he publicly broke with the past and its values: Hellenism. , Christianity, Schopenhauer.

Nietzsche considered his main merit to be that he undertook and carried out a reassessment of all values: everything that is usually recognized as valuable, in fact, has nothing to do with true value. In his opinion, it is necessary to put everything in its place - to put true values ​​in the place of imaginary values. In this reassessment of values, which essentially constitutes Nietzsche's own philosophy, he sought to stand "beyond good and evil." Ordinary morality, no matter how developed and complex, is always enclosed in a framework, the opposite sides of which constitute the idea of ​​good and evil. Their limits exhaust all forms of existing moral relations, while Nietzsche wanted to go beyond these limits.

F. Nietzsche defined contemporary culture as being at the stage of decline and decay of morality. Morality corrupts culture from within, because it is a tool for controlling the crowd, its instincts. According to the philosopher, Christian morality and religion affirm the obedient "morality of slaves." Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a "revaluation of values" and identify the foundations of morality " strong man". Thus, Friedrich Nietzsche distinguishes between two types of morality: master and slave. The morality of the "masters" affirms the value of life, which is most manifested against the background of the natural inequality of people, due to the difference in their wills and vitality.

All aspects of the Romantic culture were sharply criticized by Nietzsche. He overthrows the romantic duality when he writes: “It makes no sense to compose fables about the “other” world, except if we have a strong impulse to slander life, belittle it, look at it suspiciously: in the latter case, we avenge life with phantasmagoria” another, "better" life.

Another example of his opinion on this issue is the statement: “The division of the world into“ true ”and“ apparent ”, in the sense of Kant, indicates a decline - this is a symptom of the waning life ...”

Here are excerpts from his quotes about some representatives of the era of romanticism: "" Unbearable: ... - Schiller, or the trumpeter of morality from Säckingen ... - V. Hugo, or beacon on a sea of ​​madness. - Liszt, or the school of bold onslaught in pursuit of women. - George Sand, or milk abundance, which in German means: a cash cow with a "beautiful style." - Offenbach's music. - Zola, or "love of the stench."

About a prominent representative of romantic pessimism in philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer, whom Nietzsche at first considered his teacher and admired him, it will later be written: “Schopenhauer is the last of the Germans who cannot be passed over in silence. This German, like Goethe, Hegel and Heinrich Heine, was not only a “national”, local phenomenon, but also a pan-European one. It is of great interest to the psychologist as a brilliant and malicious call to battle the name of the nihilistic devaluation of life, the reverse of the worldview - the great self-affirmation of the "will to live", a form of abundance and excess of life. Art, heroism, genius, beauty, great compassion, knowledge, the will to truth, tragedy - all this, one after another, Schopenhauer explained as phenomena that accompany the "denial" or impoverishment of "will", and this makes his philosophy the greatest psychological falsehood in history. the history of mankind."

He gave a negative assessment to most of the brightest representatives of the culture of the past centuries and contemporary to him. His disappointment in them lies in the phrase: "I looked for great people and always found only monkeys of my ideal" .

Johann Wolfgang Goethe was one of the few creative personalities who evoked Nietzsche's approval and admiration throughout his life; he turned out to be an undefeated idol. Nietzsche wrote about him: “Goethe is not a German but a European phenomenon, a majestic attempt to overcome the eighteenth century by returning to nature, by ascending to the naturalness of the Renaissance, an example of self-overcoming from the history of our century. All his strongest instincts were combined in him: sensitivity, passionate love for nature, anti-historical, idealistic, unreal and revolutionary instincts (this latter is only one of the forms of the unreal) ... he did not move away from life, but went deep into it, he did not lose heart and how much he could take upon himself, into himself and beyond himself ... He achieved wholeness; he fought against the disintegration of reason, sensibility, feeling and will (preached by Kant, Goethe's antipode, in disgusting scholasticism), he educated himself to wholeness, he created himself ... Goethe was a convinced realist in an unrealistically minded age.

In the quotation above, there is another aspect of Nietzsche's criticism of romanticism - his criticism of the isolation from the reality of romantic aesthetics.

About the age of romanticism, Nietzsche writes: “Is there notXIXcentury, especially at its beginning, only intensified, coarsenedXVIIIcentury, in other words: a decadent century? And is not Goethe, not only for Germany, but for the whole of Europe, only an accidental phenomenon, lofty and vain? .

Nietzsche's interpretation of the tragic is interesting, connected, among other things, with his assessment of romantic aesthetics. The philosopher writes about this: “The tragic artist is not a pessimist, he is more willing to take exactly everything mysterious and terrible, he is a follower of Dionysus” . The essence of not understanding the tragic Nietzsche is reflected in his statement: “What does the tragic artist show us? Doesn't he show a state of fearlessness before the terrible and mysterious. This state alone is the highest good, and the one who has experienced it puts it infinitely high. The artist transmits this state to us, he must transmit it precisely because he is an artist-genius of transmission. Courage and freedom of feeling in front of a mighty enemy, in front of great grief, in front of a task that inspires horror - this victorious state is chosen and glorified by the tragic artist! .

Drawing conclusions on the criticism of romanticism, we can say the following: many arguments relating to the aesthetics of romanticism are negative (including G.F. Hegel and F. Nietzsche) do take place. Like any manifestation of culture, this type has both positive and negative sides. However, despite the censure of many contemporaries and representativesXXcenturies, romantic culture, which includes romantic art, literature, philosophy and other manifestations, is still relevant and arouses interest, transforming and reviving in new worldview systems and directions of art and literature.

Conclusion

Having studied the philosophical, aesthetic and musicological literature, as well as getting acquainted with the works of art related to the field of the problem under study, we came to the following conclusions.

Romanticism originated in Germany in the form of the "aesthetics of disappointment" in the ideas of the French Revolution. The result of this was a romantic system of ideas: evil, death and injustice are eternal and irremovable from the world; world sorrow is a state of the world that has become a state of mind of a lyrical hero.

In the fight against the injustice of the world, death and evil, the soul of a romantic hero seeks a way out and finds it in the world of dreams - this manifests the duality of consciousness characteristic of romantics.

Another important characteristic of Romanticism is that romantic aesthetics gravitates toward individualism and subjectivity. The result of this was the increased attention of romantics to feelings and sensitivity.

The ideas of the German Romantics were universal and became the foundation of the aesthetics of romanticism, influencing its development in other countries. German romanticism is characterized by a tragic orientation and artistry of language, which manifested itself in all spheres of life.

The understanding of the immanent content of the tragic category changed significantly from epoch to epoch, reflecting a change in the general picture of the world. In the ancient world, the tragic was associated with a certain objective beginning - fate, fate; in the Middle Ages, tragedy was considered primarily as the tragedy of the fall, which Christ atoned for with his feat; in the Enlightenment, the concept of a tragic collision between feeling and duty was formed; in the era of romanticism, the tragic appeared in an extremely subjective form, pushing the suffering person to the center tragic hero who is faced with the evil, cruelty and injustice of people and the entire world order and is trying to fight it.

eminent figures The cultures of German romanticism - Goethe and Schopenhauer - are united by the tragic orientation of their worldview systems and creativity, and they consider art to be a cathartic element of tragedy, a kind of atonement for the suffering of earthly life, assigning a special place to music.

The main aspects of criticism of romanticism boil down to the following. Romantics are criticized for their desire to oppose their aesthetics to the aesthetics of a bygone era, classicism, and their rejection of the legacy of the Enlightenment; duality, which is viewed by critics as being cut off from reality; lack of objectivity; exaggeration of the emotional sphere and understatement of the rational; lack of systematization and incompleteness of the romantic aesthetic concept.

Despite the validity of criticism of romanticism, the cultural manifestations of this era are relevant and arouse interest even inXXIcentury. Transformed echoes of the romantic worldview can be found in many areas of culture. For example, we believe that the basis of the philosophical systems of Albert Camus and José Ortega y Gasset was German romantic aesthetics with its tragic dominant, but rethought by them already in the conditions of cultureXXcentury.

Our study helps not only to identify the common characteristic features of romantic aesthetics and the specific features of German romanticism, to show the change in the immanent content of the tragic category and its understanding in different historical eras, and also to identify the specifics of the manifestation of the tragic in the culture of German romanticism and the limits of romantic aesthetics, but also contributes to understanding the art of the era of romanticism, finding its universal imagery and themes, as well as building a meaningful interpretation of the work of the romantics.

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Zweig was right: Europe has not seen such a wonderful generation as romantics since the Renaissance. Marvelous images of the world of dreams, naked feelings and the desire for sublime spirituality - these are the colors that paint the musical culture of romanticism.

The emergence of romanticism and its aesthetics

While the industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, the hopes placed on the Great French Revolution were crushed in the hearts of Europeans. The cult of reason, proclaimed by the Age of Enlightenment, was overthrown. The cult of feelings and the natural principle in man ascended the pedestal.

This is how romanticism was born. In musical culture, it lasted a little more than a century (1800-1910), while in related areas (painting and literature), its term expired half a century earlier. Perhaps, music is “to blame” for this - it was she who was at the top among the arts of the romantics as the most spiritual and freest of the arts.

However, the romantics, unlike representatives of the eras of antiquity and classicism, did not build a hierarchy of arts with its clear division into types and. The romantic system was universal, the arts could freely move into each other. The idea of ​​the synthesis of arts was one of the key ideas in the musical culture of romanticism.

This relationship also applied to the categories of aesthetics: the beautiful was connected with the ugly, the high with the base, the tragic with the comic. Such transitions were connected by romantic irony, which also reflected the universal picture of the world.

Everything that had to do with beauty acquired a new meaning among the romantics. Nature became an object of worship, the artist was idolized as the highest of mortals, and feelings were exalted over reason.

Spiritless reality was opposed to a dream, beautiful, but unattainable. A romantic, with the help of imagination, built his new world, unlike other realities.

What themes did the Romantic artists choose?

The interests of the romantics were clearly manifested in the choice of themes they chose in art.

• Loneliness Theme. An underestimated genius or a lonely person in society - these themes were the main ones for the composers of this era (Schumann's "Love of the Poet", Mussorgsky's "Without the Sun").
• The theme of "lyrical confession". In many opuses of romantic composers there is a touch of autobiography (Schumann's Carnival, Berlioz's Fantastic Symphony).
• Love theme. Basically, this is a topic of undivided or tragic love, but not necessarily (“Love and Life of a Woman” by Schumann, “Romeo and Juliet” by Tchaikovsky).
• Path theme. She is also called travel theme. The soul of romance, torn apart by contradictions, was looking for its own path (“Harold in Italy” by Berlioz, “Years of Wanderings” by Liszt).
• The theme of death. Basically it was spiritual death (Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony, Schubert's "Winter Journey").
• Nature theme. Nature in the eyes of a romantic and a protective mother, and an empathetic friend, and punishing fate (Mendelssohn's Hebrides, Borodin's In Central Asia). The cult of the native land (polonaises and ballads of Chopin) is also connected with this theme.
• Fantasy theme. The imaginary world for the romantics was much richer than the real one ("The Magic Shooter" by Weber, "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov).

Musical genres of the Romantic era

The musical culture of romanticism gave impetus to the development of the genres of chamber vocal lyrics: ballad(“The Forest King” by Schubert), poem(“Lady of the Lake” by Schubert) and songs, often combined into cycles("Myrtle" by Schumann).

romantic opera was distinguished not only by the fantastic plot, but also by the strong connection of words, music and stage action. The opera is being symphonized. Suffice it to recall Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungen with a developed network of leitmotifs.

Among the instrumental genres of romance, there are piano miniature. To convey one image or a momentary mood, a small play is enough for them. Despite its scale, the play is full of expression. She may be "song without Words" (like Mendelssohn) mazurka, waltz, nocturne or plays with programmatic titles (Schumann's Impulse).

Like songs, plays are sometimes combined into cycles (“Butterflies” by Schumann). At the same time, parts of the cycle, brightly contrasting, always formed a single composition due to musical connections.

Romantics loved program music that combined it with literature, painting, or other arts. Therefore, the plot in their writings often ruled. There were one-movement sonatas (Liszt's B minor sonata), one-movement concertos (Liszt's First Piano Concerto), and symphonic poems (Liszt's Preludes), a five-movement symphony (Berlioz's Fantastic Symphony).

Musical language of romantic composers

The synthesis of the arts, sung by the Romantics, influenced the means of musical expression. The melody has become more individual, sensitive to the poetics of the word, and the accompaniment has ceased to be neutral and typical in texture.

Harmony was enriched with unprecedented colors to tell about the experiences of the romantic hero. Thus, the romantic intonations of languor perfectly conveyed altered harmonies that increase tension. Romantics also loved the effect of chiaroscuro, when the major was replaced by the minor of the same name, and the chords of the side steps, and the beautiful juxtaposition of keys. New effects were also found in, especially when it was necessary to convey the folk spirit or fantastic images in music.

In general, the melody of the Romantics strove for continuity of development, rejected any automatic repetition, avoided the regularity of accents and breathed expressiveness in each of its motives. And texture has become such an important link that its role is comparable to that of melody.

Listen to what a wonderful mazurka Chopin has!

Instead of a conclusion

Musical culture of romanticism turn of XIX and XX centuries experienced the first signs of a crisis. The “free” musical form began to disintegrate, harmony prevailed over the melody, the elevated feelings of the romantic soul gave way to painful fear and base passions.

These destructive tendencies brought romanticism to an end and opened the way for modernism. But, having ended as a trend, romanticism continued to live both in the music of the 20th century and in the music of the current century in its various components. Blok was right when he said that romanticism arises "in all epochs of human life."

Despite all the differences from realism in aesthetics and method, romanticism has deep internal ties with it. They are united by a sharply critical position in relation to epigone classicism, the desire to free themselves from the fetters of classicist canons, to break out into the expanse of life's truth, to reflect the richness and diversity of reality. It is no coincidence that Stendhal, in his treatise Racine and Shakespeare (1824), which puts forward new principles of realistic aesthetics, comes forward under the banner of romanticism, seeing in it the art of modernity. The same can be said about such an important program document of romanticism as Hugo's "Preface" to the drama "Cromwell" (1827), in which a revolutionary call was openly made to break the rules pre-established by classicism, outdated norms of art and ask advice only from life itself.

Around the problem of romanticism there have been and are ongoing great disputes. This controversy is due to the complexity and inconsistency of the very phenomenon of romanticism. There were many misconceptions in solving the problem, which affected the underestimation of the achievement of romanticism. Sometimes the very application of the concept of romanticism to music was called into question, while it was in music that he gave the most significant and enduring artistic values.
Romanticism is associated in the 19th century with the flourishing of the musical culture of Austria, Germany, Italy, France, the development of national schools in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and later in other countries - Norway, Finland, Spain. The greatest musicians of the century - Schubert, Weber, Schumann, Rossini and Verdi, Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner and Brahms, down to Bruckner and Mahler (in the West) - either belonged to the romantic movement or were associated with it. Romanticism and its traditions played a big role in the development of Russian music, manifesting themselves in their own way in the work of the composers of the “mighty handful” and in Tchaikovsky, and, further, in Glazunov, Taneyev, Rachmaninov, Scriabin.
Much has been revised by Soviet scholars in their views on romanticism, especially in the works of the last decade. A tendentious, vulgar sociological approach to romanticism is being eliminated as a product of feudal reaction, art that leads away from reality into the world of the artist’s arbitrary fantasy, that is, anti-realistic in its essence. The opposite point of view, which puts the criteria for the value of romanticism entirely dependent on the presence in it of elements of a different, realistic method, did not justify itself. Meanwhile, a truthful reflection of the essential aspects of reality is inherent in romanticism itself in its most significant, progressive manifestations. Objections are also raised by the unconditional opposition of romanticism to classicism (after all, many of the advanced artistic principles of classicism had a significant impact on romanticism), and the exclusive emphasis on the pessimistic features of the romantic worldview, the idea of ​​"world sorrow", its passivity, reflection, subjectivist limitations. This angle of view affected the general concept of romanticism in musicological works of the 1930s and 1940s, expressed, in particular, in Article II. Sollertinsky Romanticism, its General and Musical Aesthetics. Along with the work of V. Asmus "Musical Aesthetics of Philosophical Romanticism"4, this article is one of the first significant generalizing works on romanticism in Soviet musicology, although some of its main positions have been significantly amended by time.
At present, the assessment of romanticism has become more differentiated, its various trends are considered in accordance with historical periods of development, national schools, art forms and major artistic individuals. The main thing is that romanticism is evaluated in the struggle of opposing tendencies within itself. Particular attention is paid to the progressive aspects of romanticism as the art of subtle culture of feeling, psychological truth, emotional wealth, art that reveals the beauty of the human heart and spirit. It is in this area that romanticism created immortal works and became our ally in the fight against the anti-humanism of modern bourgeois avant-gardism.

In the interpretation of the concept of "romanticism" it is necessary to distinguish two main, interconnected categories - artistic direction and method.
As an artistic movement, romanticism emerged at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and developed in the first half of the 19th century, during the period of acute social conflicts associated with the establishment of the bourgeois system in the countries of Western Europe after the French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794.
Romanticism went through three stages of development - early, mature and late. At the same time, there are significant temporal differences in the development of romanticism in different Western European countries and in different types of art.
The earliest literary schools Romanticism arose in England (the Lake School) and Germany (the Viennese School) at the very end of the 18th century. In painting, romanticism originated in Germany (F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich), although its true homeland is France: it was here that the general battle of classicist painting was given by the heralds of romanticism Kernko and Delacroix. In music, romanticism received its earliest expression in Germany and Austria (Hoffmann, Weber, Schubert). Its beginning dates back to the second decade of the 19th century.
If the romantic trend in literature and painting basically completes its development by the middle of the 19th century, then the life of musical romanticism in the same countries (Germany, France, Austria) is much longer. In the 1830s, it enters only at the time of its maturity, and after the revolution of 1848-1849, it begins final stage, lasting until about the 80-90s (late Liszt, Wagner, Brahms; the work of Bruckner, early Mahler). In separate national schools, for example, in Norway, Finland, the 90s constitute the culmination in the development of romanticism (Grieg, Sibelius).
Each of these stages has its own significant differences. Particularly significant shifts took place in late romanticism, in its most complex and contradictory period, marked both by new achievements and by the appearance of moments of crisis.

The most important socio-historical prerequisite for the emergence of the romantic trend was the dissatisfaction of various sections of society with the results of the French Revolution of 1789-1794, that bourgeois reality, which, according to F. Engels, turned out to be "a caricature of the brilliant promises of the enlighteners." Speaking about the ideological atmosphere in Europe during the period of the rise of Romanticism, Marx, in his famous letter to Engels (dated March 25, 1868), notes: “The first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment associated with it, of course, was to see everything in the medieval, romantic light, and even people like Grimm are not exempt from it." In the quoted passage, Marx speaks of the first reaction to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment, which corresponds to the initial stage in the development of romanticism, when reactionary elements were strong in it (Marx, as is known, connects the second reaction with the trend of bourgeois socialism). They expressed themselves with the greatest activity in the idealistic premises of philosophical and literary romanticism in Germany (for example, among the representatives of the Viennese school - Schelling, Novalis, Schleiermacher, Wackenroder, the Schlegel brothers) with its cult of the Middle Ages, Christianity. The idealization of medieval feudal relations is also characteristic of literary romanticism in other countries (the lake school in England, Chateaubriand, de Maistre in France). However, the above statement of Marx would be wrong to apply to all currents of romanticism (for example, to revolutionary romanticism). Generated by huge social upheavals, romanticism was not, and could not be, a single direction. It developed in the struggle of opposing tendencies - progressive and reactionary.
bright picture era, its spiritual contradictions were recreated in the novel “Goya or the hard path of knowledge” by L. Feuchtwanger:
“Humanity is tired of passionate efforts to create a new order in the shortest possible time. At the cost of the greatest effort, peoples tried to subordinate social life to the dictates of reason. Now the nerves have given up, from the dazzling bright light of the mind, people fled back into the twilight of feelings. All over the world the old reactionary ideas were being voiced again. From the coldness of thought, everyone aspired to the warmth of faith, piety, sensitivity. Romantics dreamed of the revival of the Middle Ages, poets cursed a clear sunny day, admired the magical light of the moon. Such is the spiritual atmosphere in which the reactionary trend within romanticism matured, the atmosphere that gave rise to such typical works as Chateaubrnac's novella René or Novalis's novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen. However, “new ideas, clear and precise, already dominated the minds,” Feuchtwanger continues, “and it was impossible to uproot them. Privileges, hitherto unshakable, were shaken, absolutism, the divine origin of power, class and caste distinctions, preemptive rights churches and nobility - everything was questioned.
A. M. Gorky correctly emphasizes the fact that romanticism is a product of a transitional era, he characterizes it as “a complex and always more or less obscure reflection of all shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of what something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to know this new.
Romanticism is often defined as a rebellion against the bourgeois enslavement of the human person / rightly associated with the idealization of non-capitalist forms of life. It is from here that the progressive and reactionary utopias of romanticism are born. A keen sense of the negative sides and contradictions of the nascent bourgeois society, protest against the transformation of people into "mercenaries of industry"3 was a strong side of romanticism.! "Consciousness of the contradictions of capitalism puts them (the romantics. — N. N.) higher than the blind optimists who deny these contradictions," wrote V. I. Lenin.

Different attitudes towards ongoing social processes, towards the struggle between the new and the old, gave rise to profoundly fundamental differences in the very essence of the romantic ideal, in the ideological orientation of artists of different romantic movements. Literary criticism distinguishes between progressive and revolutionary currents in romanticism, on the one hand, reactionary and conservative, on the other. Emphasizing the opposite of these two currents in romanticism, Gorky calls them “active; and "passive". The first of them "seeks to strengthen a person's will to live, to arouse in him a rebellion against reality, against any oppression of it." The second, on the contrary, "is trying either to reconcile a person with reality, embellishing it, or to distract him from reality." After all, the dissatisfaction of the romantics with reality was twofold. “Discord is different,” Pisarev wrote on this occasion. “My dream can overtake the natural course of events, or it can grab completely to the side, where no natural course of events can ever come.” The criticism expressed by Lenin to the address of economic romanticism: "The plans" of romanticism are portrayed as very easy to implement precisely thanks to that ignorance of real interests, which is the essence of romanticism.
Differentiating the positions of economic romanticism, criticizing Sismondi's projects, V. I. Lenin spoke positively about such progressive representatives of utopian socialism as Owen, Fourier, Thompson: machine industry. They looked in the same direction as the actual development was going; they really outstripped this development”3. This statement can also be attributed to progressive, primarily revolutionary, romantics in art, among whom the figures of Byron, Shelley, Hugo, Manzoni stood out in the literature of the first half of the 19th century.
Of course, living creative practice is more complex and richer than the scheme of two currents. Each trend had its own dialectic of contradictions. In music, such a differentiation is especially difficult and hardly applicable.
The heterogeneity of romanticism was sharply revealed in its attitude towards the Enlightenment. Romanticism's reaction to enlightenment was by no means direct and one-sidedly negative. The attitude towards the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment was the focal point of the collision of various areas of romanticism. This was clearly expressed, for example, in the contrasting positions of the English Romantics. While the poets of the lake school (Coleridge, Wordsworth and others) rejected the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the traditions of classicism associated with it, the revolutionary romantics Shelley and Byron defended the idea of ​​the French Revolution of 1789-1794, and in their work they followed the traditions of heroic citizenship, typical for revolutionary classicism.
In Germany, the most important link between enlightenment classicism and romanticism was the Sturm und Drang movement, which prepared the aesthetics and images of German literary (and partly musical - early Schubert) romanticism. Enlightenment ideas are heard in a number of journalistic, philosophical and artistic works of German romantics. So, "Hymn to Humanity" Fr. Hölderlin, an admirer of Schiller, was a poetic rendering of Rousseau's ideas. The ideas of the French Revolution are defended in his early article "Georg Forster" by Fr. Schlegel, the Jena romantics highly valued Goethe. In the philosophy and aesthetics of Schelling—generally recognized at the time as the head of the Romantic school—there are connections with Kant and Fichte.

In the work of the Austrian playwright, a contemporary of Beethoven and Schubert - Grillparzer - romantic and classicist elements were closely intertwined (an appeal to antiquity). At the same time, Novalis, called by Goethe "the emperor of romanticism", writes treatises and novels that are sharply hostile to the ideology of the Enlightenment ("Christianity or Europe", "Heinrich von Ofterdingen").
In musical romanticism, especially Austrian and German, continuity from classical art is clearly visible. It is known how significant the connections of the early romantics - Schubert, Hoffmann, Weber - with the Viennese classical school (especially with Mozart and Beethoven) are. They are not lost, but in some ways they are strengthened in the future (Schumann, Mendelssohn), up to its late stage (Wagner, Brahms, Bruckner).
At the same time, progressive romantics opposed academicism, expressed acute dissatisfaction with the dogmatic provisions of classicist aesthetics, and criticized the schematism and one-sidedness of the rationalist method. The greatest sharpness of opposition towards the French classicism XVII century, the development of French art in the first third of the 19th century was noted (although here, too, romanticism and classicism intersected, for example, in the work of Berlioz). The polemical works of Hugo and Stendhal, the statements of George Sand, Delacroix are permeated with ardent criticism of the aesthetics of classicism of both the 17th and 18th centuries. For writers, it is directed against the rational-conditional principles of classicist dramaturgy (in particular, against the unity of time, place and action), the immutable distinction between genres and aesthetic categories (for example, the sublime and the ordinary), and the limitation of the spheres of reality that can be reflected by art. In their desire to show all the contradictory versatility of life, to connect its most diverse aspects, the romantics turn to Shakespeare as an aesthetic ideal.
The dispute with the aesthetics of classicism, going in different directions and with varying degrees of severity, also characterizes the literary movement in other countries (in England, Germany, Poland, Italy, and very clearly in Russia).
One of the most important stimuli for the development of progressive romanticism was the national liberation movement, awakened by the French Revolution, on the one hand, and the Napoleonic Wars, on the other. It gave rise to such valuable aspirations of romanticism as an interest in national history, the heroism of popular movements, in the national element and folk art. All this inspired the struggle for the national opera in Germany (Weber), determined the revolutionary-patriotic orientation of romanticism in Italy, Poland, and Hungary.
The romantic movement that swept the countries of Western Europe, the development of national-romantic schools in the first half of the 19th century, gave an unprecedented impetus to the collection, study and artistic development of folklore - literary and musical. German romantic writers, continuing the traditions of Herder and the Sturmers, collected and published monuments of folk art - songs, ballads, fairy tales. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the collection "The Miraculous Horn of a Boy", compiled by L. I. Arnim and K. Brentano, for the further development of German poetry and music. In music, this influence extends throughout the 19th century up to Mahler's song cycles and symphonies. The collectors of folk tales, the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, did a lot to study Germanic mythology, medieval literature, laying the foundation for scientific Germanic studies.
In the development of Scottish folklore, the merits of W. Scott, Polish - A. Mickiewicz and Yu. Slovatsky. In musical folklore, which was at the cradle of its development at the beginning of the 19th century, the names of composers G. I. Vogler (teacher of K. M. Weber) in Germany, O. Kolberg in Poland, A. Horvath in Hungary, etc. are put forward.
It is known what fertile soil folk music has been for such brightly national composers as Weber, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt, Brahms. Appeal to this "inexhaustible treasury of melodies" (Schumann), deep comprehension of the spirit folk music, genre and intonation foundations determined the power of artistic generalization, democracy, the enormous universal impact of the art of these romantic musicians.

Like any artistic direction, romanticism is based on a certain creative method peculiar to it, the principles of artistic reflection of reality, approach to it, and understanding of it, typical for this direction. These principles are determined by the artist's worldview, his position in relation to contemporary social processes (although, of course, the relationship between the artist's worldview and creativity is by no means direct).
Without touching on the essence of the romantic method for now, we note that some aspects of it find expression in later (in relation to the direction) historical periods. However, going beyond the concrete historical direction, it would be more correct to speak of romantic traditions, continuity, influences, or romance as an expression of a certain elevated emotional tone associated with a thirst for beauty, with the desire to “live a tenfold life”
So, for example, at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, the revolutionary romanticism of the early Gorky flared up in Russian literature; the romance of a dream, poetic fantasy determines the originality of A. Green's work, finds its expression in the early Paustovsky. In Russian music at the beginning of the 20th century features of romanticism, which interlocks with symbolism at this stage, it is noted creativity of Scriabin, early Myaskovsky. In this regard, it is worth recalling Blok, who believed that symbolism "is connected with romanticism more deeply than all other currents."

In Western European music, the line of development of romanticism in the 19th century was continuous until such later manifestations as the last symphonies of Bruckner, the early work of Mahler (late 80s-90s), some symphonic poems by R. Strauss ("Death and Enlightenment" , 1889; "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", 1896) and others.
Many factors usually appear in the characterization of the artistic method of romanticism, but even they cannot give an exhaustive definition. There are disputes about whether it is generally possible to give a general definition of the method of romanticism, because, indeed, it is necessary to take into account not only the opposing currents in romanticism, but also the specifics of the art form, time, national school, and creative individuality.
And yet, I think, it is possible to generalize the most essential features of the romantic method as a whole, otherwise it would be impossible to speak of it as a method in general. At the same time, it is very important to take into account the complex of defining features, since, taken separately, they can be present in another creative method.
A general definition of the two most essential aspects of the romantic method is found in Belinsky. “In its closest and most essential meaning, romanticism is nothing but the inner world of a person’s soul, the innermost life of his heart,” writes Belinsky, noting the subjective-lyrical nature of romanticism, its psychological orientation. Developing this definition, the critic clarifies: “Its sphere, as we said, is the whole inner spiritual life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from where all indefinite aspirations for the better and the sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy.” This is one of the main features of romanticism.
Another fundamental feature of it is defined by Belinsky as "a deep internal discord with reality." II, although Belinsky gave a pointedly critical shade to the last definition (the desire of the romantics to go “past life”), he makes the right emphasis on the conflicting perception of the world by the romantics, the principle of opposing the desired and the actual, caused by the conditions of the very social life of the top era.
Similar provisions were met earlier by Hegel: “The world of the soul triumphs over the external world. and as a result, the sensible phenomenon is depreciated. Hegel notes the gap between striving and action, "the longing of the soul for the ideal" instead of action and fulfillment4.
It is interesting that A. V. Schlegel came to a similar characterization of romanticism, but from a different position. Comparing ancient and modern art, he defined Greek poetry as the poetry of joy and possession, capable of concretely expressing the ideal, and romantic as the poetry of melancholy and languor, unable to embody the ideal in its striving for the infinite5. From this follows the difference in the character of the hero: the ancient ideal of man is internal harmony, the romantic hero is internal bifurcation.
Thus, the striving for the ideal and the gap between dream and reality, dissatisfaction with the existing and the expression of a positive principle through images of the ideal, the desired, is another important feature of the romantic method.
The advancement of the subjective factor constitutes one of the defining differences between romanticism and realism. Romanticism “hypertrophied the individual, the individual, and gave universality to his inner world, tearing him away, separating him from the objective world,” writes Soviet literary critic B. Suchkov
However, one should not elevate the subjectivity of the romantic method to an absolute and deny its ability to generalize and typify, that is, ultimately, to objectively reflect reality. Significant in this respect is the very interest of the Romantics in history. “Romanticism not only reflected the changes that took place after the revolution in the public consciousness. Feeling and conveying the mobility of life, its variability, as well as the mobility of human feelings that change with the changes taking place in the world, romanticism inevitably resorted to history in determining and comprehending the prospects for social progress.
The setting, the background of the action appear brightly and in a new way in romantic art, constituting, in particular, a very important expressive element of the musical image of many romantic composers, starting with Hoffmann, Schubert and Weber.

The conflicting perception of the world by the romantics finds expression in the principle of polar antitheses, or "two worlds". It is expressed in the polarity, duality of dramatic contrasts (the real - the fantastic, the person - the world around him), in a sharp comparison of aesthetic categories (the sublime and the everyday, the beautiful and the terrible, the tragic and the comic, etc.). It is necessary to emphasize the antinomies of romantic aesthetics itself, in which not only deliberate antitheses operate, but also internal contradictions - contradictions between its materialistic and idealistic elements. This refers, on the one hand, to the sensationalism of the romantics, attention to the sensual-material concreteness of the world (this is strongly expressed in music), and on the other hand, the desire for some ideal absolute, abstract categories - "eternal humanity" (Wagner), "eternal femininity "(Sheet). Romantics strive to reflect the concreteness, individual originality of life phenomena and at the same time their "absolute" essence, often understood in an abstract-idealistic way. The latter is especially characteristic of literary romanticism and its theory. Life, nature appear here as a reflection of the "infinite", the fullness of which can only be guessed by the inspired feeling of the poet.
Romantic philosophers consider music to be the most romantic of all arts precisely because, in their opinion, it "has only the infinite as its subject"1. Philosophy, literature and music, as never before, united with each other (a vivid example of this is the work of Wagner). Music has occupied one of the leading places in the aesthetic concepts of such idealist philosophers as Schelling, the Schlegel brothers, and Schopenhauer2. However, if literary and philosophical romanticism was most affected by the idealistic theory of art as a reflection of the “infinite”, “divine”, “absolute”, in music we will find, on the contrary, the objectivity of the “image”, unprecedented before the romantic era, determined by the characteristic, sonorous colorfulness of images . The approach to music as a “sensual realization of thought”3 is at the heart of Wagner’s aesthetic propositions, which asserts, contrary to his literary predecessors, sensual concreteness. musical image.
In assessing life phenomena, romantics are characterized by hyperbolization, expressed in the sharpening of contrasts, in the attraction to the exceptional, the unusual. “The ordinary is the death of art,” proclaims Hugo. However, in contrast to this, another romantic, Schubert, speaks with his music about "man as he is." Therefore, summarizing, it is necessary to distinguish at least two types of romantic hero. One of them is an exceptional hero, towering over ordinary people, an internally forked tragic thinker, who often comes to music from fear; literary works or epic: Faust, Manfred, Childe Harold, Wotan. It is characteristic of mature and especially late musical romanticism (Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner). The other is a simple person who deeply feels life, is closely connected with the life and nature of his native land. Such is the hero of Schubert, Mendelssohn, partly Schumann, Brahms. Romantic affectation is contrasted here with sincerity, simplicity, naturalness.
Equally different is the embodiment of nature, its very understanding in romantic art, which devoted a huge place to the theme of nature in its cosmic, natural-philosophical, and, on the other hand, lyrical aspect. Nature is majestic and fantastic in the works of Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner and intimate, intimate in Schubert's vocal cycles or in Schumann's miniatures. These differences are also manifested in the musical language: Schubert's songlike and pathetically upbeat, oratorical melody of Liszt or Wagner.
But no matter how different the types of heroes, the circle of images, the language, in general, romantic art is distinguished by special attention to the individual, a new approach to it. The problem of personality in its conflict with the environment is fundamental to romanticism. This is precisely what Gorky emphasizes when he says that the main theme of the literature of the 19th century was “personality in its opposition to society, the state, nature”, “the drama of a person to whom life seems cramped”. Belinsky writes about the same in connection with Byron: “This is a human personality, indignant against the general and, in its proud rebellion, leaning on itself”2. With great dramatic power, the Romantics expressed the process of alienation of the human personality in bourgeois society. Romanticism illuminated new aspects of the human psyche. He embodied the personality in the most intimate, psychologically multifaceted manifestations. The Romantics, by virtue of the disclosure of his individuality, appear more complex and contradictory than in the art of classicism.

Romantic art summarized many typical phenomena of its era, especially in the field of human spiritual life. In various versions and solutions, the “confession of the son of the century” is embodied in romantic literature and music - sometimes elegiac, like in Musset, sometimes sharpened to the grotesque (Berlioz), sometimes philosophical (Liszt, Wagner), sometimes passionately rebellious (Schumann) or modest and at the same time tragic (Schubert). But in each of them sounds the leitmotif of unfulfilled aspirations, "anguish of human desires," as Wagner said, caused by the rejection of bourgeois reality and the thirst for "true humanity." The lyrical drama of the personality, in essence, turns into a social theme.
The central point in romantic aesthetics was the idea of ​​a synthesis of the arts, which played a huge positive role in the development of artistic thinking. In contrast to the classical aesthetics of the Romantics, they argue that not only are there no insurmountable boundaries between the arts, but, on the contrary, there are deep connections and commonality. “The aesthetics of one art is also the aesthetics of another; only the material is different,” wrote Schumann4. He saw in F. Rückert "the greatest musician of words and thoughts" and sought in his songs "to convey the thoughts of the poem almost verbatim"2. In their piano cycles Schumann contributed not only the spirit romantic poetry, but also forms, compositional techniques - contrasts, interruption of narrative plans, characteristic of Hoffmann's short stories. II, on the contrary, in the literary works of Hoffmann one can feel the “birth of poetry from the spirit of music”3.
Romantics of different directions come to the idea of ​​synthesizing the arts of romance from opposite positions. For some, mainly philosophers and theorists of romanticism, it arises on an idealistic basis, on the idea of ​​art as an expression of the universe, the absolute, that is, some kind of single and infinite essence of the world. For others, the idea of ​​synthesis arises as a result of the desire to expand the boundaries of the content of the artistic image, to reflect life in all its multifaceted manifestations, that is, in essence, on a real basis. This is the position, the creative practice of the greatest artists of the era. Putting forward the well-known thesis about the theater as a “concentrated mirror of life”, Hugo argued: “Everything that exists in history, in life, in man, must and can find its reflection in it (in the theater. - N.N.), but only with the magic wand of art.
The idea of ​​art synthesis is closely connected with the interpenetration of various genres—epics, drama, lyrics—and aesthetic categories (sublime, comic, etc.). The ideal of modern literature is "a drama that fuses in one breath the grotesque and the sublime, the terrible and the clownish, tragedy and comedy."
In music, the idea of ​​a synthesis of the arts was developed especially actively and consistently in the field of opera. The aesthetics of the creators of the German romantic opera, Hoffmann and Weber, the reform of Wagner's musical drama, is based on this idea. On the same basis (the synthesis of the arts), the program music of the Romantics developed, such a major achievement of the musical culture of the 19th century as program symphonism.
Thanks to this synthesis, the expressive sphere of music itself was expanded and enriched. For the premise of the primacy of the word, poetry in a synthetic work by no means leads to a secondary, complementary function of music. On the contrary, in the works of Weber, Wagner, Berlioz, Liszt and Schumann, music was the most powerful and effective factor, capable in its own way, in its “natural” forms, to embody what literature and painting bring with it. "Music is the sensuous realization of thought" - this thesis of Wagner has a broad meaning. Here we approach the problem of second-order s and n-thesis, an internal synthesis based on a new quality of musical imagery in romantic art. With their work, the romantics showed that music itself, expanding its aesthetic boundaries, is able to embody not only a generalized feeling, mood, idea, but also to “translate” into its own language, with minimal or even without the help of a word, the images of literature and painting, to recreate the course of development of the literary plot, to be colorful, picturesque, capable of creating a vivid characteristic, a portrait "sketch" (recall the amazing accuracy musical portraits Schumann) and at the same time not to lose its fundamental property of expressing feelings.
This was realized not only by great musicians, but also by writers of that era. Noting the unlimited possibilities of music in revealing the human psyche, George Sand, for example, wrote that music "recreates even the appearance of things, without falling into petty sound effects, nor into a narrow imitation of the noises of reality." The desire to speak and paint with music was the main thing for the creator of the romantic programmatic symphonism of Berlioz, about which Sollertinsky so vividly said: “Shakespeare, Goethe, Byron, street battles, orgies of bandits, philosophical monologues of a lonely thinker, vicissitudes of the secular love story, storms and thunderstorms, the wild merriment of the carnival crowd, the performances of farce comedians, the funeral of the heroes of the revolution, the funeral speeches full of pathos - all this Berlioz seeks to translate into the language of music. At the same time, Berlioz did not attach such decisive importance to the word, as it might seem at first glance. “I do not believe that in terms of strength and power of expression such arts as painting and even poetry could be equal to music!” composer said. Without this internal synthesis of musical, literary and pictorial principles in the musical work itself, there would be no programmatic symphonism of Liszt, his philosophical musical poem.
New in comparison with the classical style, the synthesis of expressive and visual principles appears in musical romanticism at all its stages as one of the specific features. In Schubert's songs, the piano part creates a mood and "depicts" the situation of the action, using the possibilities of musical painting, sound writing. Vivid examples of this are “Margarita at the Spinning Wheel”, “Forest King”, many of the songs of “The Beautiful Miller's Woman”, “Winter Way”. One of the striking examples of accurate and laconic sound writing is the piano part of the "Double". Picture narration is characteristic of Schubert's instrumental music, especially his symphony in C-dur, sonata in B-dur, fantasy "Wanderer". Schumann's piano music is permeated with a subtle "sound of moods"; it is no coincidence that Stasov saw him as a brilliant portrait painter.

Chopin, like Schubert, who is alien to literary programming, in his ballads and f-moll fantasy creates a new type of instrumental dramaturgy, which reflects the versatility of content, the drama of action and the picturesqueness of the image characteristic of a literary ballad.
Based on the dramaturgy of antitheses, free and synthetic musical forms arise, characterized by the isolation of contrasting sections within a one-part composition and continuity, unity of the general line of ideological and figurative development.
It is, in essence, about the romantic qualities of sonata dramaturgy, a new understanding and application of its dialectical possibilities. In addition to these features, it is important to emphasize the romantic variability of the image, its transformation. The dialectical contrasts of sonata drama take on a new meaning among the Romantics. They reveal the duality of the romantic worldview, the principle of "two worlds" mentioned above. This finds expression in the polarity of contrasts, often created by transforming one image (for example, the single substance of the Faustian and Mephistopheles principles in Liszt). There is a factor of a sharp jump, a sudden change (even distortion) of the whole essence of the image, and not the regularity of its development and change, due to the growth of its qualities in the process of interaction of contradictory principles, as in the classics, and above all in Beethoven.
The conflict dramaturgy of the romantics is characterized by its own, which has become typical, direction in the development of images - an unprecedented dynamic growth of a bright lyrical image (a side part) and a subsequent dramatic breakdown, a sudden suppression of the line of its development by the invasion of a formidable, tragic beginning. The typical nature of such a “situation” becomes obvious if we recall Schubert’s symphony in h-moll, Chopin’s sonata in b-moll, especially his ballads, the most dramatic works of Tchaikovsky, who with renewed vigor as a realist artist embodied the idea of ​​a conflict between dream and reality, the tragedy of unfulfilled aspirations in conditions of cruel, hostile reality. Of course, one of the types of romantic dramaturgy is singled out here, but the type is very significant and typical.
Another type of dramaturgy, evolutionary, is associated with the romantics with the subtle nuances of the image, the disclosure of its many-sided psychological nuances and details. Main principle development here is melodic, harmonic, timbre variation, which does not change the essence of the image, the nature of its genre, but shows deep, outwardly barely perceptible processes of mental life, their constant movement, changes, transitions. The song symphonism born by Schubert with its lyrical nature is based on this principle.

The originality of the Schubert method was well defined by Asafiev: “In contrast to the sharply dramatic formation, those works (symphonies, sonatas, overtures, symphonic poems) come forward in which a widely developed lyrical song line (not a general theme, but a line) generalizes and smooths out the constructive sections of the sonata-symphony allegro. Wavy ups and downs, dynamic gradations, “swelling” and rarefaction of the tissue – in a word, the manifestation of organic life in such “song” sonatas take precedence over oratorical pathos, over sudden contrasts, over dramatic dialogue and rapid disclosure of ideas. Schubert's Grand V-sig "naya sonata is a typical example of this trend"

Not all essential features of the Romantic method and aesthetics can be found in every art form.
If we talk about music, then the most direct expression of romantic aesthetics was in the opera, as a genre especially closely associated with literature. Here such specific ideas of romanticism are developed as the ideas of fate, redemption, overcoming the curse that weighs on the hero, by the power of selfless love (Freischütz, The Flying Dutchman, Tannhäuser). The opera reflects the very plot basis of romantic literature, the opposition of the real and fantastic worlds. It is here that the fantasy inherent in romantic art, the elements of subjective idealism inherent in literary romanticism, are especially manifested. At the same time, for the first time in the opera, poetry of a folk-national character, cultivated by romantics, flourishes so brightly.
In instrumental music, a romantic approach to reality is manifested, bypassing the plot (if it is a non-programmed composition), B the general ideological concept of the work, in the nature of its dramaturgy, embodied emotions, in the features of the psychological structure of images. The emotional and psychological tone of romantic music is distinguished by a complex and changeable range of shades, heightened expression, and the unique brightness of every moment experienced. This is embodied in the expansion and individualization of the intonational sphere of romantic melodics, in the sharpening of the colorful and expressive functions of harmony. Inexhaustible discoveries of romantics in the field of the orchestra, instrumental timbres.
The means of expression, the actual musical "speech" and its separate components acquire an independent, brightly individual, and sometimes exaggerated development among the Romantics. The importance of phonism itself, brilliance, and specificity of sound is extremely growing, especially in the field of harmonic and texture-timbre means. The concepts of not only leitmotif, but also leitharmony (for example, Wagner's stristanov chord), leittimbre (one of the striking examples is Berlioz's Harold in Italy symphony) appear.

The proportional ratio of the elements of the musical language, observed in classical style, gives way to a tendency to autonomize them (this trend will be exaggerated in the music of the 20th century). On the other hand, synthesis is enhanced among romantics - the connection between the components of the whole, mutual enrichment, mutual influence means of expression. New types of melodics arise, born from harmony, and, conversely, harmony is melodicized, saturating it with non-chord tones, which sharpen melodic inclinations. A classic example of a mutually enriching synthesis of melody and harmony is Chopin's style, which, paraphrasing the words of R. Rolland about Beethoven, can be said to be the absolute of melody, filled to the brim with harmony.
The interaction of opposing tendencies (autonomization and synthesis) covers all spheres - both the musical language and the form of the romantics, who created new free and synthetic forms based on sonatas and Liubi.
Comparing musical romanticism with literary romanticism in their meaning for our time, it is important to emphasize the special vitality and permanence of the former. After all, romanticism is especially strong in expressing the richness of emotional life, and this is precisely what music is most susceptible to. That is why the differentiation of romanticism not only according to directions and national schools, but also according to the types of arts is an important methodological moment in revealing the problem of romanticism and in its assessment.